Geopolitics, History, and International Relations 14(2), 2022

pp. 25–39, ISSN 1948-9145, eISSN 2374-4383

The Geopolitics of Urban Digital Twins:

Spatial Cognition and Predictive Modeling Algorithms,
Simulation and Virtualization Technologies, and
Blockchain-enabled Cyber-Physical Systems
Rebecca Sullivan*

ABSTRACT. The present study systematically reviews the existing research on

urban digital twins, machine learning techniques, and 3D city modeling and virtual
simulation tools. Our findings clarify that virtual simulation and computer vision
algorithms, ambient sound recognition software, and intelligent sensor networks
assist Internet of Things-enabled smart cities, and I contribute to the literature by
indicating that monitoring and sensing technologies, spatial cognition algorithms,
and data visualization tools articulate urban simulated environments and digital twin
cities. Throughout June 2022, a quantitative literature review of the Web of Science,
Scopus, and ProQuest databases was performed, with search terms including
“the geopolitics of urban digital twins” + “spatial cognition and predictive modeling
algorithms,” “simulation and virtualization technologies,” and “blockchain-enabled
cyber-physical systems.” As research published between 2021 and 2022 was in-
spected, only 169 articles satisfied the eligibility criteria. By taking out controversial
or ambiguous findings (insufficient/irrelevant data), outcomes unsubstantiated by
replication, too general material, or studies with nearly identical titles, I selected 24
mainly empirical sources. Data visualization tools: Dimensions (bibliometric
mapping) and VOSviewer (layout algorithms). Reporting quality assessment tool:
PRISMA. Methodological quality assessment tools include: AMSTAR, Dedoose,
Distiller SR, and SRDR.

Keywords: geopolitics; urban digital twins; spatial cognition and predictive modeling
algorithms; simulation and virtualization technologies; blockchain; cyber-physical
systems
How to cite: Sullivan, R. (2022). “The Geopolitics of Urban Digital Twins: Spatial Cognition
and Predictive Modeling Algorithms, Simulation and Virtualization Technologies, and
Blockchain-enabled Cyber-Physical Systems,” Geopolitics, History, and International Relations
14(2): 25–39. doi: 10.22381/GHIR14220222.

Received 27 July 2022 • Received in revised form 22 October 2022

Accepted 28 October 2022 • Available online 30 October 2022

*The Cognitive Labor Institute, New York City, NY, USA, rebecca.sullivan@aa-er.org.
25
1. Introduction
Urban mobility and logistics, Internet of Things sensing infrastructures, and
data-driven planning technologies shape smart city digital twins. The purpose
of my systematic review is to examine the recently published literature on
the geopolitics of urban digital twins and integrate the insights it configures
on spatial cognition and predictive modeling algorithms, simulation and
virtualization technologies, and blockchain-enabled cyber-physical systems.
By analyzing the most recent (2021–2022) and significant (Web of Science,
Scopus, and ProQuest) sources, my paper has attempted to prove that Internet
of Things devices and assets, digital twin and immersive virtual technologies,
and spatial data visualization tools optimize data-driven smart sustainable
urbanism. The actuality and novelty of this study are articulated by address-
ing urban digital twins, machine learning techniques, and 3D city modeling
and virtual simulation tools, that is an emerging topic involving much
interest. My research problem is whether virtual simulation and computer
vision algorithms, ambient sound recognition software, and intelligent sensor
networks (Andronie et al., 2021; Nagy and Lăzăroiu, 2022) assist Internet of
Things-enabled smart cities.
In this review, prior findings have been cumulated indicating that smart
city analytics leverages simulation-based digital twins, virtual mapping and
urban Internet of Things-sensing tools, and cognitive data fusion techniques
across immersive and decentralized 3D digital worlds. The identified gaps
advance spatial cognition and predictive modeling algorithms, Internet of
Things sensing infrastructures, and data-driven planning technologies. My
main objective is to indicate that smart sustainable city governance requires
blockchain-based digital twin management, spatial computing algorithms, and
synthetic data and visual analytics tools. This systematic review contributes
to the literature on data mining and geospatial mapping tools, digital twin
modeling, and cognitive computing systems by clarifying that monitoring
and sensing technologies, spatial cognition algorithms, and data visualization
tools (Andronie et al., 2023; Valaskova et al., 2022) articulate urban simulated
environments and digital twin cities.

2. Theoretical Overview of the Main Concepts

Smart city analytics deploys immersive visualization systems, intelligent
sensing devices, and spatial computing and cognitive automation technol-
ogies. Cloud computing and virtual simulation algorithms, Internet of Things
sensing infrastructures, and smart city software systems enable big data-driven
urban geopolitics. Computationally networked urbanism requires smart city
digital twins, data-driven Internet of Things systems, and simulation and vir-
tualization technologies. Algorithm-driven sensing devices, virtual simulation
and spatial data modeling tools, and data prediction algorithms further Inter-
26
net of Things-based smart city environments. The manuscript is organized as
following: theoretical overview (section 2), methodology (section 3), spatial
cognition and predictive modeling algorithms, smart city and digital twin
simulation technologies, and geospatial mapping and visual recognition tools
in virtual urban environments (section 4), smart city digital twins, simulation
and virtualization technologies, and spatial computing algorithms in immer-
sive hyper-connected virtual spaces (section 5), digital twin and geospatial
mapping technologies, virtual simulation and computer vision algorithms,
and blockchain-enabled cyber-physical systems in cognitive smart cities
(section 6), discussion (section 7), synopsis of the main research outcomes
(section 8), conclusions (section 9), limitations, implications, and further
directions of research (section 10).

3. Methodology
Throughout June 2022, a quantitative literature review of the Web of Science,
Scopus, and ProQuest databases was performed, with search terms including
“the geopolitics of urban digital twins” + “spatial cognition and predictive
modeling algorithms,” “simulation and virtualization technologies,” and
“blockchain-enabled cyber-physical systems.” As research published between
2021 and 2022 was inspected, only 169 articles satisfied the eligibility
criteria. By taking out controversial or ambiguous findings (insufficient/
irrelevant data), outcomes unsubstantiated by replication, too general
material, or studies with nearly identical titles, I selected 24 mainly empirical
sources (Tables 1 and 2). Data visualization tools: Dimensions (bibliometric
mapping) and VOSviewer (layout algorithms). Reporting quality assessment
tool: PRISMA. Methodological quality assessment tools include: AMSTAR,
Dedoose, Distiller SR, and SRDR (Figures 1–6).

Table 1 Topics and types of scientific products identified and selected.

Topic Identified Selected
the geopolitics of urban digital twins + spatial 58 9
cognition and predictive modeling algorithms
the geopolitics of urban digital twins + 57 8
simulation and virtualization technologies
the geopolitics of urban digital twins + 54 7
blockchain-enabled cyber-physical systems
Type of paper
Original research 150 23
Review 6 1
Conference proceedings 11 0
Book 1 0
Editorial 1 0
Source: Processed by the author. Some topics overlap.
27
Figure 1 Co-authorship

Figure 2 Citation
28
Figure 3 Bibliographic coupling

Figure 4 Co-citation

29
Table 2 General synopsis of evidence as regards focus topics
and descriptive outcomes (research findings).
Spatial cognition and predictive modeling Li et al., 2022; Naserentin
algorithms, Internet of Things sensing et al., 2022; von
infrastructures, and data-driven planning Richthofen et al., 2022
technologies configure digital twin cities.
Deep and machine learning algorithms, smart city Charitonidou, 2022; Kim
and digital twin simulation technologies, and and Ben-Othman, 2023;
sustainable urban monitoring systems enable big Wang et al., 2022
data-driven urban geopolitics.
Cloud and edge computing technologies, geospatial Meta et al., 2021;
mapping and visual recognition tools, and simulation Pesantez et al., 2022;
modeling algorithms optimize data-driven smart Wu et al., 2022
sustainable urbanism and digital twin governance.
Sustainable urban computing systems, Correia et al., 2022;
remote sensing technology, and geospatial Kikuchi et al., 2022;
mapping tools shape blockchain-based virtual Yossef Ravid and Aharon-
worlds and digital twins of cities. Computationally Gutman, 2022
networked urbanism requires smart city digital twins,
data-driven Internet of Things systems, and
simulation and virtualization technologies.
Digital twin simulations, data-driven planning Anshari and Hamdan,
and cloud computing technologies, and Internet 2022; Mylonas et al.,
of Things-based connected devices further virtual 2021; Van de Vyvere
urban environments. and Colpaert, 2022
Big geospatial data analytics harnesses urban Huang et al., 2022a;
digital twins, machine learning techniques, and Pang et al., 2021;
3D city modeling and virtual simulation tools. Zhang et al., 2022
Urban visual analytics harnesses immersive
3D and spatial computing technologies, modeling
and simulation algorithms, and multisource remote
sensing data fusion.
Data mining and geospatial mapping tools, Hämäläinen, 2021;
digital twin modeling, and cognitive computing Torisson, 2022;
systems shape Internet of Things-enabled smart White et al., 2021
city governance and immersive multisensory
virtual spaces.
Digital twin and geospatial mapping technologies, Anshari and Hamdan,
virtual data modeling tools, and predictive control 2022; Ferré-Bigorra et al.,
algorithms are instrumental in cognitive smart cities. 2022; Wolf et al., 2022
Urban big data analytics deploys deep learning and
neural network algorithms, immersive visualization
systems, and digital twin networks.
Smart urban governance across immersive 3D Huang et al., 2022b; Kim
environments necessitates digital twin simulations, and Ben-Othman, 2023;
deep learning-based sensing and visual modeling Yossef Ravid and Aharon-
technologies, and urban Internet of Things systems. Gutman, 2022
30
 Identification

Records identified through Records identified through

Web of Science search Scopus and ProQuest search
(n = 108) (n = 169)

Records after duplicates removed

(n = 169)
Screening

Records screened Records excluded

(n = 169) (n = 47)
Eligibility

Full-text articles Full-text articles

assessed for eligibility excluded, with reasons
(n = 122) (n = 98):

Out of scope (n = 32),

Insufficient detail (n = 33),
Limited rigor (n = 33)
Included

Studies included in
qualitative synthesis
(n = 24)

Figure 5 PRISMA flow diagram describing the search results and screening.

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA)

guidelines were used that ensure the literature review is comprehensive, transparent,
and replicable. The flow diagram, produced by employing a Shiny app, presents
the stream of evidence-based collected and processed data through the various steps
of a systematic review, designing the amount of identified, included,
and removed records, and the justifications for exclusions.
To ensure compliance with PRISMA guidelines, a citation software was used,
and at each stage the inclusion or exclusion of articles was tracked by use of custom
spreadsheet. Justification for the removal of ineligible articles was specified during
the full-text screening and final selection.

31
To ensure first-rate standard of evidence, a systematic search
of relevant databases including peer-reviewed published
journal articles was conducted using predefined search terms,
covering a range of research methods and data sources.
Reference lists of all relevant sources were manually
reviewed for additional relevant citations.

Titles of papers and abstracts were screened for suitability

and selected full texts were retrieved to establish whether
they satisfied the inclusion criteria. All records from each
database were evaluated by using data extraction forms.
Data covering research aims, participants, study design,
and method of each paper were extracted.

The inclusion criteria were: (i) articles included in the Web of

Science, Scopus, and ProQuest databases, (ii) publication date
(2021–2022), (iii) written in English, (iv) being an original
empirical research or review article, and (v) particular search
terms covered; (i) conference proceedings, (ii) books, and (iii)
editorial materials were eliminated from the analysis.

SRDR gathered, handled, and analyzed the data for

the systematic review, being configured as an archive and tool
harnessed in data extraction through transparent, efficient, and
reliable quantitative techniques. Elaborate extraction forms
can be set up, meeting the needs of research questions and
study designs.

Distiller SR screened and extracted the collected data.

AMSTAR evaluated the methodological quality

of systematic reviews.

The quality of academic articles was determined and risk of

bias was measured by MMAT, that tested content validity and
usability of selected studies in terms of screening questions,
type of design, corresponding quality criteria, and overall
quality score.

Dedoose analyzed qualitative and mixed methods research.

AXIS evaluated the quality of cross-sectional studies.

ROBIS assessed the risk of bias in systematic reviews.

Figure 6 Screening and quality assessment tools
32
4. Spatial Cognition and Predictive Modeling Algorithms, Smart City
and Digital Twin Simulation Technologies, and Geospatial Mapping
and Visual Recognition Tools in Virtual Urban Environments
Spatial cognition and predictive modeling algorithms, Internet of Things
sensing infrastructures, and data-driven planning technologies (Li et al., 2022;
Naserentin et al., 2022; von Richthofen et al., 2022) configure digital twin
cities. Smart city analytics leverages simulation-based digital twins, virtual
mapping and urban Internet of Things-sensing tools, and cognitive data fusion
techniques across immersive and decentralized 3D digital worlds. Modeling
and simulation tools, virtual twin data, and sustainable governance networks
assist computationally networked urbanism and simulated 3D environments.
Deep and machine learning algorithms, smart city and digital twin simu-
lation technologies, and sustainable urban monitoring systems (Charitonidou,
2022; Kim and Ben-Othman, 2023; Wang et al., 2022) enable big data-driven
urban geopolitics. Cloud computing and virtual simulation algorithms, Internet
of Things sensing infrastructures, and smart city software systems enable big
data-driven urban geopolitics. Smart networked and virtual urban environ-
ments develop on predictive simulation and geospatial mapping tools, sensing
and computing technologies, and cognitive artificial intelligence algorithms.
Cloud and edge computing technologies, geospatial mapping and visual
recognition tools, and simulation modeling algorithms (Meta et al., 2021;
Pesantez et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2022) optimize data-driven smart sustainable
urbanism and digital twin governance. Digital twin cities integrate spatial
data visualization and virtual mapping tools, edge and cloud computing tech-
nologies, and smart connected devices. Algorithm-driven sensing devices,
virtual simulation and spatial data modeling tools, and data prediction algo-
rithms further Internet of Things-based smart city environments. Urban
mobility and logistics, Internet of Things sensing infrastructures, and data-
driven planning technologies shape smart city digital twins. (Table 3)
Table 3 Synopsis of evidence as regards focus topics and descriptive outcomes
(research findings)
Spatial cognition and predictive modeling Li et al., 2022; Naserentin
algorithms, Internet of Things sensing et al., 2022; von
infrastructures, and data-driven planning Richthofen et al., 2022
technologies configure digital twin cities.
Deep and machine learning algorithms, smart city Charitonidou, 2022; Kim
and digital twin simulation technologies, and and Ben-Othman, 2023;
sustainable urban monitoring systems enable big Wang et al., 2022
data-driven urban geopolitics.
Cloud and edge computing technologies, geospatial Meta et al., 2021;
mapping and visual recognition tools, and simulation Pesantez et al., 2022;
modeling algorithms optimize data-driven smart Wu et al., 2022
sustainable urbanism and digital twin governance.
33
5. Smart City Digital Twins, Simulation and Virtualization
Technologies, and Spatial Computing Algorithms
in Immersive Hyper-Connected Virtual Spaces
Sustainable urban computing systems, remote sensing technology, and geo-
spatial mapping tools (Correia et al., 2022; Kikuchi et al., 2022; Yossef
Ravid and Aharon-Gutman, 2022) shape blockchain-based virtual worlds
and digital twins of cities. Cyber-physical cognitive systems, cloud and edge
computing technologies, and digital twin mapping tools articulate immersive
hyper-connected virtual spaces. Smart sustainable city governance requires
blockchain-based digital twin management, spatial computing algorithms,
and synthetic data and visual analytics tools. Computationally networked
urbanism requires smart city digital twins, data-driven Internet of Things
systems, and simulation and virtualization technologies.
Digital twin simulations, data-driven planning and cloud computing tech-
nologies, and Internet of Things-based connected devices ( Anshari and
Hamdan, 2022; Mylonas et al., 2021; Van de Vyvere and Colpaert, 2022 )
further virtual urban environments. Digital urban governance necessitates
smart city software systems, augmented reality algorithms, and data visual-
ization and simulation modeling tools. Internet of Things devices and assets,
digital twin and immersive virtual technologies, and spatial data visual-
ization tools optimize data-driven smart sustainable urbanism.
Big geospatial data analytics (Huang et al., 2022a; Pang et al., 2021; Zhang
et al., 2022) harnesses urban digital twins, machine learning techniques, and
3D city modeling and virtual simulation tools. Deep and machine learning
algorithms, real-time predictive maintenance systems, and urban big data are
pivotal in 3D digital environments and immersive hyper-connected virtual
spaces. Urban visual analytics harnesses immersive 3D and spatial com-
puting technologies, modeling and simulation algorithms, and multisource
remote sensing data fusion. (Table 4)
Table 4 Synopsis of evidence as regards focus topics and descriptive outcomes
(research findings)
Sustainable urban computing systems, remote Correia et al., 2022;
sensing technology, and geospatial mapping tools Kikuchi et al., 2022;
shape blockchain-based virtual worlds and digital Yossef Ravid and Aharon-
twins of cities. Gutman, 2022
Digital twin simulations, data-driven planning Anshari and Hamdan,
and cloud computing technologies, and Internet 2022; Mylonas et al.,
of Things-based connected devices further virtual 2021; Van de Vyvere
urban environments. and Colpaert, 2022
Big geospatial data analytics harnesses urban Huang et al., 2022a;
digital twins, machine learning techniques, and Pang et al., 2021;
3D city modeling and virtual simulation tools. Zhang et al., 2022

34
6. Digital Twin and Geospatial Mapping Technologies,
Virtual Simulation and Computer Vision Algorithms, and
Blockchain-enabled Cyber-Physical Systems in Cognitive Smart Cities
Data mining and geospatial mapping tools, digital twin modeling, and cog-
nitive computing systems (Hämäläinen, 2021; Torisson, 2022; White et al.,
2021) shape Internet of Things-enabled smart city governance and immersive
multisensory virtual spaces. Urban sensing and spatial computing tech-
nologies, digital twin simulation modeling, and cognitive data visualization
tools configure Internet of Things-enabled smart city governance. Big data
geospatial analytics leverages digital twin simulation and modeling tools,
computer vision algorithms, and virtual sensor networks.
Digital twin and geospatial mapping technologies, virtual data modeling
tools, and predictive control algorithms (Anshari and Hamdan, 2022; Ferré-
Bigorra et al., 2022; Wolf et al., 2022) are instrumental in cognitive smart
cities. Virtual simulation and computer vision algorithms, ambient sound rec-
ognition software, and intelligent sensor networks assist Internet of Things-
enabled smart cities. Urban big data analytics deploys deep learning and
neural network algorithms, immersive visualization systems, and digital twin
networks.
Smart urban governance across immersive 3D environments (Huang et
al., 2022b; Kim and Ben-Othman, 2023; Yossef Ravid and Aharon-Gutman,
2022) necessitates digital twin simulations, deep learning-based sensing and
visual modeling technologies, and urban Internet of Things systems. Smart
city analytics deploys immersive visualization systems, intelligent sensing
devices, and spatial computing and cognitive automation technologies.
Monitoring and sensing technologies, spatial cognition algorithms, and data
visualization tools articulate urban simulated environments and digital twin
cities. Big data-driven urban geopolitics develops on blockchain-enabled
cyber-physical systems, smart city digital twins, and predictive simulation
tools. (Table 5)
Table 5 Synopsis of evidence as regards focus topics and descriptive outcomes
(research findings)
Data mining and geospatial mapping tools, Hämäläinen, 2021;
digital twin modeling, and cognitive computing Torisson, 2022;
systems shape Internet of Things-enabled smart White et al., 2021
city governance and immersive multisensory
virtual spaces.
Digital twin and geospatial mapping technologies, Anshari and Hamdan,
virtual data modeling tools, and predictive control 2022; Ferré-Bigorra et al.,
algorithms are instrumental in cognitive smart cities. 2022; Wolf et al., 2022
Smart urban governance across immersive 3D Huang et al., 2022b; Kim
environments necessitates digital twin simulations, and Ben-Othman, 2023;
deep learning-based sensing and visual modeling Yossef Ravid and Aharon-
technologies, and urban Internet of Things systems. Gutman, 2022
35
7. Discussion
I integrate my systematic review throughout research indicating how modeling
and simulation tools, virtual twin data, and sustainable governance networks
assist computationally networked urbanism and simulated 3D environments.
My research complements recent analyses clarifying how cyber-physical
cognitive systems, cloud and edge computing technologies, and digital twin
mapping tools articulate immersive hyper-connected virtual spaces. I elu-
cidate, by cumulative evidence, previous research demonstrating how urban
visual analytics harnesses immersive 3D and spatial computing technologies,
modeling and simulation algorithms, and multisource remote sensing data
fusion.

8. Synopsis of the Main Research Outcomes

Big data geospatial analytics leverages digital twin simulation and modeling
tools, computer vision algorithms, and virtual sensor networks. Urban sensing
and spatial computing technologies, digital twin simulation modeling, and
cognitive data visualization tools configure Internet of Things-enabled smart
city governance. Digital twin cities integrate spatial data visualization and
virtual mapping tools, edge and cloud computing technologies, and smart
connected devices. Digital urban governance necessitates smart city software
systems, augmented reality algorithms, and data visualization and simulation
modeling tools.

9. Conclusions
Relevant research has investigated whether big data-driven urban geopolitics
develops on blockchain-enabled cyber-physical systems, smart city digital
twins, and predictive simulation tools. This systematic literature review
presents the published peer-reviewed sources covering how smart networked
and virtual urban environments develop on predictive simulation and geo-
spatial mapping tools, sensing and computing technologies, and cognitive
artificial intelligence algorithms. The research outcomes drawn from the above
analyses indicate that deep and machine learning algorithms, real-time
predictive maintenance systems, and urban big data are pivotal in 3D digital
environments and immersive hyper-connected virtual spaces.

10. Limitations, Implications, and Further Directions of Research

By analyzing only articles published in journals indexed in the Web of
Science, Scopus, and ProQuest databases between 2021 and 2022, relevant
sources on the geopolitics of urban digital twins in relation to spatial
36
cognition and predictive modeling algorithms, simulation and virtualization
technologies, and blockchain-enabled cyber-physical systems may have been
excluded. The scope of my study also does not move forward the inspection
of Internet of Things-enabled smart city governance and immersive multi-
sensory virtual spaces.
Subsequent analyses should develop on smart urban governance across
immersive 3D environments. Future research should thus investigate deep
and machine learning algorithms, smart city and digital twin simulation
technologies, and sustainable urban monitoring systems. In the future,
attention should be directed to data-driven smart sustainable urbanism and
digital twin governance.

Rebecca Sullivan, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8511-4223

Compliance with ethical standards
This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals per-
formed by the author. Extracting and inspecting publicly accessible files (scholarly
sources) as evidence, before the research began no institutional ethics approval was
required.
Data availability statement
All data generated or analyzed are included in the published article.
Funding information
This paper was supported by Grant GE-1328817 from the Center for Innovative
Data-driven Smart Urban Ecosystems, Cleveland, OH, USA. The funder had no
role in study design, data collection analysis, and interpretation, decision to submit
the manuscript for publication, or the preparation and writing of this paper.
Author contributions
The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and approved it for
publication. The author takes full responsibility for the accuracy and the integrity of
the data analysis.
Conflict of interest statement
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial
or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Disclosure by the editors of record
The editors declare no conflict of interest in the review and publication decision
regarding this article.
Transparency statement
The author affirms that the manuscript represents an honest, accurate, and trans-
parent account of the research being reported, that no relevant aspects of the study
have been left out, and that any inconsistencies from the research as planned (and, if
significant, registered) have been clarified.

37
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