Lecture 6.

Reduplication

https://oer-vlc.de/course/view.php?id=20&section=8

Central Topics

 Principles of reduplication

 The use of reduplication

 Total and partial reduplication in PDE

Questions

1. What is reduplication? (Overview)

2. Which morphological processes can cross-linguistically be realized by reduplication?

3. Provide and discuss examples of reduplication in the Indo-European languages.

4. In which contexts does reduplication occur in PDE and how can we subdivide it?

5. List and discuss examples of ablaut motivated reduplicatives in PDE.

6. List and discuss examples of rhyme motivated reduplicatives in PDE.

7. To what extent does reduplication play a role in child language?

1. Overview
Reduplication comes from Latin reduplicatio meaning doubling, folding. It is the act or result of
doubling a sound, word, or word element, usually for grammatical or lexical purposes. It is one
of the most natural processes of forming compound words.

Reduplication is a primarily phonologically-driven process used can be found in a large number

of languages. In PDE, however, it is less common and mainly serves emphatic purposes.

Furthermore, it is a standard feature of the babbling phase in child language.

Youtube video: VLC MOR 107 Reduplication

 2. Reduplication across languages

Reduplication can be found in most language families. In many Non-Indo-European languages,

several inflectional and derivational processes can be realized by means of reduplication.

In the Indo-European languages, reduplication was used in conjugational processes but is less

common today.

PDE confines reduplication to word-formation processes. Early examples of such reduplicatives

can be found in the EMnE period, especially in Shakespeare's work:

 Hark, in thine ear: change places; and, handy-dandy, which is the justice, which is the
thief? (King Lear)

 When the hurlyburly's done, when the battle's lost and won (Macbeth).

Non-Indo-European Languages
Languages around the world employ reduplication as a way of expressing various meanings.
For example, in PDE, reduplication can denote emphasis (e.g. coke = coke; coke-coke = real
coke). In Japanese, it expresses diversity of referents (e.g. kami = god; kamigami = various
gods). Cross-Linguistically, the following main functions can be indentified:

 Augmentation (Increase of quantity)

 Intensification (Increase of degree)

 Diminution (Decrease of quantity)

 Attenuation (Decrease of degree)

Among the world's languages, there is tendency to use reduplication mainly to express increase
rather than decrease.
Reduplication - Augmentation

rumah rumah-rumah
Malay (house, sg.) (house, pl.)
orang orang-orang
Indonesian
(person, sg.) (person, pl. = people)
pingan pingpingan
Ilocano
(dish, sg.) (dish, pl.)
ren renren
Chinese
(person, sg.) (person, pl. = everyone)
gogs gogogs
Tohono O’odham
(dog, sg.) (dogs, pl.)
hito hitobito
Japanese
(person, sg.) (person, pl. = people)

In these languages, reduplication is used inflectionally, i.e. in plural formation (increase

of quantity/augmentation).

Reduplication - Intensification

dolu dopdolu
Turkish (full) (quite full)
bat batbat
Marshallese
(hill) (full of hills)
go go-go
Nama language
(look) (examine with attention)
malakas mas malakas
Tagalog
(strong) (stronger)
wiki wikiwiki
Hawaiian
(fast) (very fast)

In these languages, reduplication realizes morphological processes that can be argued

to be inflectional (e.g. Hawaiian or Tagalog) or derivational (e.g. Marshallese). In both
cases, the meaning, however is that of increase of degree/intensification.
Reduplication - Diminution

anak anak-anak
Indonesian
(child) (baby)
wer walawer
Agta
(creek) (small creek)

In these languages, reduplication realizes an increase of quantity/diminution, normally a

derivational process

Reduplication - Attenuation

maji maji-maji
Swahili
(wet) (somewhat wet)
 dalawa dadalawa
Tagalog
(two) (only two)
havlu havlu-mavlu
Turkish
(towel) (towels and such)
qaqay taq qaqay qay
Pacho
(sick) (act sick)

In these languages, reduplication realizes a decrease of degree (attenuation), normally a

derivational process.

Indo-European Languages
In several Indo-European languages reduplication realized inflectional processes, e.g. tense
formation. In the older Indo-European languages (e.g. Greek, Latin, Gothic), many such verbs
survive:

Latin Greek Gothic Early OE

spondeo δερκομαι fahan haldan
(I vow) (I see) (catch) (hold)
spopondi δεδορκα faifah hehald
(I vowed) (I saw) (I caught) (I held)

Other cases of reduplication are derivational; compare Latin sto ("I stand") and sisto ("I

remain"). All of these Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by
other phonological laws.

None of these forms survived in PDE, although they existed in its parent Germanic languages.

3. Reduplication in PDE

In PDE, reduplication is not a productive morphological process and thus considered marginal
as far as linguistic usage is concerned. It is confined to particular contexts and situations.

Formally, PDE reduplicatives can be subdivided into two types:

  total reduplication

 partial reduplication

Contexts and Situations

Reduplication is often confined to informal and whimsical situations in conversation. The main
effect is to intensify the meaning of a word, or to make the word more imitative. In PDE,
reduplication may be found in the following contexts or situations:

1. In occasional borrowings:

o beriberi, a disease caused by the deficit of vitamin B1 (from Sinhala, an emphatic

doubling of beri weakness).

o ylang-ylang or ilang-ilang, a Malayan tree

2. In echoic or otherwise phonetically suggestive words:

o in onomatopoeic contexts like tut-tut or tsk-tsk.

o in informal/humorous contexts, e.g. mish-mash, tittle-tattle

o for associations with actions, e.g. walkie-talkie

3. In occasional emphatic repetitions (sub-standard):

o It’s a no-no (It is something definitely not to be done).

4. In pidgins and creoles:

o Tok Pisin lukluk to stare (from look)

o Tok Pisin singsing a festival (from sing).

Total Reduplication in PDE

Total reduplication is defined as a process where the entire root or word is repeated. Since the
repeated elements are the same, they can also be considered as tautonyms [Greek,
from tauto, to auto the same].

Examples of total reduplication in PDE:

 Gee-gee (n.): Gee-gee is a colloquial British expression for horse. Originally it is a child's

word deriving from gee, a command to a horse to go faster.
  Yum-yum (int.): Yum-yum is an interjection expressing pleasure from eating or the
prospect of eating.

 Chin-chin (n.): Chin-chin is a colloquial British interjection for a toast; a greeting or

farewell. It derives from Chinese qingqing.

 Goody-goody (n. & adj.): Goody-goody is a colloquial expression for a selfsatisfied or

obtrusively virtuous person.

 Pooh-pooh (v.tr.): To pooh-pooh means to express contempt for somebody; to ridicule;

or to dismiss (an idea) scornfully.

 Wee-wee (n. & v.intr.): Wee-wee means the act or an instance of urinating, or the urine

itself. As a verb it means to urinate.

Other examples: coo-coo, go-go, no-no, so-so, …

Partial Reduplication in PDE

Most reduplicatives in PDE double part of the base. Depending on the phonological process
involved these cases of 'partial' reduplication can be subdivided into:

 ablaut motivated reduplicdation
(vocalic change)

 rhyme motivated reduplication
(consonantal change)

Ablaut

Normally, the term ablaut refers to an operation of root vowel change that gives a word a new
grammatical function:

 Derivation: long (a.) vs.  length (n.) i.e. a difference in word-class

 Inflection: sit (PRES) vs. sat (PST) marks a difference in tense

The ablaut-type of reduplication does not involve any grammatical changes in PDE. It changes
the stressed vowel of the base while the rest of the word is repeated, i.e. any consonants (and
vowels) that appear after it in the last syllable are identical.

Examples of partial (ablaut-motivated) reduplication in PDE:

  Ding-dong (n., adj. & adv.) : Ding-dong is the sound of alternate chimes, as of two bells. It is also
a colloquial expression for an intense argument or fight; or a riotous party. Used as an adjective,
it means that a contest etc. is evenly matched and intensely waged; or thoroughgoing. As an
adverb it means to act with vigour and energy. [imitative]
 Mishmash : Mishmash is a confused mixture. [ME, reduplication of MASH ]
 Tittle-tattle (n. & v.) : Tittle-tattle stands for petty gossip ot trivial talk. Used as a verb it means
to gossip, chatter. [reduplication of TATTLE ]
 Wishy-washy (adj.) : Wishy-washy means that something or somebody is feeble, insipid, or
indecisive in quality or character. Concerning tea, soup, etc. it means weak, watery, sloppy.
[reduplication of WASHY ]
 Chit-chat (n. & v.) : A chit-chat is a light conversation; or gossip. Used as a verb it means to talk
informally; to gossip. [reduplication of CHAT ]
 Riff-raff (n.) : Riff-raff is often preceded by the and stands for the rabble; or disreputable or
undesirable persons. [ME riff and raff from OF rif et raf]

Other examples: flip-flop, tiptop, tick-tock, wibble-wobble, dilly-dally, shilly-shally, dingle-dangle, …

Rhyming

In rhyme-motivated processes of reduplication, the onset consonant changes while the rest of the
word is repeated, i.e. the vowels and consonants that appear after it in the last syllable are
identical. Thus we are confrinted with a rhyme effect.

Some rhyming compounds are formed by two pre-existing or independent words that are
conjoined, e.g. Black-Jack or brain-drain. More frequent examples are where one - or both bases
- are not independent words. The following ryhme-motivated processes of reduplication can be
defined in PDE:

General Reduplicatives
 Nitty-gritty (n.): Nitty-gritty are the practical details of a matter, not the small and unimportant
ones.
 Willy-nilly (adv. & adj.): Willy-nilly means that whether one likes it or not, it is the later spelling
of will I, nill I I am willing, I am unwilling.
 Teeny-weeny (adj.): Teeny-weeny means that something or somebody is extremely small.
 Mumbo-jumbo (n.): Mumbo-jumbo is a meaningless or ignorant ritual; a language or action
intended to mystify or confuse; or an object of senseless adoration. [Mumbo Jumbo, a
supposed African idol]
 Niminy-piminy (adj.): Niminy-piminymeans that somebody or something is feeble, affected;
lacking vigour or energy.
  Namby-pamby (adj.): Namby-pamby means that somebody or something is lacking vigour or
drive; weak; or insipidly pretty or sentimental. [After Namby-Pamby, a satire on the poetry of
Ambrose Philips (1674-1749) by Henry Carey (1687?-1743).]
 Walkie-talkie (n.): A walkie-talkie is a two-way radio carried on the person, especially by
policemen etc.

Reduplicatives with initial "H"

 Hanky-panky (n.): Hanky-panky is a slang expression for naughtiness, especially sexual
misbehaviour; or dishonest dealing; trickery.
 Hugger-mugger (adj., adv., n, & v.): Hugger-mugger stands for secrecy or confusion. If it is used
as an adjective or adverb, it means that something happens in secret or someboby is confused.
Used as a verb, hugger-mugger means to proceed in a secret or muddled fashion. [probably
related to ME hoder huddle, mokere conceal: cf. 15 th-century hoder moder, 16 th-
century hucker mucker in the same sense.]
 Hurdy-gurdy (n.): A hurdy-gurdy is a musical instrument with a droning sound, played by
turning a handle. In the colloquial sense it is a barrel-organ.
 Hurly-burly (n.): A hurly-burly is a disorderly outburst or tumult; or commotion. [reduplication
from HURL ]
 Helter-skelter (adv., adj., & n.): In British English a helter-skelter is a tall spiral slide round a
tower, at a fairground or funfair. The adverb or adjective means that somebody or something is
in disorderly haste. [imitative, origin in a rhyming jingle, perhaps from ME skelte  hasten.]
 Harum-scarum (adj. & n.): Harum-scarum is a colloquial expression meaning wild and reckless;
or such a person. [rhyming formation on HARE, SCARE]

4. Child Language

Reduplication can often be observed during the phase of phonological development where
different syllables of a word are pronounced in the same way. Here are some examples:

 [wowo] for water

 [bubu] for bottle

 [mumu] for window
Even monosyllabic words may be reduplicated, e.g. when ball becomes [bobo]. However not all
children use reduplicated forms.

The major motivation for producing reduplications may be simply the need to play with sounds
or to practise them. Also, the process may help children to cope with the pronunciation of more
complicated words. With the help of reduplication, the child would get a chance to master the
pronunciation in stages. First the word's syllable structure and stress, along with the most
noticeable phonetic features would be produced. After the phonetic outline has been mastered,
a more precise pronunciation would follow.

Reduplications are also very popular in child literature. Often characters may have reduplicative
names, such as Foxy-Woxy, Henny-Penny, Lanky-Panky, Turkey-Lurkey so that they can easily
be pronounced and remembered.

Discuss the following example of reduplication from Latin:

spondeo (I vow), spopondi (I vowed)

Mastery Test – Reduplication:
https://oer-vlc.de/mod/quiz/view.php?id=2768