Notes 2 – More operations with vectors: scalar product,

vector product and mixed product

It is clear that assigning, and sharing, vectors using direction verse and magnitude is not the
best possible way. Of course using component is much more efficient and feasible. However,
the component presentation of vectors hides the geometry. For example, we can ask: what
is the length of a vector? how can we measure the angle between two given vectors? In
this section we introduce very important operations with vectors which will also provide
answers to these questions.

L2.1 Dot Product/Scalar product. We first consider angles.

Definition. Consider vectors − →
u and − →
w . The angle between the vectors −→u and − →
w is the
smallest angle that the first vector, u , spans while rotating onto the second vector, −
−
→ →
w.

We now see how to use the angle between two vectors.

Definition. The scalar product, or dot product, of the vectors −
→
u and −
→
w is
−
→
u ·−
→
w = ||−
→
u || ||−
→
w || cos(α),

where α is the angle between −

→
u and −
→
w.
−
→ − → −
→ −
→ − →
Example. Consider the unit vectors i , j and k . We want to compute i · i . In order to do
−
→ −
→ −
→
this, recall that i thus || i || = 1 . Moreover, i forms the zero angle with itself. Hence we have
−
→ −→ −
→ − →
i · i = || i || || i || cos(α) = 1.

Similarly we can compute

→ −
− → → −
− → π
j · k = || j || || k || cos( ) = 0.
2

−
→ −→
Exercise. Compute the dot product of all possible pairs chosen among the unit vectors i , j
−
→
and k . Does the result depend upon the order in which we choose the vectors?

The dot product is strictly related with projections.

Proposition. Let −
→
u and − →
w be non-zero vectors, then
−
→
w
(−
→
u ·−
→
w) −→
|| w ||2
is the orthogonal projection of −
→
u along the direction of −
→
w.

Proof. The proof follows by standard trigonometry, noticing that the scalar
−
→
u ·−→w
−
→ = ||−
→
u || cos(α)
|| w ||
is the length of the orthogonal projection. QED

Here are the fundamental properties of the dot product

Proposition. Consider vectors −
→
u,−→
w,−→z and a scalar a ∈ R. Then the following hold:
 (i) (Linearity 1) (a−→
u)·−→
w = a(− →u ·−
→w ).
(ii) (Linearity 2) ( u + w ) · z = u · −
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ →z +−
→
w ·−
→
z.
−
→ −
→ −
→
(iii) (Symmetry) u · w = w · u . −
→
(iv) (Positivity) −
→u ·−→
u = ||−
→u ||2 ≥ 0.

Proof. (Hint) The first two properties are proved by using the projection interpretation of
the dot product. While the remaining properties follow by the definition. QED

The linearity properties and the symmetry allows us to use the components of vectors to
compute the dot product.
−
→ −
→ → −
− →
Example. ( i + 2 j ) · (2 j − k ) =
−
→ → −
− → −
→ → −
− →
= i · (2 j − k ) + (2 j ) · (2 j − k )
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→
= i · (2 j ) + i · (− k ) + (2 j ) · (2 j ) + (2 j ) · (− k )
−
→ −→ − → − → −
→ − → → −
− →
=2 i · j − i · k +4j · j −2j · k
= 2 · 0 − 0 + 4 · 1 − 2 · 0 = 4.

Exercise. Using the components of −

→
u find the expression of ||−
→
u || .

Because of linearity, we have a useful formula to compute the dot product.

−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→
Proposition. Consider the vectors −→v = vx i + vy j + vz k , and −
→
w = wx i + wy j + wz k ,
then
−
→v ·−
→
w = vx wx + vy wy + vz wz .

We can now determine the angle formed by two vectors.

Proposition. Let α be the angle between the vectors − →
u and − →
w , then
! − → "
u ·− →
w
α = arccos .
|| u || ||−
−
→ →
w ||

Notice that we can easily check orthogonality of vectors using the dot product.
−
→
Corollary. If −
→
u,−
→
w ∕= 0 , then : −
→
u ⊥− →
w if and only if −
→
u ·−→
w = 0.
−
→ − →
Example. The vector −
→
u = i + j has the direction of the bisectrix of first quadrant of the x, y
plane. Computing
−
→ −
→
u · i =1
and √ √
||−
→
u || = −
→
u ·−
→
u = 2
we see that the x -axis forms an angle of π
4 with the bisectrix, as expected.

Exercise. Try the same with the first orthant in three space. Before computing, make a guess:
what is the angle between the bisectrix and the x -axis?

L2.2 Vector product. Dot product detects orthogonality and can compute angles. We will
now introduce a new operation useful by itself, which can help us to detect parallelism and
to compute areas.
Definition. Given vector −
→
u and −
→
w the vector product
−
→
u ×−
→
w

is the unique vector − →

z such that:
(i) the direction of −
→
z is orthogonal to the direction of −
→
u and to the direction of −
→
w;
−
→
(ii) the magnitude of z is:

||−
→
z || = ||−
→
u || ||−
→
w || sin(α),

where α is the angle between − →

u and −→w.
(ii) the direction of −
→
z is given by the right-hand rule.

The right-hand rule to determine the verse of −

→
u ×− →w works as follow. Close your right-
hand with your thumb sticking out. Make the tip of your fingers follow −→
u , the 1st vector,
−
→
moving onto w , the 2nd vector, along the smallest angle between the vectors. Your thumb
then gives the verse of −
→
u ×−→
w.
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ − →
Example. Consider the unit vectors i , j and k . To compute − →z = i × j we use the
−
→ −
→ −
→
definition. The direction of −
→z is orthogonal to i and j , and hence it is the direction of k .
−
→ −
→
Moreover, ||−→
z || = 1 as i and j are orthogonal unit vectors. The righthand rule gives the verse
−
→ −
→
of z and this is the verse of k . Thus,
−
→ −→ − →
i × j = k.

→ −
− → − → → −
− → −
→ −
→ −→ − → − →
Exercise. Check that j × k = i and i × k = − j . What can you say about i × i , j × j
−
→ − →
and k × k ?

We said that the vector product can detect parallelism between two vectors. This can be
easily done noticing the following.
−
→ −
→
Corollary. If −
→
u,−→
w ∕= 0 , then : −
→
u (−
→
w if and only if −
→
u ×−→
w = 0.

We now collect some useful properties of the vector product.

Proposition. Consider vectors − →
u,−→
w,−→
z and a scalar a ∈ R. Then the following hold:
(i) (Linearity 1) (a u ) × w = a( u × −
−
→ −
→ −
→ →w ).
(ii) (Linearity 2) ( u + w ) × z = u × −
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ →z +−
→
w ×− →z.
−
→ −
→ −
→
(iii) (Skew symmetry) u × w = − w × u . −
→
−
→
(iv) −→u ×−→
u = 0

Proof. The proof of (ii) will require the notion of mixed product and it will be given in the
next section. We give here a proof of (i). If one among a, −
→
u and −
→
w is zero, then the equality
is clear. Hence we may assume that no one of them is zero. Let
−
→
z = (a−
→
u)×−
→
w

and
−
→
t = a(−→u ×−→w ).
−
→ −
→
We want to show that −→z = t . It is easy to see that −→z and t have the same direction as
this is the common perpendicular to −→
u and − →
w . Also the magnitudes coincide, in fact
−
→
||−
→
z || = ||a−
→
u || ||−
→
w || sin(α) = |a| ||−
→
u || ||−
→
w || sin(α) = || t ||.
Finally, we deal with verse. First consider the case a > 0. Notice that the angle between a−
→
u
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→
and w and the angle between u and w coincide. Thus z and t have the same verse.
Now consider the case a < 0. In this situation, (a− →
u)×− →w and −→
u ×− →
w have opposite verse.
−
→ −
→
But, as a < 0, the vector z and t have, again, the same verse. QED

This properties allows us to compute the vector product of any pairs of vectors.
−
→ −
→ → −
− →
Example. ( i + 2 j ) × (2 j − k ) =
−
→ → −
− → −
→ → −
− →
= i × (2 j − k ) + (2 j ) × (2 j − k )
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→
= i × (2 j ) + i × (− k ) + (2 j ) × (2 j ) + (2 j ) × (− k )
−
→ − → − → − → −
→ − → → −
− →
=2 i × j − i × k +4j × j −2j × k
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ − → −
→
= 2 k − (− j ) + 0 − 2 i = −2 i + j + 2 k .

Extensively using the properties of the vector product we can find the following formula to
compute the vector product.
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→
Proposition. Consider the vectors −→v = vx i + vy j + vz k , and −
→
w = wx i + wy j + wz k ,
then
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→
v ×−
→
w = (vy wz − vz wy ) i − (vx wz − vz wx ) j + (vx wy − vy wx ) k .

Exercise. Prove the formula!

We conclude describing how the vector product relates to computing areas.

Proposition. Consider vectors −
→
u and −
→w having, then

||−
→
u ×−
→
w || = 2area(T ) = area(P ),

where T is the triangle, and P is the parallelogram, of sides −

→
u and −
→
v.

Proof. We use standard trigonometry. Recall that ||− →

u ×−→
w || = ||−
→
u || ||−
→
w || sin(α) where α is
−
→ −
→ −
→
the angle between u and w . Now it is enough to notice that || w || sin(α) is the length of
the height of the triangle T with respect to the base −
→
u. QED

L2.3 Mixed product. Given three vectors, there is essentially only one way to merge them
using the dot product and the vector product.
Definition. For vectors −
→
u,−→
v and −→
w we define the mixed product
−
→
u ×−
→
v ·−
→
w.

Note that in the previous expression no parentheses are needed!

The mixed product is used to compute volumes, as shown by the following result.
Proposition. The absolute value of the mixed product

|−
→
u ×−
→
v ·−
→
w|

is the volume of the box of sides −

→
u,−
→
v and −
→
w.
Proof. (Hint) The volume of the box is given by the BaseArea times the Height with respect
to that base. If we choose the base bounded by −
→u and −→
v , then

BaseArea = ||−
→
u ×−
→
v ||.

The height with respect to this base is given by the magnitude of the orthogonal projection
of the third side −
→
w on −
→
u ×− →
v . Thus we get

BaseArea × Heigth = |−
→
u ×−
→
v ·−
→
w |.

QED

From this result we can understand what happens when we permute the vectors of the
mixed product. In particular, for i ∕= j ∕= k
−
→
v1 × −
→
v2 · −
→
v3

and
−
→
vi × −
→
vj · −
→
vk
are equal up to sign and whenever two vector are swopped, vi ↔ vj , the sign changes.
We already note that, when a product (dot or vector) is zero, we can derive some useful
information. The same holds for the mixed product.
−
→
Proposition. If −
→
u,−
→v ,−
→
w ∕= 0 , then
−
→
u ×−
→
v ·−
→
w =0

if and only if the vectors −

→
u,−
→
v , and −
→
w lie on the same plane, i.e. they are said to be coplanar.

Exercise. Prove the previous result.

We finally see how to use the mixed product to prove Linearity 2 for the vector product. We
provide two different arguments.
Proof. (Conceptual) We use the following remarks:
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→ −
→
(i) −
→v = vx i + vy j + vz k if and only if vx = −→
v · i , vy = −
→
v · j e vz = −
→
v · k.
−
→ → −
− → − → → − → − → − → → − → − → −→
(ii) −
→a = b if and only if −
→
a · i = b · i ,− a · j = b · j e− a · k = b · k.
Now we set
−
→
a = (−
→
u +−
→
v)×−
→
w
and
−
→ −
b =→
u ×−
→
w +−
→
v ×−
→
w
−
→
and we show that −
→
a = b.
Using properties of the mixed product and using the linearity properties of the dot product
−
→
we get −
→a · i =
−
→ → − → → − −
→ → − −
→ → −
→
(−
→
u +−→v )×− →
w· i =− w × i · (−
u +→v)=− →
w × i ·− u +→ w × i ·− v = (−→
u ×− →w +− →
v ×− →
w)· i
−
→ − → −
→ −
→
= b · i . Repeating the same argument with j and k we complete the proof. QED

Proof. (Computational) We want to show that

−
→ −
→
t = (−
→
u +−
→
v)×−
→
w −−
→
u ×−
→
w −−
→
v ·−
→
w. = 0
 −
→− →
and this is equivalent to show that t · t = 0. Thus we have to compute the nine summands
−
→ −→
of t · t = 0 and use the mixed product to show that they cancel out.
Now take a deep breath, and start computing.
−
→ −→
t · t = A + B + C + ||−
→
u ×−
→
w ||2 + 2(−
→
u ×−
→
w ) · (−
→
v ×−
→
w ) + ||−
→
v ×−
→
w ||2 ,

where
A = [(−
→
u +−
→v)×−
→w ] · [(−
→
u +− →
v)×−→
w ],
B = −2[(−
→
u +−
→v)×− →w ] · (−
→
u ×−
→
w ),
C = −2[(−
→
u +−
→
v)×−
→
w ] · (−
→
v ×−
→
w ).

Now we use the mixed product and the fact that shifting does not change it.

A=−
→
w × [(−
→
u +−
→
v)×−
→
w] · −
→
u +−
→
w × [(−
→
u +−
→
v)×−
→
w] · −
→
v,

B −
− =→
w × (−
→
u ×−
→
w) · −
→
u +−
→
w × (−
→
u ×−
→
w) · −
→
v
2
C
− =−→
w × (−
→
v ×−
→
w) · −
→
u +−
→
w × (−
→
v ×−
→
w) · −
→
v
2
More computing for B and C gives

B
− = (−
→
u ×−
→
w ) × (−
→
v ×−
→
w ) + ||−
→
v ×−
→
w ||2 ,
2
C
− = (−
→
v ×−
→
w ) × (−
→
u ×−
→
w ) + ||−
→
u ×−
→
w ||2 .
2
The last computation with A yields

A = (−
→
u ×−
→
w ) · [(−
→
u +−
→
v)×−
→
w ] + (−
→
v ×−
→
w ) · [(−
→
u +−
→
v)×−
→
w]

= (−
→u +− →
v)×− →w · (−
→
u ×−→w ) + (−→u +−→
v)×− →
w · (−
→v ×− →w)
=−
→
w × (−
→
u ×−
→
w) · −
→
u +−→w × (− →
u ×− →
w) · −
→
v +− →w × (−
→
v ×− →
w) · −→u +− →w × (−
→
v ×−
→
w) · −
→
v
= ||−
→u ×−→
w || + 2(−
2 →v ×− →
w ) · (−
→
u ×− →
w ) + ||−
→
v ×− → 2
w || .
−
→ −→
Finally, we substitute the obtained expressions for A, B and C and we get t · t = 0.
QED