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REFERENCE: Hist- Tissue

Marieb,Elaine Nicpon. Essentials of Human Homo- Same
Anatomy and Physiology. San Francisco, Hydro- Water
CA: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.12th ed. Hygro- Moisture
Pearson,2017. Hyper- Excess
Hypo- Below
VanPutte, Regan, Russo, et.al., Seeley’s Ileo- Ileum
Anatomy and Physiology. McGrawHill. 12th In- Within, in, inot
ed., 2020 Inter- Between
Lapar- Abdomen
Word Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes Laryngo- Larynx
Leuko- White
PREFIXES Myelo- Marrow, spinal cord
MEANING Neo- New
a-, an- Absence, lack Nitro- Nitrogen
ab- away from Non- Not
acro extreme, extremities Ob- Before, against
ad- toward, to Pan- All
adeno- gland Para- Beside
ambi- round, on both Path- Disease
sides
Ped- Child, foot
amyl- starch
Peri- Around
ante- before, preceding
Pharyngo- Pharynx
ant-, anti- opposed to,
Pod- Food
preventing,
Poly- Multiple
inhibiting
Procto- Rectum
bili- bile
Pseudo- False
brachi- arm
Psycho- Mind
brady- slow
Pyel- Pelvis of the kidney
Pyo- Pus
cholecysto- gallbladder
Quadri- Four
co, con- together
Radio- Radiation
Re- Back
demi- half
Ren- Kidney
derm- skin
Retro- Backward
dis- from
Sacro- Flesh
dors- back
Salpingo- Fallopian tube
dys- difficult, faulty,
Sclero- hard
painful
Sub- Beneath
eryth- red
Syn- Together
exo- outside, outer
Tachy- Rapid
layer
Trache- Trachea
extra- outside, beyond
Tri- Three
Ferr- Iron
Ultra- Beyond
Fibro- fiber
Uni- One
fore- before, in front of
Uretero- Ureter
glyco- sugar
Uro- Urine, urinary organs
hemi- half
hemo- Blood

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Suffixes

-able Able to
-algia Pain
-Cele Tumor
-centesis Surgical puncture
-cide Kill,destroy
-ectasia Dilating, stretching
-ectomy Cutting out
-esis Action
-form Shape
-genesis,genetic Formation
-ism Conditon
-Itis Inflammation
-Ize To treat
-Lith Stone, calculus
-Lithiasis Presence of stones
-megaly Enlargement
-oid Like, resemble
-orrhaphy Surgical repair
-osis Disease, condition
-ostomy To form an opening
/ outlet
-otomy To incise
-Pathy Disease
-pexy Fixation
-phage Ingesting
-phobia Fear
-plasty Plastic surgery
-plegia Paralysis
-rhexis Rupture
-rrhagia Abnormal/excessive
discharge
-rrhea Flow/discharge
-scopy To examine visually
-Stomy Establishment of an
artificial opening
-Tomy Incision into
-uria Urine
-zyme Enzyme, ferment

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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION FOR THE HUMAN BODY

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MAJOR ORGANS OF THE BODY.

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PART 1: o Involves looking the exterior of the

body to visualize structures deeper
Human Anatomy:
inside the body.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology:
Physiology:

Anatomy: o Study of how the body its parts work

/ function.
Greek words:

o “Apart” (Ana) Example:

o “Cut” (tomy)
o Neuroophysiology
o The study of the structure and shape
o Cardiavascular physiology
of the body and its parts and their
o Cell physiology
relationships to one another.
o Systemic physiology
Anatomy can be studied at different levels:

Developmental anatomy:
Levels of Structural Organization
o Studies the structural changes that o The human body exhibits many
occur between conception and levels of structural complexity.
adulthood.
o Subspecialties:
Atoms:
o Embryology o Tiny building blocks of matter
o Cytology o Water, sugar, proteins.
o Histology
Cells:
Gross Anatomy:
o Smallest units of living things.
o Studies of structures that can be o Some have common structures and
examined without the aid of functions.
microscope. o Individual cells vary widely in size,
shape and their particular roles in
o System:
body.
o A group of structures that
Example:
have one or more common o One-celled organism(amoebas)
functions (Cardiovascular, o Multicellular organism(dogs,human)
nervous, respiratory and
etc.). Tissues:
o Systemic anatomy o Tissues consist of groups of similar
o Body is studied system by system cells that have a common function.
o Regional Anatomy:
o Studied the body area by
area Examples:

Epithelium tissue:
o Covering, lining, and glandular
Surface anatomy: tissue.

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o Its functions include protection, Epithelia and connective tissues

absorption, and secretion.
o Epithelia are named according:
o To number of layers (simple,
stratified)
o Cell shape (squamous,
cuboidal, columnar).
Connective tissue
o The supportive, protective, and
binding tissue.
o It is characterized by the presence of
a nonliving, extracellular matrix
(ground substance plus fibers)
produced and secreted by the cells.
it varies in amount and consistency.
o Fat, ligaments and tendons, bones,
and cartilage are all connective
tissues or connective tissue
structures.
regenerate well.
o Mature cardiac muscle and nervous
tissue are repaired by fibrosis.
Organ
o Is a structure composed of two or
more tissue types that performs a
specific function for the body.
Organ system:
o Group of organs that work together
to accomplish a common purpose.
Organism level:
o Are made up of many organ
systems.
Organ system overview:

Muscle tissue: Integumentary system:

o Specialized to contract, or shorten,
which causes movement.
There are three types:
o Skeletal
o (Attached to the skeleton)
o Cardiac
o (In the heart wall)
o Smooth
o (in the walls of hollow
organs).

Nervous tissue:
o Composed of irritable cells called
neurons, which are highly specialized
to receive and transmit nerve
impulses, and supporting cells called
neuroglia.
o Neurons are important in control of
body processes.
o Located in nervous system
structures—brain, spinal cord, and
nerves. o External covering of the body or the
skin including hair and fingernails.
Tissue repair (wound healing): o Waterproofs the body and cushions
o May involve regeneration, fibrosis, or and protects the deeper tissues from
both. injury.
In regeneration, the injured tissue is o Via direct sunlight:
replaced by the same type of cells. o produced of vit. D
o In fibrosis, the wound is repaired with
scar tissue.

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o Excretes salts in perspiration and

helps regulate body temperature.

Skeletal System: Muscular System:

o Function:
Consists: o Contract/shorten
o Bone o When this happens, movement
o Cartilages o occurs.
o Joints o The mobility of the body as a whole
o It supports the body and provides a reflects the activity of skeletal
framework that the skeletal muscles muscles, the large, fleshy muscles
use to cause movement. attached to bones.
o Protective function o When these contracts, you are able
o Sites (the blood cells formed) to stand erect, walk, jump, grasp,
o Storage (minerals) throw a ball, or smile.
The skeletal muscles form the

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muscular system. These muscles are o Decreases in oxygen or

distinct from the muscles of the heart
and of other hollow organs, which
move fluids
o (such as blood or urine) or other
substances (such as food).
stretching of tissue.
o The central nervous system then
assesses this information and
responds by activating the
appropriate body effectors.

Nervous System:
Endocrine System

o The nervous system is the body’s fast-

acting control system.
It consists of:
o Brain
o Spinal cord
o Nerves o Endocrine glands produce:
o Sensory receptors hormones and release them into the
o The body must be able to respond to blood to travel to relatively distant
stimuli coming from outside the body target organs.
such as:
o Light The endocrine glands:
o Sound o Pituitary
o Changes in temperature o Thyroid
o Inside the body: o Parathyroids

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o Adrenals o The heart propels blood out of its

o Thymus chambers into blood vessels to be
o Pancreas transported to all body tissues.
o Pineal
o Ovaries (in the female) Lymphatic System:
o Testes (in the male)

Cardiovascular System

o The role of the lymphatic system

complements that of the
cardiovascular system.
Its organs include:
o Lymphatic vessels
o Lymph nodes
o other lymphoid organs (spleen &
tonsils)
o When fluid is leaked into tissues from
the blood, lymphatic vessels return it
to the bloodstream so that there is
enough blood to continuously
circulate through the body. The
lymph nodes and other lymphoid
organs help to cleanse the blood
and house white blood cells involved
in immunity.
o The primary organs:
o Heart
o Blood vessels.
o White blood cells:
o Protect the body from such
foreign invaders.

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Respiratory System: Digestive System:

o To keep the body supplied with

oxygen and to remove carbon
dioxide.
The respiratory system consists:
o Nasal passages
o Pharynx
o Larynx
o Trachea o The digestive system is basically a
o Bronchi tube running through the body from
o Lungs mouth to anus.
The organs of digestive system:
o Oral cavity (mouth)
o Esophagus
o Stomach
o Small
o Large intestines
o Rectum
W/: accessory organs:
o Liver
o Salivary glands
o Pancreas

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Urinary System

Reproductive System
o The role of the reproductive system is
to produce offspring.

Male reproductive system:

o The male testes (sperm).
o Scrotum
Functions: o Penis
o Eliminates waste products: o Accessory glands
o Urea o Duct system (carries sperm to the
o Uric acid outside of the body).
o Maintaining the body’s water and o The female reproductive system:
electrolyte balance. o Ovaries/ova (eggs)
o Regulating the acid-base balance o The female duct system:
of the blood. o Uterine tubes
o Helping to regulate normal blood o Uterus (The site for the development
pressure. of the fetus (immature infant).
o Which results when the body cells o Vagina
break down:
o Proteins and Nucleic acids Necessary Life Functions
o Often called the excretory system
Composed of the: Maintaining boundaries
o Kidneys Movement:
o Ureters o Muscular system
o Bladder - e.g: walking, swimming,
o Urethra Responsiveness/Irritability:
o accidentally touch a hot pan
(involuntarily pull your hand
away from the painful
stimulus).
o Excess carbon dioxide
(breathing rate speeds up)
o Due to: nerve cells are highly
irritable and can
communicate rapidly with
each other via electrical
impulses, the nervous system

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bears the major responsibility Brachial Arm

for responsiveness. Buccal Cheek are
o Digestion Carpal Wrist
o Metabolism: Cervical Neck region
o Breaking down complex Coxal Hip
substances into simpler Crucal Anterior leg; the shin
building blocks. Deltoid Curved of shoulder
o Excretion: formed by large deltoid
o Process of removing wastes muscles
from the body. Digital Fingers, toes
Reproduction Femoral Thigh(anterior/posterior)
Growth
Fibular Lateral part of leg
Survival Needs: Frontal Forehead
o Nutrients: Inguinal Area where thigh meets
o e.g: Carbohydrates, Minerals, body trunk; groin
vitamins. Mental Chin
o Oxygen Nasal Nose area
o Normal body temperature Oral Mouth
Orbital Eye area
Patellar Anterior knee
Anatomical Position: Pectoral Relating to, or occurring
o To accurately describe body parts in/on, the chest
and position, we must have an initial Pelvic Area overlying the pelvis
reference point and use directional anteriorly
terms. Pubic Genital region
Sternal Breastbone area
Directional Terms:
Tarsal Ankle region
o Allows medical personnel and
Thoracic Area between the neck
anatomists to explain exactly where
and abdomen; supported
one body structure is in relation to
by the ribs, sternum and
another.
costal cartilages
Umbilical Navel
Give the relationship between the following
body parts using the correct anatomical
terms.
The wrist is _____________ to the hand.
Posterior Body Landmarks
The breastbone is _____________ to the spine.
The brain is _____________ to the spinal cord. Calcaneal Heel of foot
The thumb is _____________ to the fingers. Cephalic Head
Femoral Thigh
Gluteal Buttock
Regional terms: Lumbar Area of back b/w
Anterior Body landmarks: ribs and hips, the
Abdominal Anterior body loin
trunk inferior to ribs Occipital Posterior surface of
Acromial Point of shoulder head / base of skull
Antebrachial Forearm Olecranal Posterior surface of
elbow.
Antecubital Anterior surface of elbow Popliteal Posterior knee area.
Axillary Armpit

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Sacral Area between hips

of base of spine. Frontal Section (Coronal section):
Scapular Shoulder blade
region
Sural Posterior surface of
leg; the calf
Vertebral Area of spinal
column
Plantar Sole of the
foot(inferior body
surface)

Body Planes and Sections:

Section (Cut)

Sagittal Section

o Cut along a lengthwise plane that

divides the body/organ into anterior
& posterior parts.

Transverse section (cross section):

o Cut along the

lengthwise/longitudinal, plane of the
body, dividing the body into the right
and left parts.
o If equal in size: The cut is
coming down the median
plane of the body and right
and left part.
 (Median /
medsagittal) section. o Cut along a horizontal plane,
dividing the body and organ into
superior and inferior parts.

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o The walls of the body cavities and

Body Cavities: the surface of internal organs are in
o Dorsal body cavity contact with membranes.
o Ventral cavity
Parietal serous membrane:
Dorsal Body Cavity: o Layer that lines the walls of the
o Encloses the organs of the nervous cavities.
system, the brain and spinal cord.
Subdivision: Visceral serous membrane:
o Cranial Cavity: Brain o The layer covering the internal
o Vertebral Canal: Spinal cord organs.
o Covered by membranes
(meninges) Two membranes are separated by a thin
film of serous fluid produced by the
Ventral Body Cavity: membranes.
o Viscera As organs move around in the cavities, the
2 major subdivision: combination of serous fluid and smooth
o Thoracic cavity serous membranes reduces friction.
o Abdominopelvic cavity

Thoracic cavity: Thoracic Cavity Membranes

o More superior to the
abdominopelvic cavity.
o Heart and lungs
Subdivided:
o Two lateral pleural cavities
o Medial mediastinum

Abdominopelvic Cavity
Enclosed by abdominal muscles:

Abdominal cavity
o Stomach
o Intestines
o Liver
o Spleen Pericardial Cavity
o Heart
Pelvic cavity:
o Below pelvis. Parietal pericardium
o Urinary bladder o Parietal serous membrane.
o Urethra
o Rectum (Large intestine) Visceral pericardium.
o Reproductive organs o Visceral serous membrane.

Serous Membranes of the Ventral Body Pericardial cavity

Cavity o The space between the two
pericardial membranes and is filled
with pericardial fluid.

o Pleural Cavities
Serous membranes:

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with peritoneal fluid

o In addition to covering organs, a

double-folded sheet of visceral
peritoneum attaches the digestive
organs at certain points to the
posterior abdominopelvic cavity
wall.

o These regions of double-folded

visceral peritoneum are called
mesenteries.

Parietal pleura o The mesenteries also provide a

o The parietal serous membrane lining pathway for nerves and blood
the pleural cavities. vessels to reach the digestive organs
Visceral pleura
o Visceral serous membrane covering o The most notable mesenteric
the lungs. structure is an enormous pouch
Pleural cavity containing adipose tissue that is
o Space between the two pleural suspended from the inferior border
membranes and is filled with pleural of the stomach.
fluid.
o Some abdominal organs are tightly
adhered to the posterior body wall
Peritoneal Cavity and are covered by peritoneum only
o Liver on their peritoneal cavity side.
o Digestive organs
Reproductive organs o These organs have a retroperitoneal
location and include the kidneys,
ureters, adrenal glands, a large
portion of the pancreas, parts of the
large intestine, and the urinary
bladder.

Inflammation of the serous membranes:

Pericarditis
o An inflammation of the pericardium.
Pleurisy:
o An inflammation of the pleura.
Peritonitis
o An inflammation of the peritoneum.
Parietal peritoneum.
o Serous membrane in the peritoneal
cavity.

o The space between the two serous

membranes is the specific location
of the peritoneal cavity and is filled

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Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life
o A cell is composed primarily of
four elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen plus many
trace elements. Living matter is
over 60 percent water. The major
building material of the cell is
protein.
o Cells vary in size from microscopic
to over a meter in length. Shape
reflects function. For example,
muscle cells have a long axis to
allow shortening.
Anatomy of a Generalized Cell
Cells have three major regions:
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane.
The nucleus, or control center, directs
cell activity and is necessary for
reproduction.
The nucleus contains genetic material
(DNA), which carries instructions for
synthesis of proteins.
The plasma membrane encloses the
cytoplasm and acts as a
semipermeable barrier to the
movement of substances into and out
of the cell.
It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer
containing proteins, sugars, and
cholesterol. The water-impermeable
lipid portion forms the basic membrane
structure. The proteins (many of which
are glycoproteins) act as enzymes or
carriers in membrane transport, form
membrane channels, provide receptor
sites for hormones and other chemicals,
or play a role in cellular recognition and
interactions during development and
immune reactions.
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Specializations of the plasma
membrane include microvilli (which
increase the absorptive surface area)
and cell junctions (desmosomes, tight
junctions, and gap junctions).
The cytoplasm is where most cellular
activities occur. Its fluid substance, the
cytosol, contains inclusions, stored or
inactive materials in the cytoplasm (fat
globules, water vacuoles, crystals, and
the like) and specialized bodies called
organelles, each with a specific
function. For example, mitochondria are
sites of ATP synthesis, ribosomes are sites
of protein synthesis, and the Golgi
apparatus packages proteins for export
from the cell. Lysosomes carry out
intracellular digestion, and peroxisomes
disarm dangerous chemicals in the cells.
Cytoskeletal elements function in
cellular support and motion. The
centrioles play a role in cell division and
form the bases of cilia and flagella.
Cell Physiology
All cells exhibit irritability (the ability to
respond to stimuli), digest foods, excrete
wastes, and are able to reproduce,
grow, move, and metabolize.
Transport of substances through the cell
membrane:
a. Passive processes include diffusion
and filtration.
(1) Diffusion is the movement of a
substance from an area of its higher
concentration to an area of its lower
concentration. It occurs because of
kinetic energy of the molecules
themselves; no ATP is required. The
diffusion of dissolved solutes through the
plasma membrane is simple diffusion.
The diffusion of water across the plasma
membrane is osmosis. Diffusion that
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requires a protein channel or carrier is
facilitated diffusion.
Filtration is the movement of substances
through a membrane from an area of
high hydrostatic pressure to an area of
lower fluid pressure. In the body, the
driving force of filtration is blood
pressure.
b. Active processes (active transport
and vesicular transport) use energy
(ATP) provided by the cell.
(1) In active transport, substances are
moved across the membrane against
an electrical or a concentration
gradient by proteins called solute
pumps. This accounts for the transport of
amino acids, some sugars, and most
ions.
(2) The two types of ATP-activated
vesicular transport are exocytosis and
endocytosis.
Exocytosis moves secretions and other
substances out of cells; a membrane-
bounded vesicle fuses with the plasma
membrane, ruptures, and ejects its
contents to the cell exterior.
Endocytosis, in which particles are taken
up by enclosure in a plasma membrane
sac, includes phagocytosis (uptake of
solid particles), pinocytosis (uptake of
fluids), and the highly selective
receptor-mediated endocytosis.
In the latter, membrane receptors bind
with and internalize only selected target
molecules.
3. Osmotic pressure, which reflects the
solute concentration of a solution,
determines whether cells gain or lose
water.
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a. Hypertonic solutions contain more
solutes (and less water) than do cells. In
these solutions, cells lose water by
osmosis and crenate.
b. Hypotonic solutions contain fewer
solutes (and more water) than do the
cells. In these solutions, cells swell and
may rupture (lyse) as water rushes in by
osmosis.
c. Isotonic solutions, which have the
same soluteto-solvent ratio as cells,
cause no changes in cell size or shape.
4. Cell division has two phases, mitosis
(nuclear division) and cytokinesis
(division of the cytoplasm).
a. Mitosis begins after DNA has been
replicated (during interphase); it consists
of four stages—prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.
The result is two daughter nuclei, each
identical to the mother nucleus.
b. Cytokinesis usually begins during
anaphase and progressively pinches
the cytoplasm in half.
Cytokinesis does not always occur; in
such cases, binucleate or multinucleate
cells result.
c. Mitotic cell division provides an
increased number of cells for growth
and repair.
5. Protein synthesis involves both DNA
(the genes) and RNA.
a. A gene is a segment of DNA that
carries the instructions for building one
protein. The information is in the
sequence of bases in the nucleotide
strands. Each three-base sequence
(triplet) specifies one amino acid in the
protein.
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b. Messenger RNA carries the
instructions for protein synthesis from the
DNA (gene) to the ribosomes.
Transfer RNA transports amino acids to
the ribosomes. Ribosomal RNA forms
part of the ribosomal structure and helps
coordinate the protein building process.
PART II: BODY TISSUES
1. Epithelium is covering, lining, and
glandular tissue.
Its functions include protection,
absorption, and secretion. Epithelia are
named according to number of layers
(simple, stratified) and cell shape
(squamous, cuboidal, and columnar).
2. Connective tissue is the supportive,
protective, and binding tissue. It is
characterized by the presence of a
nonliving, extracellular matrix (ground
substance plus fibers) produced and
secreted by the cells; it varies in amount
and consistency. Fat, ligaments and
tendons, bones, and cartilage are all
connective tissues or connective tissue
structures.
3. Muscle tissue is specialized to
contract, or shorten, which causes
movement. There are three types
skeletal (attached to the skeleton),
cardiac (in the heart wall), and smooth
(in the walls of hollow organs).
4. Nervous tissue is composed of irritable
cells called neurons, which are highly
specialized to receive and transmit
nerve impulses, and supporting cells
called neuroglia. Neurons are important
in control of body processes. Nervous
tissue is located in nervous system
structures—brain, spinal cord, and
nerves.
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5. Tissue repair (wound healing) may
involve regeneration, fibrosis, or both. In
regeneration, the injured tissue is
replaced by the same type of cells.
In fibrosis, the wound is repaired with
scar tissue. Epithelia and connective
tissues regenerate well. Mature cardiac
muscle and nervous tissue are repaired
by fibrosis.
PART III: DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS
OF CELLS AND TISSUES
1. Growth by cell division continues
through puberty. Cell populations
exposed to friction (such as epithelium)
replace lost cells throughout life.
Connective tissue remains mitotic and
forms repair (scar) tissue. With some
exceptions, muscle tissue becomes
amitotic by the end of puberty, and
nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly
after birth.
Injury can severely handicap amitotic
tissues.
2. The cause of aging is unknown, but
chemical and physical insults, as well as
genetic programming, have been
proposed as possible causes.
3. Neoplasms, both benign and
cancerous, represent abnormal cell
masses in which normal controls on cell
division are not working. Hyperplasia
(increase in size) of a tissue or organ
may occur when tissue is strongly
stimulated or irritated. Atrophy
(decrease in size) of a tissue or organ
occurs when the organ is no longer
stimulated normally.