How Computers Work

The basic parts of a computer are the central processing unit (CPU), memory, a
keyboard or other input device, and a screen or other output device. How does a computer
add or subtract, and how can its memory remember the answers it computes? A computer
does not have a human brain inside but acts in many ways as though it does have a real
one.

However, while we understand human language, the computer can understand

machine language. When a person types on the computer's keyboard, the human brain
identifies the letters, numbers, and characters combined to create words and sentences.
But the computer does not recognize letters as letters of the alphabet, it sees the letters
as a series of 0's and I's called the binary language.
Computer Number Systems

Humans use the decimal number system to count, measure, and compute. The
decimal number system has ten digits, such as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. A computer, on
the other hand, can only understand two digits-a 0 and a 1. These two numbers play an
important role in the way computers communicate with one another. This type of number
system is called the binary number system, with the prefix bi, which means 2.

There are other types of number systems, such as the octal number system (from
the prefix octa, meaning it uses 8 digits) and the hexadecimal number system (hexa
means 6; deci means 10 meaning it uses 16 digits to represent its values). However, these
special number systems are merely a way to bridge the computer's binary language to a
somewhat understandable human (decimal) language since computer data can be
complicated.

How Computers Interpret Data

With the different types of number systems, it is important to understand how

computers interpret the letters on the keyboard through a series of 0's and I's. This is
normally done through the number system conversion Depending on the standard used,
computer systems convert characters from the keyboard and later display them on the
monitor Refer to the following steps

1. From the keyboard, pressure pads are typically found underneath each key. Upon typing
a letter, the pressure pad sends information to the CPU for processing
2. The information is then examined in the form 0's and Tsing the ASCII code.
3. The CPU determines what character has been typed and sends the information to the
computer monitor, again in 0's and I's.
4. The monitor displays the information in its equivalent character, this time readable and
understandable by humans.

Majority of computer systems use the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII) for converting characters into 0's and 1's. The ASCII code is a 7-bit code
used to represent letters, numbers, and basic special characters.

A
The uppercase character 'A' as seen on the left is represented in ASCII as 0100 0001
in binary, 101 in octal, or 41 in hexadecimal system.
Below is a table showing the ASCII printable characters (as seen in your keyboard)
represented in decimal (Dec), hexadecimal (Hx), and octal (Oct) formats.
 Notice how the characters are represented in decimal, octal, and hexadecimal
formats. Computer programmers create programs so that computers can do specific tasks.
People who write programs are programmers. Depending on the skills set of the
programmer, a program can be developed based on the programming language the
programmer is familiar with. Another term used for a program is codes. Writing programs
is called programming or coding.

However, looking at a long string of 0's and 1's (binary format) might be considered
too confusing for the programmer, causing errors during coding. Take a look at the word
"computer" in binary code as seen by a computer:

01100011 01101111 01101101 01110000 01110101 01110100 01100101 01110010

A bit hard to read, right? The programmer might miss out on a few digits while
creating a program. Thus, to make it easier, machine codes are made "more human" by
making them readable and similar to the human language. This is identified with the
different levels of programming languages which will be discussed later in this chapter.

So how does the computer know that 01100011 01101111 01101101 01110000 01110101
01110100 01100101 01110010 is the same as the word "computer"? Each character is
converted from the ASCII table's hexadecimal, octal, or decimal presentation into binary
language. For example, the letter 'c' is equivalent to 63 in hexadecimal which when
converted into binary is equal to 0110 0011.
How Computers Communicate with One Another

Notice how the computer uses different ways to connect to certain devices. The
computer monitor uses a wire to connect to the computer unit while the mouse wirelessly
connects to the laptop, etc. Depending on the situation, computers use different
connection methods to do their tasks.

System bus

A computer system, on its own, communicates through what is called a system bus.
A system bus is a pathway composed of cables and connectors used to carry data from a
computer's peripheral devices-monitor, keyboard, mouse, etc.-to the CPU and the main
memory. There are three types of buses: the data bus, address bus, and control bus.

Figure 2.1 Simplified diagram of computer system implemented with a single system bus. This modular
organization was popular in the 1970’s and 1980’s
 For example, how does the computer know that the printer needs more ink? How
does the mouse cursor move along with the actual mouse? And how does the speaker
produce sound in time with the video displayed on the monitor?

Data bus

A data bus can transfer data to and from the memory of a computer, or into or out
of the CPU. Examples of pieces of information that traverse the data bus include files
transferred from a flash drive to the computer's hard drive and a document sent to the
printer for printing.

Address bus

The address bus is used by the CPU to specify a physical address for instructions,
files, and other devices within the computer system. For example, in a given computer unit,
there are typically 6 to 8 USB ports. The address bus is responsible for checking which of
the USB ports has a printer connected to it, along with the mouse, keyboard, speakers,
and, sometimes, even external drives.

Control bus

A control bus is used by CPUs to communicate with other devices within the
computer system. As the address bus carries the location of the data being sent and the
data bus carries the actual data being processed, the control bus carries the commands
or instructions from the CPU. It also sends status signals from the devices, identifying if it
is ready or not. The typical read/write commands are identified through the control bus.
For example, if one tries to save a file to a flash drive that is already removed from the
computer, the computer will notify the user with an error message saying that the folder
or drive where the file is intended to be saved is no longer existing.
 This is because the original destination or location can no longer be sent through
the address bus because of the disconnection. Therefore, the CPU sends a halt instruction
via the control bus, stopping the data to be sent through the data bus, often seen as an
error message prompt.

The amount of data sent throughout the system bus depends on the size of the
bus. Latest computer systems use a 64-bit bus; however, the majority still use a 32-bit
computing size for their computer systems. Take note, however, that the mentioned
computing size is on a hardware level. Having an operating system or software application
that is 32-bit or 64-bit is different. Again, the hardware is different from the software. It
is advised that if your computer hardware uses a 32-bit bus (hardware), use only software
programs running 32-bits. This is to avoid the hardware from overheating. Imagine a 32-
bit bus computer working double time to make up for the excess 32-bits from a 64-bit
application software. A 64-bit bus, on the other hand, can process either a 32-bit or a 64-
bit software application.

How Computers Connect to Other Computers

The next step in knowing how a computer is able to connect to other devices is to
understand how a computer connects to another computer. Earlier, computer peripherals
using wired or wireless connections are mentioned. It is also similar when a computer
wants to connect to another computer with or without wires.

Computer Network Systems

Computers are able to communicate with one another over networks. A computer
network is an interconnection of two or more computers. This interconnection gives these
computers the capability to share information and resources. There are several types of
networks, mostly depending on the number of computers in it, how they are used, and
what type of technology is used in its connectivity. Below are some of the computer
network systems:

 Personal area network (PAN) - is a type of connection which is often limited to an

individual person and his or her personal devices. Normally, these devices must be
within the range of 10 meters with each other. For example, a person traveling with
a laptop, a smartphone, and a portable printer could interconnect the devices
without having to plug anything in, using some form of wireless technology.

 Local area network (LAN) - is a connection in which a group of computers and other
devices, such as network printers, share a common communications line within a
certain area such as a building or a small campus. LANS are often found in schools
and offices to secure the organization's information. This is done through a
computer server in which user's access may be restricted to avoid unwanted users.
For example, some schools use LANS within their campuses so that students can
connect to the internet to do online research. Students are required to login their
information (such as their student ID) to connect to the internet. However, through
the school's campus server, restrictions to sites such as online games, pornographic
materials, and the like are implemented. This means that students will not be able
to access these websites inside the campus. LAN as rules and policies may differ
within its coverage.

 Wide area network (WAN) - may be less restrictive than A WAN may be made of
several LANs and PANS. A WAN can also be made up of several more WANs. This is
why WAN is considered synonymous to the internet.

Methods of Communication

There are many different types of connection media that are used in contemporary
society to connect computer networks to one another. Connections are often categorized
generally into. two-wired communication and wireless communication.
→Wired communication

Different types of cables are used to connect to a given network. There are coaxial
cables, fiber-optic cables, Ethernet cables, and traditional telephone lines. These will be
discussed at length in later chapters. This chapter focuses on a stand-alone computer
system and the types of wired connections that are available.

Computer systems have different connections which usually depend on the

motherboard's form factor. Popular wired connections nowadays include the following:

USB
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a connection or interface that allows the computer to
communicate with system peripherals such as keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. as well as
other devices like digital cameras and portable fans.

FireWire
It is a type of connector that can transmit data to and from devices which have
typical high data rates, such as external hard drives. The transfer speed of a FireWire is
faster than that of a USB.

Ethernet cable
An Ethernet cable transmits signals between a computer and network devices such
as a router, switch, or other computers.
HDMI

High-definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a connector for transmitting

audio/video data which are compatible to computers, projectors, and digital televisions.

Older computer units have connections that include the following:

VGA
The 15-pin Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector has been provided on many video
cards, computer monitors, laptop computers, and projectors. It is now slowly being phased
out in favor of the faster and more compact HDMI connector.

Serial
An RS-232 serial connection was once a standard feature of a personal computer
used for connections to modem, printer, mouse, and other peripheral devices. Now, it has
been replaced by USB connections.

Parallel
Similar to the serial connection, parallel connections were used before to connect
other computer peripherals such as printers. It has also been replaced since then by the
USB connections.

PS/2
The PS/2 is 6-pin connector used to connect the mouse and keyboard to computer.
It is color-coded to identify which peripheral will be connected to which port. Purple is for
keyboard and green is for the mouse.
Audio jacks
The audio jacks are the 3.5 mm jacks used for microphones (as input), and speakers
(as output). It uses color codes as well to indicate the type of input and output lines.
Pink: Mic in

Blue: Line in
Green: Front speakers out

Black (or dark blue in some older boards):

Rear speakers out

Orange: Center/subwoofer out

Gray: Middle speakers out

These connections are now being replaced by USB and HDMI connections.

➜Wireless communication

Wireless communications include transmission, satellite communication, cellular

transm and radio transmission such as WiFi connectivity technologies differ hugely from
one another, but the popular types are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. The Insti Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE), technical association with members all across the globe,
identified standard 802.11 for Wi-Fi and 802.15 for Bluetooth in the wireless standards.

→ Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi uses radio waves to wirelessly transmit information across a network. Wi-Fi's
signals are transmitted in frequencies of between 2.5 and 5 gigahertz (GHz), which are
higher than radio and TV signals to avoid interference. Wi-Fi is often used in schools,
companies, and business establishments, among others. This is to provide network
connections to multiple users without the need for cables. Majority of Wi-Fi users use
mobile devices, such as tablets, laptops, and smartphones to connect via an access point
or Wi-Fi hotspot.

→ Bluetooth
Bluetooth uses radio waves to connect to other devices. The connection via
Bluetooth is called. pairing. Once paired, devices are able to send and receive information
provided they are within a given range which is typically 10 meters.

How Humans Communicate with Computers

Reading a long string of 0's and I's can be very confusing and taxing. As such, people
who invented the computer identified two areas in computer systems-computer hardware
and computer software. Through computer software, humans are able to "communicate"
with the computer.

Computer Software
The computer software is a combination of instructions, data, and programs that
the computer needs in order to do a specific task. Another term used for computer
software is computer programs. Everything the computer does can basically be controlled
through these programs. Programs are a set of codes or instructions which are usually
designed or written by computer programmers using a specific programming language.
The most common type of programming language used by programmers is called object-
oriented programming. This programming language includes Microsoft's C# (pronounced
as 'see-sharp'), Sun Microsystem's Java, and an open-source programming language, PHP
(Hypertext Preprocessor).
Examples. C#, PHP, Java
 Programmers have developed two types of computer software-the system software
and application software.

People might be more familiar with the application software as most of the day-to-
day tasks done in front of a computer involve the use of application programs (e.g., typing
a school assignment using Microsoft Word, editing a photo using Adobe Photoshop,
browsing through Facebook using Google Chrome, or listening to music using Apple's
iTunes). The system software also called an operating system (OS) is the most important
software running on a computer since it manages the computer's memory and instructions
and has the ability to control all the connected hardware and installed software
applications,

The OS allows a person to interact with the computer-from the hardware components
and peripherals to all the installed software applications and files one has stored on the
computer. The interaction can occur in two ways:

1. By using a command-line operating system (e.g., DOS) in which the computer

responds according to the text command that is typed
2. With a graphical user interface (GUI) operating system (e.g., Windows) such as
pictures and buttons through mouse clicks and keyboard entries.

System Platforms
Desktop systems differ from mobile systems in terms of how each platform treats
the application software installed in the system. A desktop or a laptop computer usually
needs an application program to run a certain application on it, or possibly, multiple ones
at the same time. A typical example is that of a web browser capable of running multiple
web sites with different "applications" all at the same time. In this scenario, Google
Chrome is open as the user waits for an email from a friend via Gmail, while another
browser tab has YouTube open as he or she watches video tutorials. Another browser tab
with Wikipedia open is possible as the user is also researching on different computer
peripherals. All of these websites are accessed using a single web browser. A web browser
is considered to be an application software. However, this scenario is typically played
within a desktop platform.

With today's trend leaning towards mobility, more and more mobile devices are
now capable of doing things which typical desktop computers can do. This is why
companies that develop smartphones, for example, have identified specific system
software and application software for these mobile devices (Hope, 2017).

Using a smartphone in accessing the same websites is a different experience.

Instead of using a web browser to access all three web sites, mobile applications are used.
Mobile applications have the capacity to run directly on top of the operating system
without using web browsers. Facebook, YouTube, and Gmail are typical examples of
desktop applications that have mobile counterparts.

System Software
Two of the most popular desktop system software or OS nowadays are Microsoft's
Windows and Apple's macOS. In mobile devices, Apple uses iOS for their devices' system
software. But while Microsoft is also using Windows for their mobile devices' operating
system, it is not the leading mobile OS in the world, compared to its desktop counterpart.
According to the International Data Corporation (IDC), the most popular mobile OS s of
2016 is Android OS, acquiring 85% of the global market (IDC. 2017).

Online Applications Software

As previously discussed, application software consists of programs that are
designed to perform specific tasks for users. Specific application software products, called
software packages, are available from different vendors. Usually, these software packages
cost money although a lot of application software is now being made available for free.
Often called shareware, freeware, or public-domain software, this software can be
downloaded for free but usually with fewer capabilities compared to the ones sold.

As such, online application software is now introduced with the improved internet
speed being made available to consumers. There are various products available including
software tools that were previously identified only as computer applications.

Office productivity tools such as Microsoft Office Suite were only available offline,
but now, Microsoft has developed Microsoft Office 365 which has been made available to
students and teachers for free via their Office 365 Education. Numerous web and mobile
applications are also made available to users which oftentimes feature the same
functionalities as the offline version. Google introduced its online applications capable of
doing the same thing as Microsoft's Office Suite. Google Docs, Google Sheets, and Google
Slides are the online counterparts of MS Word, Excel, and PowerPoint, respectively.

Other online productivity tools are also available for organizations, such as data
collection and analysis, especially for those in the marketing industry. PCMag.com has
listed down available online survey engines for 2017 and analyzed the top contenders.
Included in the list are Zoho Survey, Survey Gizmo, Campaign Monitor GetFeedback,
Checkbox Survey, Fluid Surveys, SurveyMonkey, WorldApp KeySurvey, Outside Software
eSurveysPro, SoGoSurvey, and SurveyPlanet. Survey Gizmo is the Editors' Choice getting
a 4.5 rating and is said to be best for small to midsize businesses (Schindler, 2017), Not
only can an organization easily disseminate its survey questions to its clients, but data
trends and analysis are also automatically done by the tool, providing faster results,

Tomsguide.com has also listed down several popular applications available in the App
Store and Google Play that can increase productivity, improve efficiency, and provide
convenience. Below are just some of the apps on their list:

1. Any.do-a scheduler and reminder notification app 2. Microsoft Office Word, Excel,
and PowerPoint – available for free download in both Android and iOS 3. WPS Office
 - another office productivity suite that does the same as Microsoft's Word, Excel,
and PowerPoint
4. Adobe Acrobat Reader a PDF reader and annotation app which lets you view and
sign PDF forms.
5. Microsoft Outlook for reading emails, managing contacts, and calendar

6. Newton Mail for accessing all email accounts in one "unified inbox"
7. Forge - a mobile drawing app that allows the user to create sketches and edit
photos

Lastly, people who have no IT background can now create their own blogs and
websites through online tools which provide web hosting and web content management.
They do not need to learn programming languages, although some knowledge in
programming will be an advantage to further customize the web layout,

Wix.com and WordPress.com are two of the most popular website creation tools
available online. Both tools offer blogging and website content management system
(CMS). Users do not need to be programmers due to the simple and easy-to-use design
of the CMS.

How Computers Impact Everyday Life

The advent of technologies specifically the development of information and
communications technology has changed the lives of people. Computers, for example,
permeate everyday life as they are used in various fields-in schools, malls, and hospitals,
among others. The following areas show how computers have made such an impact.
Education
Today, most elementary and secondary schools (public and private) and higher education
institutions (HEIs) have computers in their classrooms. ICT in general has made things
convenient and efficient for teachers, students, researchers, and school administrators.

With the use of computers, teachers can do research and enhance their teaching
materials. They can join online forums and conferences and gain new ideas and learn from
the latest research findings and trends. Students use computers with internet access as
one of their reference tools. They can communicate and collaborate with their peers while
working in their own homes.
School administrators use computers for administrative work to ensure that the
entire operation of the school runs proficiently. An access to all school documents is made
easy and always available with the use of a so-called server.

Electronic learning (e-learning) is the newest teaching methodology in which

students and teachers can communicate and collaborate with each other through online
discussion of their lessons, activities, and examinations. Such examples are Blackboard,
Edmodo, Moodle, etc.

Banking
The computer has made all banking transactions around the world easier and more
secure. It manipulates the entire banking system as it includes 24-hour electronic banking
services. The services include:

 Automated teller machine (ATM)

 Cheque deposit
 Electronic fund transfer
 Direct deposit
 Pay by phone system
 Personal computer banking/internet banking
Workforce Industry
Workers, researchers, and administrators benefit from ICT. Computers are used to
expedite production planning and control systems, to support chain management, and to
facilitate product design in the industrial sector. Machines that are fully computer
operated are now used. Researchers use computers to gather and analyze data for
hypothetical reference while administrators use computers to manage the entire
operations of the plant or factory to detect or anticipate explicit errors or deficiencies that
transpire in the process. Some of the large industrial companies that implement ICT
include Toyota Philippines, Honda Philippines, and San Miguel Corporation.
However, the use of ICT can be perceived as a threat to assembly-line and factory
workers as robots or machines take over their jobs.

Electronic Commerce
Electronic commerce or simply e-commerce helps boost the economy. With
computers, internet, and shared software as the main tools needed, buying and selling
activities are made easier, more efficient, and faster. Customers, sellers, and suppliers all
benefit from the capabilities of ICT. Some of the known e-commerce markets are Zalora,
Lazada, Shopee, Metrodeal, Takatack, Amazon, OLX.ph, AirBnB, Booking.com, Agoda.com,
and many others.

Customers or clients use computers to communicate with sellers. This method can
save time and cost as consumers do not have to go physically to any outlets or
department stores. Suppliers, on the other hand, use computers in keeping track of their
transactions which include the monitoring of inventory.

Hospitals
The use of computers in hospitals offers many benefits to both doctors and
patients. Hospitals are creating patients' databases of health records, treatment records,
and medical records. Also, with the help of ICT, doctors use computers and various medical
applications not only for research advancement but also for faster diagnosis of patients'
illnesses. Through computing and monitoring technologies, tests administered in hospitals
such as blood test, urine test, brain testing, ultrasound, echocardiography, complete blood
count (CBC), mammography, bone density study, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X-
rays, and body scanning, among others are made possible. With the development of
databases and other applications, ICTs prevent medical errors in particular and improve
the efficiency of the health system in general.