Lecture 7.

Derivation

https://oer-vlc.de/course/view.php?id=20&section=9

Central Topics

 Affixational derivation

 Conversion

 The representation of word-structure

Questions

No. Question
1. What is derivation? (Overview)
2. Derivatives can be subdivided into three groups. Which ones? (Exemplification)
The most common method of generating derivatives makes use of affixes.
3.
Which ones are used in English? 
4. Define the following affixes lexically: {-ed}, {-hood}, {-ity}
Present the following words by means of a morphological tree: refusal,
5.
quickening
6. What is conversion?
List and discuss the four critiera that may help to determine the directionality of
7.
conversion.
8. Can conversion be defined as zero-affixation? Discuss!

1. Overview
Derivation creates new words by concatenative as well as non-concatenative morphological
operations, which are phonologically restricted in many ways. The following distinction can be
drawn:

 affixational derivation

 conversion

 other types
(not elaborated within this unit)

In all these cases, we can reconstitute these words, even though we may have never
encountered them before. Thus, there must be a central method of representing the structure of
complex words.
1. Exemplification
Derivational processes can be subdivided into those processes that involve affixation with overt
material, processes that convert a form into another word-class without overt material and
numerous additional processes that are more or less supra-segmentally constrained (e.g. in
terms of syllable structure).

Examples Group 1 (Affixation):

  Derived Form (Derivative)

Basic Form Noun Verb Adjective
Noun child-hood standard-ize point-less
Verb walk-er re-write move-able
Adjective good-ness quick-en un-happy

Examples Group 2 (Conversion):

Basic Form word-class Derived Form word-class

water N water V
green A green N

The third group:

1. Other
A number of word-formation processes expand the English vocabulary by means of recycling
existing words.The following word-formation processes of this kind are defined in the standard
literature.

Basic Form Derived Form Process

smoke and fog smog Blend
radio Detection and Ranging Radar Acronym
International Business Machines IBM Abbreviation
laboratory lab Clipping
Adalbert Bert Truncation/Name
bed beddie Truncation/y-Diminuitive
television televise Back-Formation
ding and dong ding-dong Reduplication
 2. Affixation

Probably the most common morphological operation of forming words is concatenation, in

particular, affixation. Affixes can be grouped in various ways:

 positionally
(prefix, infix, suffix)

 concerning their meaning

(e.g. negative affixes)

 phonologically
(e.g. stress change, phonemic change)

The most popular subdivision looks at the position of affixes, in English typically

 prefixes

 suffixes - and, may be, even

 infixes.

In all these cases, we can reconstitute these words, even though we may have never
encountered them before. Thus, we must have internalized the lexical structure of affixes as
well a mechanism of representing word-structure in terms of hierarchies.

3. Prefixes

Normally, prefixes are stress-neutral, i.e. stress falls on the same syllable regardless of their
presence or absence. Furthermore, prefixes often do not influence the resulting word's
grammatical properties.

 a[UN-usual], v[UN-pack]
  a[DIS-honest], v[DIS-allow]

 ...

 a[able] > v[EN-able]

 n[witch] > v[BE-witch]

In other words, most of them are syntactically empty. Historically a special group of disyllabic
words were formed using a prefix and a base. The result was a noun or a verb with the
distinction entirely based on lexical stress.

Prefixes in PDE

Prefix Meaning Examples

(forming derivative verbs
be- with the general meaning of beset, besmear, becloud
'around')
(forming derivative verbs
en- with the general meaning of enlarge, enrich, ebable, ensure
'make ...')
co-/
co-operate, co-habitat, co-opt,
con-/ 'together'
combine, conspire
com-
ex-miner, ex-wife, ex-leader, ex-
ex- 'former'
director, ex-pupil, ex-pilot
mis-understand, mis-manage, mis-
mis- 'wrongly, badly' read, mis-take, mis-inform, mis-
allocate
malcontent, malpractice,
mal(e)- 'bad(ly)' maladjusted, malefactor,
malevolent
re-think, re-take, re-play, re-
re- 'again'
examine, re-issue
unexciting, unhappy,
un- 'negative' uncomfortable, unwise,
unmanageable, uncool
dis- 'negative' (with nouns) disapproval, disbelief
dis- 'negative' (with adjectives) dishonest, dishonorable
'negative, reversive' (with disallow, disagree, disapprove,
dis-
verbs) dislike, disaffirm, disbelieve, disarm
inarticulate, inactive, inept,
in- 'negative' (with adjectives)
inevitable, innumerable
unoriginal, unusual, unseemly,
un- 'negative' (with adjectives) unripe, unpleasant, unsavoury,
unreliable
undo, unblock, unpack,unravel,
un- 'reversive' (with verbs)
unpick, unseat, unsaddle, unroll
 4. Suffixes

The most common means of deriving new words in English makes use of suffixes. Note that
suffixation is the only concatenative operation of inflection in English.

In English, derivational suffixes can be subdivided in several ways:

 according to their inherent word-class

o nominal affixes (e.g. -ment, -ness)

o verbal affixes (e.g. -ize, -ify)

o adjectival affixes (e.g. -able)

 according to their phonological behavior

o suffixes that inflict phonological changes

(e.g. pro'duct-ive, candida-cy)

o suffixes that are phonologically neutral

(e.g. help-ful, punish-ment)

Here is a list of the most common derivational suffixes.

Suffixes in PDE

Word- Attaches Phonologica

Suffix Meaning Examples
Class to l Change
don-ation, reconcili-ation,
'derives nouns of
-ation Noun Verb yes regul-ation, confisc-ation,
action from verbs'
simul-ation
'person that does inhabit-ant, celebr-ant,
-ant Noun Verb no whatever the verb protest-ant, occup-ant,
means' attend-ant
 'instrument that is
used to do lubric-ant, stimul-ant,
-ant Noun Verb no
whatever the verb intoxic-ant
means'
'person who does
teach-er, runn-er, writ-er,
-er Noun Verb no whatever the verb
build-er, paint-er
means'
'instrument that is
used to do cook-er, strain-er, drain-er,
-er Noun Verb no
whatever the verb pok-er
means'
'act of doing learn-ing, read-ing, writ-
-ing Noun Verb no whatever the verb ing, sav-ing, rid-ing, wait-
indicates' ing
'derives agent
-ist Noun Verb no nouns from verbs cycl-ist, typ-ist, copy-ist
- one who does X'
eros-ion (from erode), corr
'derives nouns of
os-ion (from corrode), pers
-ion Noun Verb yes condition or
uas-ion (from persuade), ra
action from verbs'
diat-ion, promot-ion
'the result or
product of the
action of the verb; pave-ment, appoint-ment,
-ment Noun Verb no the instrument accomplish-ment, govern-
used to perform ment, pay-ment
the action of the
verb'
'derives nouns
indicating a place
catt-ery, pigg-ery, orang-
-ery Noun Verb no where animals are
ery,shrubb-ery
kept or plants
grow'
'derives nouns
indicating place bak-ery, cann-ery, brew-
-ery Noun Verb no where action ery, fish-ery, refin-ery,
specified by the tann-ery
verb takes place'
'(passive) person
who undergoes employ-ee, detain-ee, pay-
-ee Noun Verb yes
action indicated ee, intern-ee
by the verb'
'in the process or
wait-ing (as in waiting
state of doing
-ing Adjective Verb no car), stand-ing (as
whatever the verb
in standing passenger)
indicates'
'to bring about
real-ize, neutral-ize, fertil-
-ise/-ize Adjective Verb no whatever the
ize, immun-ize
adjective signals'
 'having the
tendency to X;
act-ive, pens-ive, indicat-
having the quality
-ive Adjective Verb yes ive, evas-ive, product-ive,
character of X;
representat-ive
given the action of
X-ing'
read-able, govern-able,
-able Adjective Verb no 'able to be X-ed'
manage-able, do-able
'the property of
sail-ing, sing-ing, fight-ing,
-ing Adjective Verb no whatever the verb
writ-ing
signifies'
'derives verbs regul-ate, capacit-ate, don-
-ate Verb Noun no
from nouns' ate
'to bring about
-ise/ - colon-ize, American-ize,
Verb Noun no whatever the
ize computer-ize
noun signals'
'put in the place
-ise/ - hospital-ize, terror-ize,
Verb Noun no or state indicated
ize jeopard-ize
by the noun'
autumn-al, dent-al,
-al Adjective Noun no 'pertaining to X' division-al, reacreation-al,
tradition-al, medicin-al
intim-ate, accur-ate,
obdur-ate (There is
'derives adjectives normally a corresponding
-ate Adjective Noun no
denoting state' noun ending in -acy,
e.g. intim-acy, accur-acy,
obdur-acy)
'having the
lout-ish, fiend-ish, freak-
(objectional)
-ish Adjective Noun no ish, child-ish, mother henn-
nature, qualities
ish
or character of X'
joy-less, care-less, fear-less,
-less Adjective Noun no 'without X'
child-less
joy-ful, care-ful, fear-ful,
-ful Adjective Noun no 'filled with X'
cheer-ful
Chomsky-an, Dominic-an,
'associated with
suburb-an, Trinidad-(i)an,
-(i)an Adjective Noun (yes) whatever the
Canad-(i)an, Ghana-(i)an,
noun indicates'
reptil-(i)an, mammal-(i)an
'forms adjectives
quarrel-some, trouble-
-some Adjective Noun no from verbs having
some, tire-some
quality X'
'cause to become,
do etc. whatever activ-ate (<active), equ-ate 
-ate Verb Adjective no
the adjective (<equal)
indicates'
-ise/-ize Verb Adjective no 'cause to become tranquill-ise, modern-ise,
 whatever the
steril-ise, stabil-ise, civil-ise,
adjective
familiar-ise
indicates'
'forms a noun
good-ness, fair-ness, bitter-
-ness Noun Adjective no expressing state
ness, dark-ness
or condition'
'forms a noun
timid-ity, banal-ity, pur-ity,
-ity Noun Adjective yes expressing state
antiqu-ity
or condition'
'state or condition
-ship Noun Adjective no hard~hardship
of being X'
'having the
brav-ery, effront-ery, trick-
-ery Noun Adjective no property indicated
ery, chican-ery
by the adjective'
'forms adverbs usual-ly, busi-ly, proud-ly,
-ly Adverb Adjective no
from adjectives' loud-ly, grateful-ly
million-aire, doctrin-aire,
-aire Noun Noun no 'to possess of X'
solit-aire
'derives a noun of
quality, state or
condition from
another noun or
advoc-acy, episcop-acy,
adjective
-acy Noun Noun yes intim-acy, accur-acy,
(normally the
obdur-acy
base to which it is
added also takes
the nominal suffix
-ate)'
'a person who
practises a trade marin-er, geograph-er,
-er Noun Noun no or profession football-er, haberdash-er,
connected to the hatt-er
noun'
'derives nouns
indicating general machin-ery, crock-ery,
-ery Noun Noun no
collective sense jewell-ery, pott-ery
"ware, stuff"'
'derives a
-let Noun Noun no pig-let, is-let, riv(u)-let
diminuitive noun'
'derives a
diminuitive noun duck-ling, prince-ling,
-ling Noun Noun no
from another found-ling
noun'
'quality, state, boy-hood, sister-hood,
-hood Noun Noun no
rank of being X' priest-hood
'state or condition king-ship, craftsman-ship,
-ship Noun Noun no
of being X' director-ship, steward-ship
-ism Noun Noun no 'forms nouns femin-ism, capital-ism,
 which are the
name of a theory,
Marx-ism, structural-ism
doctrine or
practice'
'adherent to some
-ism, a femin-ist, capital-ist, Marx-
-ist Noun Noun no
protagonist for X, ist, structural-ist
an expert on X'
'having the
-ish Adjective Adjective no property of being narrow-ish, blu-ish, pink-ish
somewhat X'
'adds frequent or
-er Verb Verb no iterative meaning chatt-er, patt-er, flutt-er
to verbs'

5. Infixes
There is general agreement among morphologists that English has neither circumfixes nor
infixes. However, in expressive language so-called expletives (words with a negative attitude)
may be inserted as infixes:

kangaroo, kanga-bloody-roo

Yet, this process is restricted by a supra-segmental constraint. The expletive material must be
inserted between two feet, i.e. a unit consisting of either one stressed syllable and one or more
unstressed syllables.

6. Lexical Entries

Central to all approaches towards affixation is a precise definition of the linguistic aspects
associated with the affixes of a language.

Like basic forms, affixes have to be defined:

 phonologically
  morphologically

 syntactically

 with regard to their meaning

7. The Phonological Structure of Affixes

In defining an affix phonologically, you can set up its internal phonological representation and its
phonological effect on the stem to which it attaches:

Phonological Phonological
Affix Example
Structure Effect

-hood / -hʊd / class #1 boy-hood

-ity / -ɪti / class #2 iconic-ity

-ed / -ɪd, -d, -t/ class #1 walk-ed

un-do
un- / ʌn / class #1
un-fair

 class #1 = no stress or vowel change of stem

 class #2 = stress and/or vowel change of stem

8. The Morphological Structure of Affixes

The morphological definition of affixes associates each affix with an inherent word-class. In
English, this is possible for all suffixes. Prefixes, by contrast, can often not be associated with a
word-class at all, since they attach to all sorts of elements.

Affix Inherent Class Example

-hood Noun boy-hood
-ity Noun iconic-ity
-ed Verb walk-ed
un-do
un- none
un-fair

9. The Syntactic Structure of Affixes

The syntactic classification of affixes requires the precise definition of the syntactic context, i.e.
the type of element to which an affix can attach, and whether any restrictions must be imposed
on the stem (e.g. etymology, meaning).

Affix Attaches to .. Example

-hood [ Noun ] __ boy-hood
 -ity [ Adj. ] __ iconic-ity
-ed [ Verb ] __ walk-ed
un-do
un- __ [ N, V, A ]
un-fair
The definition of the syntactic context of an item is often referred to as 'subcategorization'.

10.The Semantic Structure of Affixes

Like ordinary lexemes, affixes can be defined semantically, that is, with regard to their meaning.
Whereas the meaning of inflectional affixes is relatively stable, the meaning of derivational
affixes is highly context-dependent:

Affix Meaning Example

the quality of
-hood boy-hood
being a ...
the quality of
-ity iconic-ity
being...
-ed past tense walk-ed
not, the converse un-do
un-
of.. un-fair

11. Hierarchies

When we examine words composed of several morphemes, we implicitly know several facts
about the ways in which affixes join with their stems:

 the inherent properties of the affixes involved

(turn a basic form into noun, make negative, etc.)

 the properties of the basic form

(word class, meaning, etc.)

bald-headed
Lexeme/ Phonological Phonemic Morpho-Graph.
Process
Morpheme Changes Representation Changes
head base (n.) - /hed/ -
head-0 conversion (v.) - /hed/ -
head-ed inflection (v.) - /'hedɪd/ -
headed-0 conversion (a.) - /'hedɪd/ -
compounding
bald-headed - /'bɔ:ldhedɪd/ -
(a.)

breathlessness

Lexeme/ Phonological Phonemic Morpho-Graph.

Process
Morpheme Changes Representation Changes
breath base (n.) - /breθ/ -
derivational suffix
breath-less - /'breθles/ -
(a.)
derivational suffix
breathless-ness - /'breθlesnes/ -
(n.)
 12. Conversion

Conversion, a very common method of enriching the English vocabulary, is the derivation of a
new word without any overt material. For example, the word must is normally an auxiliary verb
(1) but it can also be used as a noun as in (2):

1. You must attend classes regularly

2. Class attendance is a must.

Conversion raises three major problems:

 the problem of directionality

 the problem of zero-affixation

 the problem of crossing linguistic boundaries

Directionality

How can we decide whether it is the verb that is derived from the noun or vice versa?

 n[water] ==> v[water]

 v[ring] ==> n[ring]

Four interacting criteria may solve the problem:

1. historical issues
(which word came first?)
 2. semantic complexity
(derived words are more complex than their bases)

3. inflectional aspects
(irregular inflections have a longer history)

4. Frequency of occurrence
(derived words are less frequent)

The following examples illustrate these criteria:

word Base Derivative Criterion Explanation

water N V 4: Frequency the noun water occurs more frequently than
the verb to water
crowd V N 1: History the verb crûdan (OE) was there first, first
attestation in 937 AD (OED).
bottle N V 2: Semantics to put into a bottle is more complex than the
object itself
ring V N 3: Inflection ring, rang is inflectionally more complex
than ring, rings

Zero-Affixation

Most morphologists treat conversion as zero-affixation, e.g. the verb water is formed from the
nominal base water by adding a zero-morph, i.e. a morph with no overt material {water-0}. The
idea of defining zero-elements is not confined to morphology. In syntax, for example, zero-
elements such as PRO or traces have been used for a long time.

But is conversion really zero-affixation? Even though zero-affixation is a very elegant analysis
since it reduces morphological mechanisms to one central operation, affixation, there is little
empirical evidence in favor of this analysis. Furthermore, the addition of semantic content
(e.g. to eel, derived from eel = 'to fish for eel') would imply that there would have to be different
types of zero-morph depending on the base.
 Crossing the Boundaries

Is conversion truly morphological or does it cross the boundaries between morphology and
syntax?

The most important property that distinguishes morphological rules from syntactic ones is the
idiosyncratic (exceptional) character of many morphological phenomena. Forms such
as winter/to winter are possible, but summer/*to summer not. Hence, there are exceptions to
this kind of conversion, i.e. a morphological process.

However, there are also cases, where whole groups of elements, for example, the group of
adjectives that refer to collective entities (e.g. poor, good, rich, bad etc.) can regulary be
converted into nouns. Here behavior is more syntactic.

Over and above these truly morphological operations there are cases where new phrases
constitute the basis for vocabulary expansion (e.g. What-you-see-is-what-you-get ==>
WYSWYG) and semantic processes, such as widening or narrowing are involved.
Furthermore, English has borrowed freely from other languages. Here are some examples:

Fashion: beige, blouse, negligee

Cuisine: gourmet, menu, restaurant
Cooking: lasagna, pasta, salami
Miscellaneous: fiasco, inferno, mafia
Miscellaneous: bonanza,
chapparral, silo, goucho, taco
Education: seminar, semester, gestalt,
kindergarten
Food: schnapps, pretzel, strudel, zwieback

Widening

Semantic widening takes place when a lexeme acquires additional meanings that it already had
while still retaining the original meanings as part of the new meaning; i.e. a lexeme widens its
meaning.
For instance, OE bridd meant 'young bird', the general term for a bird was fugel ('fowl'). During
ME, bird generalized to include fowl of any age.

Alternative Terms: Broadening, Extension

Narrowing

Semantic narrowing takes place when a lexeme comes to refer to only part of the original
meaning, i.e. a lexeme becomes more specialized in its meaning:

The original meaning of PDE meat was food in general. Today, however, this meaning has been
narrowed to a specific kind of food.

Mastery Test – Derivation: https://oer-vlc.de/mod/quiz/view.php?

id=2734&forceview=1

Task

Represent the word-structure of the following words a) in terms of labeled bracketing and b) by
means of morphological tree diagrams:

teachers, Americanization, governmentalists, regeneration