FEASIBILTY STUDY OF HYDROELECTRICITY GENERATION AT

GWAIGWAYE RESERVOIR IN FUNTUA, KATSINA STATE

BY

ABDULLAHI, MURTALA MIJINYAWA

(2021/0549)

A RESEARCH THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL,

ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING, COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING, BELLS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OTA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(POWER SYSTEMS)
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis was carried out by me under the supervision of Dr. P. O.,

Olabisi of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Bells University of

Technology, Ota. I attest that the thesis has not been presented either wholly or partly for the

award of any degree or diploma of this university or elsewhere. All sources of data and

scholarly information used in this thesis are duly acknowledged.

………………………………………….
Abdullahi, Murtala Mijinyawa

Date: ……………………………………

2
 CERTIFICATION

I certify that this thesis titled ―Feasibility Study of Hydroelectricity Generation at Gwaigwaye

Reservoir in Funtua, Katsina State‖ is an original research work carried out by Abdullahi,

Murtala Mijinyawa in the Department of Electrical, Electronics and Telecommunication

Engineering, College of Engineering, Bells University of Technology, Ota, under my

supervision. I hereby examined.

…………………………………. Date: ……………………

Dr. P. O., Olabisi
(Supervisor)

…………………………………. Date: ……………………

Dr. A. O. Amole
(Head of Department)

3
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis to my late parents Abdullahi Abubakar Mijinyawa and Azizatu Abdullahi

for their sacrifices, love, and commitment. May their souls rest in peace.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the Vice Chancellor of this great institution of learning, Professor

Ojerinde Jeremiah, and the entire management staff of Bells University of Technology for

providing atmosphere so conducive that enables and encourages learning and research. Same

appreciation goes to my research supervisor, Dr. P. O., Olabisi for his commitment and

relentless efforts, reading through my work and making valuable corrections to see that the

research is a success. I also acknowledge the support of the Head of Department of Electrical,

Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Dr. Amole, for providing direction and

effective leadership qualities, which paved way for my successful study and research. So also,

I acknowledge the entire staff of the College of Engineering for their various supports. I must

also acknowledge my course mates, too numerous to mention, for the team role you played,

supporting each other. I appreciate you all.

My supervisor at work, who has been like an elder brother, I appreciate you sincerely Mr.

Mathias Ogege. My darling wife Fiddausi Lawal, who stands with me and by me through all

situations, especially during this research, proving unparalleled support and love, I appreciate

you. Thank you all, may God bless you.

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 ABSTRACT

Access to quality and adequate supply of electricity is one of the major challenges hampering
development in sub-Saharan Africa. Particularly, it has proven difficult to avail Nigerian
masses especially rural dwellers with quality and reliable electricity supply, owing to the
crippled condition of the power sector. For this reason, many researchers have delved into
search for alternative solutions, which include renewable energy generation, distributed
generation, energy efficiency programs and so on. This is for the sole reason of making the
electricity more accessible, affordable and reliable. Funtua is the industrial, commercial, and
agricultural hub of Katsina State. Agricultural products are produced and processed, traded
locally and inter-state. This made the town of Funtua and its neighboring villages attractive to
local and inter-state traders. Despite these facts, the area suffers epileptic power supply from
the national grid. Power is supplied on turn-by-turn basis around the distribution feeders. This
fact prompted this research, in addition to the fact that there is an over-reliance on the national
grid in Funtua. Likewise, the grid supply, which is already inadequate and devoid of power
quality, has crippled the progress of the community, economically, socially, and
technologically. It is therefore observed that with the abundance of inexhaustible natural
resources, such as a potent solar irradiation, a strong wind current, an abundant rainfall, a wide
catchment of river-flows, dams, and suitable topographical setting it is worth-while to explore
the electricity generation potentials of these renewable resources, especially, the hydro
generation potential of Gwaigwaye Reservoir to complement the power supply from the
national grid. The work presented in this thesis is done following a logical order that outlined
its technical and economic viability, and its statutory and environmental implications.
Technical feasibility study was conducted by examining the load profile of Funtua from the
available records of feeder loading, acquired from Funtua Transmission Substation;
topographical data adapted from previous research and operational and reservoir design
records acquired by site visitation; hydrological data acquired using Google Earth satellite
images and its surface area computation tool. The water surface areas of twelve months were
recorded and used to determine the volumetric quantity of water available every month. The
discharge from the reservoir to the powerhouse was then determined within the constraints of
the available volume of water per month. This discharge was the basis of the hydro generation
potential analysis, which in turn formed the basis of economic and financial analysis and
environmental and statutory policies consideration. Furthermore, it was revealed from analysis
that the average discharge obtainable in this configuration is 18.54 m3/s. this discharge will
flow through four bulb turbines of 750 rpm speed to generate 17.8 MW of power or 14.033
GWh of energy over a year. This energy can generate a revenue of N350,825,000 per annum
at MYTO average rate of N25/kWh if implemented. It has been recommended that Katsina
State Government should seek to implement this project for its potential to improve the lives
of Funtua community and the state. It is also recommended that other sources of renewable
energy be explored to augment the supply of electricity to Funtua community thereby
improving living conditions.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... 2
CERTIFICATION.................................................................................................................................... 3
DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................................... 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................................... 5
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................. 6
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................. 10
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................................... 13
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 13
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 13
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ..................................................................................... 15
1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................... 15
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................... 16
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................... 18
LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 REVIEW OF BACKGROUND PROBLEM ..................................................................... 18
2.1.1 Origin of Nigeria’s Electricity System ........................................................................... 18
2.1.2 Current Structure of Nigeria Power Sector .................................................................... 20
2.1.3 Nigeria Electricity Supply Scenario ............................................................................... 25
2.1.4 Electricity as a Tool for Economic Development .......................................................... 26
2.1.5 Environmental Impact of Energy Generation................................................................. 27
2.2 REVIEW OF BACKGROUND PRINCIPLES ...................................................................... 28
2.2.1 Renewable Energy Technologies ................................................................................... 28
2.2.2 The Theory of Hydroelectricity...................................................................................... 31
2.2.3 Components of Hydroelectric Station ............................................................................ 36
36
2.3 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............................................................................. 41
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................ 45
METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................. 45

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 3.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 45
3.1 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY ................................................................................................ 45
3.1.1 Site Identification ........................................................................................................... 45
3.1.2 Demand Analysis ........................................................................................................... 47
3.1.3 Site Survey and Analysis................................................................................................ 50
3.1.4 Civil and Structural Design ............................................................................................ 56
3.1.5 Design of Electromechanical Elements .......................................................................... 60
3.1.6 Transmission and Distribution Network ........................................................................ 62
3.2 ECONOMIC VIABILITY ..................................................................................................... 63
3.2.1 Net Present Value (NPV) ............................................................................................... 63
3.2.2 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) ......................................................................................... 64
3.3 STATUTORY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY ........................................... 64
3.3.1 Nigeria Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC) .................................................... 64
3.3.2 Land Use and Environmental Protection........................................................................ 65
3.3.3 Council for The Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) ..................................... 66
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................................. 67
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .......................................................................................................... 67
4.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 67
4.1 TECHNICAL FEASIBILTY ANALYSIS RESULTS .......................................................... 68
4.1.1 Site Identification ........................................................................................................... 68
4.1.2 Demand Analysis Results............................................................................................... 69
4.1.3 Site Survey and Analysis Results ................................................................................... 71
4.1.4 Civil and Structural Design ............................................................................................ 76
4.1.5 Electromechanical Design and Analysis ........................................................................ 80
3.1.6 Transmission and Distribution Network Design ............................................................ 82
3.2 ECONOMIC VIABILITY ANALYSIS ................................................................................. 82
4.2.1 Net Present Value (NPV) ............................................................................................... 90
4.2.2 Internal Rate of Return (IRR) ......................................................................................... 91
4.3 STATUTORY REGULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ANALYSIS 91
4.3.1 Nigeria Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC) .................................................... 92
4.3.2 Land Use Permit and Environmental Protection ............................................................ 92
4.3.3 Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) ...................................... 92

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 4.4 FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................. 93
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................................... 96
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................... 96
5.1 CONCLUSSIONS .................................................................................................................. 96
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................... 97
5.3 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE…………………………………………………………………….…98

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 98

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1: Power generation in Nigeria ……………………………………………….23

3.1: Total connected load in Funtua 11 kV feeders ………………...…………49

3.2: Rating of breakers protecting the feeders …………………………………50

3.3: Extracted data from Gwaigwaye Reservoir ……………………………….54

3.4: Maximum Depth, Water Surface Area and Volume of Stored Water …….55

4.1: Key Structures Locations ………………………………………………….68

4.2: Demand Analysis Results ………………………………………………....70

4.3: Monthly Water Level, Surface Area, Stored Volume and Discharge …….71

4.4: Discharge Data …………………………………………………………….76

4.5: Civil and Structural Design Parameters …………………………………...79

4.6: Bill of Engineering Measurements and Evaluations (BEME) …………….82

4.7: 2023 MYTO rates for Kano Electricity Distribution Company …………..87

4.8: Running Costs ……………………………………………………………..89

4.9: NPV Calculations ………………………………………………………….90

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1: Impoundment of a river……………………………………………………32

2.2: Pumped Storage Hydro................................................................................33

2.3: Fore-bay Structure………………………………………………………………..36

2.4: Intake structure……………………………………………………………37

2.5: Penstock……………………………………………………………………………38

2.6: Surge tank……………………………………………………………………….…39

2.7: Hydraulic Turbines…………………………………………………………….…40

2.8: Francis turbine with a draft tube………………………………………............40

2.9: Tailrace……………………………………………………………………………..41

3.1: Block Diagram of Technical Feasibility………………………………………..46

3.2: Satellite Image of Gwaigwaye Reservoir……………………..………………..47

3.3: River Sokoto………………………………………………………………………..48

3.4: Topographical Map of Gwaigwaye Reservoir.………………………………..52

3.5: Monthly Hydrograph of Gwaigwaye Reservoir………………………………..54

3.6: Determination of Water Surface Area Using Google Earth pro…..………..55

3.7: Flow Duration Curve….…………………………………………………………..56

3.8: Intake Point..………………………………………………………………………..57

3.9: Location of the Powerhouse…….………………………………………………..58

3.10: Fore-bay Sketch..…………………………………………………………………..59

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3.11: Gwaigwaye Hydroelectric Power Plant Lay out……………….……………..61

3.12: Turbine Application Chart………………………………………………………..62

4.1: Monthly Variation of Water Level.……………………………………………..74

4.2: Annual Water Surface Area Variation…………………………………………..74

4.3: Annual Variation of Stored Water Volume……………………………………..75
4.4: Flow Duration Curve……………………………….……………………………..77

4.5: Net Present Value…………………………………………………………………...90

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Access to quality and adequate supply of electricity is one of the major challenges hampering

development in sub-Saharan Africa. This barrier to progress in a nation with a large

population is a problem that requires intensive study and analysis to come up with a viable and

lasting solution for its impact on a variety of development indicators: health, education, food

security, livelihood, and poverty reduction (World Bank, 2021).

It is beyond doubt that access to reliable supply of quality electric power is essential to the

socioeconomic development of any society. However, it has proven to be difficult to avail

Nigerian masses especially rural dwellers with quality and reliable electricity supply, owing to

the crippled condition of the power sector. For this reason, many researchers have delved into

search for alternative solutions, which include renewable energy generation, distributed

generation, energy efficiency programs and so on.

According to Temitope M. et al, (2021), limited supply of fossil fuels, constant rise in the

demand of energy and the importance of reducing greenhouse gas emissions has brought about

adoption of renewable energy resources for generation of electrical power. He therefore

concluded that with deregulation of Nigeria’s power sector, some possible investment

opportunities have emerged such as the generation by means of small, mini, and micro
13
hydroelectric, solar PV farm and wind turbines. Also, Opara, R.O etal, (2018) observed that

the need for robust, clean, and secure energy has led to developments in distributed off-grid

solutions. He therefore argued that Nigeria is indeed endowed with many distributed

generation potentials which can be harnessed into micro-grid design and consequently help to

increase the reliability and stability of our power supply system.

Many researchers have studied feasibilities and have designed systems of different renewable

energy technologies. The focus of this research is particularly on hydroelectricity generation.

This is especially because Funtua Local Government has two water reservoirs (Mairuwa Dam

and Gwaigwaye Reservoir), impounded behind dams to provide for portable water supply and

irrigation. It is deemed worth-while to investigate the feasibility of one of the two reservoirs as

potential sites for hydroelectricity generation. Gwaigwaye Reservoir is chosen being bigger

newer, and more strategically located.

Funtua is located on longitude 11.5185° N and latitude 7.3129° E at an elevation of 709 m, in

the southern part of Katsina State. According to Weather Spark (2021), averagely, rain lasts

around 6 to 7 months in a year, usually starting from the month of April to the month of

October, giving a rainfall pattern of a sliding 31-day with around 0.5 inches. The heaviest rain

in Funtua comes in August, at around 8.3 inches. With the availability of such suitable

topographical setting, it is observed most appropriate to explore the feasibility of

hydroelectricity generation in the area, hence the choice of Gwaigwaye Reservoir as the study

site.

The major occupations of the people of Funtua Local Government are agricultural production,

trading, and small-scale industries especially agricultural processing cottage industries. It is

14
perceived that the project has a prospect of benefitting the local small-scale industries in

boosting their productivity and hence profitability, employment, and poverty reduction,

through availing them with more reliable, quality, and affordable electricity supply.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Funtua is the industrial, commercial, and agricultural hub of Katsina State. With a population

of 570,110 according to 2016 estimate of the National Population Commission, the area is

endowed with fertile arable land, industries and commercial activities that reach out to all

parts of the country. Despite these facts, the area suffers epileptic power supply from the

national grid (Abdullahi, M. 2020). The problems that prompted this research are:

i. Power supply from national grid is grossly inadequate, resulting in rotation of supply

and outage of more than twelve hours a day across the 11 kV feeders that distribute

power in Funtua.

ii. Over-reliance on the grip supply, which is already inadequate and devoid of power

quality has crippled the progress of Funtua community, economically, socially and

technologically.

iii. With the abundance of inexhaustible natural resources, such as a potent solar

irradiation, a strong wind current, an abundant rainfall, a wide catchment of river-

flows, dams, and suitable topographical setting it is worth-while to explore the

electricity generation potentials of these renewable resources.

1.3 AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this research is to investigate the feasibility of hydroelectricity generation at

Gwaigwaye Reservoir in Funtua, Katsina State.

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1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The specific objectives of this work are:

i. To identify, measure and locate the design parameters such as intake, headrace, fore-

bay, penstock, tailrace, and spill way that will provide basis for the selection of

optimum layout and design of the scheme.

ii. To determine the input parameters that influences the generation potential of the

scheme, such as head, discharge, and available volumetric quantity of water.

iii. To determine the most suitable turbine type and capacity to be used according to the

available net head and discharge based on optimal water supply volume. To examine

the techno-economic viability of different hydroelectricity generation layout with a

view to determine the optimal setting that will give the most cost-effective generation.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research is a pre-feasibility study. It covers the analysis of readily available site

geotechnical information, easily accessible and measurable site data and calculations made

from such data to direct decision as to whether it is worthy to direct more effort and resources

to investigate the full design details of a hydroelectricity generation at the selected location.

The research covers the following aspects:

i. Investigating and identifying specific site parameters such as intake point, fore bay,

canal and penstock alignments, powerhouse, and tailrace

16
ii. Determination and selection of optimum design parameters such as penstock size,

turbine type and size (ratings)

iii. Determination of output parameters such as discharge, potential generation capacity

and percentage of existing load to be supplied.

iv. Determination of the approximate costs of the project and henceforth analysis of the

economic feasibility of the project

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this section, relevant works of literature, previous research, publications, journals, articles,

and books are reviewed. Areas reviewed covered include the background of Nigeria's power

sector dilemma, distributed generation as a solution to inadequate generation, background

principle of hydroelectricity generation, and related studies that have similar objectives and

background to this subject.

2.1 REVIEW OF BACKGROUND PROBLEM

Here, the basis of the dilemma in the Nigeria electricity industry is reviewed. From the history

of electricity generation and distribution down to the present privatized electricity supply

companies, the origin of the problem is searched from studies of past researchers.

2.1.1 Origin of Nigeria’s Electricity System

Oyedepo, S. O., et al, (2018) relate that Nigeria has been generating and distributing

electricity for more than a century, however, progress in the power system infrastructure

development and contemporary trends in modern energy generation is rather slow in progress.

The researchers narrated that the Nigeria’s power system has its origin in 1951 when it was

managed by the Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN). Although before that in 1866

electricity was generated in Lagos. At that time, two generators provided power to Lagos

Colony.

Later, the Nigeria Electricity Supply Company (NESCO) and the Native Authorities (NA)

joined in the generation and distribution of electricity in various regions of Nigeria, within

18
their respective zones. Odior, A. O., & Oyawale, F. A. (2012) maintained that dams were

constructed and managed, including other related works on the river Niger by the Niger Dams

Authority (NDA). NDA generated hydroelectricity promoted fishing, brining and horticulture.

NDA released the generated electricity to the ECN, for onward sale to individual, commercial,

and corporate customers.

NESO, (2014) published that Decree No. 24 of the Federal Republic of Nigeria gave birth to

the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) in 1972. NEPA took over and consolidated the

functions of the ECN and the NDA. In 1990, NEPA’s operations were partially

commercialized. Three enfranchised but inter-coordinated entities were established under

NEPA: the distribution system, the transmission system, and the generation system.

Onochie, U. P et al, (2015) relates that the Electric Power Sector Reform Act (EPSR Act)

resulted in the creation of the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) in 2005. PHCN

began operation as a disbanded NEPA with 18 subsidiaries: 11 – power distribution

companies, 1 – power Transmission Company, and 6 – electricity generation companies.

PHCN regime ended on 30 September 2013. Onochie, U. P et al, (2015) maintained that the

Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC) came into the scene, taking over the

responsibilities of PHCN and more. The independent regulatory agency, as powered by the

EPSR Act of 2005 was responsible for overseeing and controlling the power sector, including

licensing the power sector players, policy formulation, monitoring compliance, and sector

guidelines, rules, and regulations.

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2.1.2 Current Structure of Nigeria Power Sector

Currently, the Nigeria Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC) remains the supreme body

monitoring the Nigeria’s power sector (Vincent, E. N., & Yusuf, S. D. 2014). Privatized

generation companies produce and dispatch power to the National Grid. According to Oni, A.

(2013) 79% of electricity in Nigeria is generated from gas-fired turbine stations and 21% from

hydro stations. See table 2.1 for details.

Generation:

Table 2.1: Power generation in Nigeria

Concessionaire No. of Plant Details

Company Type Capacity
Stations

Mainstream 2 Station Gens. Cap.

Energy
Solutions
Kainji
Jebba Hydro 1,338.4MW
Kainji 6 x Kaplan, 2 760MW
Power Plc
x propeller

Jebba 6 x Propeller 578.4MW

Ughelli Transcorp 1 9 x 100MW, 2 x 36MW

Gas 972MW
Power Plc Power Limited

Sapele Sapele Power 1 6 x steam turbines, 4 x gas

Gas 1,020MW
Power Plc Plc turbines

Shiroro North South 1

Hydro 600MW
Power Plc Power Ltd.

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 Concessionaire No. of Plant Details
Company Type Capacity
Stations

Afam Transcorp 1
Gas 987.2MW
Power Plc Power Limited

Niger Delta 7 Station Gens. Caps.

Power Holding
Company
Ihovbor 4 x 112.5 450MW
Power MW
Station

Calabar 5 x 562.5MW
Power 112.5MW
Station

Egbema 3 x 112.5 337.5MW

Power MW
Station
Niger Delta
Power
Gas 2,475MW
Holding Gbarain 2 x 112.5 225MW
Company Power MW
Station

Sapele 4 x 112.5 450MW

Power MW
Station

Ikot 2 x 112.5 225MW

Abasi MW
Power
Station

Omoku 2 x 112.5 225MW

Power MW

21
 Concessionaire No. of Plant Details
Company Type Capacity
Stations

Station

Egbin Egbin Power 1 6 x 220MW steam turbine

Gas 1,020MW
Power Plc Plc

Trading: AELEX, (2022) explained that the dispatch of electricity generated by Nigerian

power stations into the grid system is controlled by the Nigeria Bulk Electricity Trading Plc.

(NBET). To the Nigerian Electricity Market, NBET serves as a Pool Administrator.

Procurement of power is done through the National Electricity Market (NEM) rules. By the

guideline of the NEM instrument, the key off-takers of power are the NBET, the distribution

companies, and the customers. By its statutory mandate, NBET purchases all power generated

by GENCOs. The distribution companies then buy the power from NBET through vesting

contracts. This is an open, transparent, and competitive market instrument formulated by

NERC to facilitate electricity trading.

AELEX, (2022) added that in addition to buying power from the main pool, customers that are

not connected to the grid may buy power via some off-grid options. These options include

Captive Generation (power generation of more than 1MW for own consumption not for sale);

Mini–Grids (power generation and distribution system, not connected to a grid set up to

produce and sell power to no less than two customers in an unserved or underserved locality);

Independent Electricity Distribution Network (IEDN) which is a NERC licensed power

distribution entity with no connection to the grid. They are licensed to supply power to those

22
localities that have no connection to any distribution company, or those that receive too less

power supply than their minimum demands.

Transmission: Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) operates and manages the power

transmission network in Nigeria. It is a company owned by the Federal Government of

Nigeria. Nigeria's national grid is designed to wheel a theoretical capacity of 8,100 MW. The

grid spans about 20,000km of the transmission line. Although in practice, the highest capacity

that has been wheeled across the grid is 5,377.8 MW (Vincent, E. N., & Yusuf, S. D. 2014).

TCN’s operations are carried out via three divisions: the Market Operator that deals with

electricity trading, System Operator that is concerned with flow and quality of power and the

Transmission Service Provider that deals with the transmission infrastructure.

Vincent, E. N., & Yusuf, S. D. (2014) explained that the responsibilities of Transmission

Service Provider provide the technical and professional services required to construct and

maintain the transmission system; to superintend the national grid inter-connection,

substations, switch-stations, and lines; to receive power from various generating stations and

transmit same on the grid.

According to NSONG, (2014), System Operations (SO) is an instrument of the Nigerian

Electricity Supply Industry (NESI). System Operator oversees the system flow across the grid

down to the distribution companies. Aspects of system protection, stability, and reliability are

at the core of System Operator’s operations. The SO, an independent section of TCN, is

responsible for the operation of the transmission network and the continued effectiveness of

the connection to generation and distribution networks. SO also oversees the general grid

security aspect and the controls generation dispatch economically, to minimize the generation

23
cost while satisfying load requirements and other operational constraints (Tijani, M.A, et al,

2022). The functional sections that operate under SO are the Operations/Control, the System

Planning, the SCADA, the Communications, the Technical Services, the Transitional

Electricity Market, and the System Performance. These functions are carried out at various

centers across the country: National Control Centre (NCC) Osogbo, Regional Control Centres

(RCCs) Shiroro, Ikeja West and Benin, Regional Operations Coordinating units (ROCs)

Benin, Enugu, Port-Harcourt, Bauchi, Kaduna, Shiroro, Osogbo and Lagos, Area Control

Centers covering 330kV and 132kV substations.

According to TCN, (2022), the Market Operator, on the other hand, provides wholesale

services in the electricity market. This ranges from intermediating in the collection of sales

payments from distribution companies and international buyers to the generation companies;

to the enforcement of market regulations

The Market Operator's services are necessary for the effective execution of Market Rules. The

Market Rules as set by NERC are composed of market administration, implementation of

market rules, and management of participants. The national grid controlled by TCN through

its different arms supplies electricity to Togo, Niger Republic, Burkina Faso, and Benin

Republic in addition to local demand.

Distribution: According to Oni, A. (2013), consequent to the electricity sector privatization,

eleven successor distribution companies were created that supply power to end users in

different states of the country. The companies include Abuja Electricity Distribution Company

(AEDC). AEDC supplies to FCT and its neighboring states of Nasarawa, Niger, and Kogi.

Benin Electricity Distribution Company (BEDC) supplies to Ekiti, Delta, Edo, and Ondo

24
states. Enugu Electricity Distribution Company (EEDC) supplies to Abia, Imo, Enugu,

Ebonyi, and Anambra states. Eko Electricity Distribution Company (EKEDC) supplies power

to Lagos Island. Ikeja Electric supplies power to the Lagos Mainland. Ibadan Electricity

Distribution Company (IBEDC) supplies electricity to Oyo, Ogun, Osun, and Kwara states.

Jos Electricity Distribution Company (JED) supplies power to Plateau, Bauchi, Gombe, and

Benue states. Kaduna Electric supplies electricity to Kaduna, Zamfara, Sokoto, and Kebbi

states. Kano Electricity Distribution Company (KEDCO) supplies to Kano, Katsina, and

Jigawa states. Port Harcourt Electricity Distribution Company covers Rivers, Cross Rivers,

Akwa-Ibom, and Bayelsa states. Lastly, Yola Electricity Distribution Company (YEDCs)

covers Borno, Yobe, Adamawa, and Taraba states (Oni, A. 2013).

2.1.3 Nigeria Electricity Supply Scenario

Electric power is an indispensable element in the development of any nation; technologically,

socially, and economically. Energy Commission of Nigeria relates that the demand on our

national grid is incomparably higher than the installed generating capacity. Also, the available

supply is epileptic (Sambo, A.S et al, 2010). It is evident therefore that the power supply issue

in Nigeria is a serious challenge that is hampering national progress. A generally known fact is

that socioeconomic development and the welfare of society are strongly improved with better

access to electricity.

Nigeria’s grid system can safely generate 16,384 MW (Energypedia, 2022), however, only a

fraction of it is available to the grid due to old age and the obsoleteness of the system

infrastructures. Mostly the turbines and the auxiliary components are so worn-out they cannot

produce more than 2,700MW (Sambo, A.S et al 2010), this is grossly inadequate when

25
contrasted with the forecasted national demand of 17,614.79 MW (Ezennaya, O.S, et al,

2014). Vanguard, (2023) published that Nigeria’s unused generation capacity has reached

3,008.18 MW in 2021.

Consequently, the nation experiences massive power outages, fluctuation, and load shedding.

According to Edomah, N., et al, (2016), the following challenges are prevalent in Nigeria's

electricity sector:

i. Low system reliability

ii. Poor maintenance culture

iii. Inadequate financing to the sector

iv. Worn-out active system components

v. Poor system of communication

vi. Reluctance of the system to accommodate other sources of energy; and

vii. Poor staff welfare (Edomah, N., et al. 2016).

Hydro generation contributes 1,938MW (Oyedepo, S. O., et al, 2018) to the generation

injected into the grid. The existing generation in the country has been in use since 1990s. It is

worn-out and out of touch with contemporary technologies. Consequently, incessant black-out

and load-shedding have become predominant trend in the country.

2.1.4 Electricity as a Tool for Economic Development

26
Electricity has become and will continue to be an indispensable factor for the achievement of

the goals of sustainable development. According to Ogundipe, A.A., et al, (2016), to view

energy as having a neutral effect on livelihood as done by the neoclassical model is disputable.

This is because advances in modern ways to source energy could, directly and indirectly,

improve livelihoods, through the promotion of economic growth. Since electric power is the

most widely used source of energy, improving electricity supply will domestic life, boost

productivity, aid local and cross-border commerce, generate employment, therefore, alleviates

poverty, and grossly improve socio-economic development.

Ogundipe, A.A., et al, (2016) further stressed that development indicators of countries can be

related to the extent of electricity access seeing that under-developed nations got power only

24.84% of times in 2009. Conversely, Europe consumes 11 times more electricity than the

combined African consumption, despite the large difference in population size.

2.1.5 Environmental Impact of Energy Generation

Despite advances in green energy solutions, conventional sources of energy seem to remain in

use to supply the increasing demand due to increasing population. However, the need for

efficient ways of utilizing the sources of energy cannot be overemphasized. (Abdullahi, M.M,

2020). Energy availability is a necessary in sufficient supply and at affordable cost for any

meaningful development to be attained. But such quest for development must be moderated so

as not to endanger the survival of the future generations. Generally, sustainable development

is defined as ―meeting the needs of present generations and sustaining the resources for future

generations‖ (Wijerathna, Y. P., & Edirisinghe, A. A. 2018).

According to Omer, A.M (2008), as a basic concept, sustainable energy development should

efficiently and moderately utilize available resources, (energy, financial, natural, and human

27
resources). Although many countries have adopted the principles of sustainable development,

there is an overwhelming challenge in the implementation, whereby assessments of various

options of energy sourcing in line with sustainable development is rather elusive.

2.2 REVIEW OF BACKGROUND PRINCIPLES

In this section, the underlying principles, theories, and technologies are reviewed. The section

covered renewable energy technologies and expounded more on hydroelectricity generation.

2.2.1 Renewable Energy Technologies

Renewable green energy solutions are implements for a nation to attain energy security and

self-reliance. Omer, A.M. (2008) has the opinion that if some of the fossil fuel we consume

were to be replaced with biofuels we could save cost and thereby, improve our energy

security. Since renewable energy is inexhaustible, and researchers are constantly thriving to

improve its current technologies and develop new ways of harnessing it, the society should

equally adapt to the trend and therefore save the future generations’ needs.

Geothermal Energy: Down below the surface, the Earth’s core is 6437.376 km at a

temperature close to 5000°C. This heat energy is transferred outward towards the surface,

heating anything in between. This includes underground water that consequently becomes a

hot pond (Bayramov, S., et al, 2021). The hot water reservoir so formed can be utilized to

generate electric power or provide heating for buildings. Zaigham, N. A., & Nayyar, Z. A.

(2010) reveal that there is 50,000 times more energy in the earth down to 10 km than the

combined energy obtainable from all the fossil fuel in the world (Blackwell, D. D., et al,

2006).

28
According to Tromly, K., (2001), geothermal power generation is a technology in which the

steam in the undergrounds is tapped up through appropriate piping installation and routed to

drive a steam turbine and therefore generate electricity. After extracting the heat, the water is

cycled back into the ground so that the renewable energy cycle is completed. As of 2019,

about 15.4 GW of geothermal energy is harnessed into electricity in the world (Wikipedia,

2020).

Solar Energy: According to Kalogirou, S.A. (2013), the energy contained in the sun is

amply large. It is the origin of most other forms of energy in the universe. The energy of the

sun radiates down to warm the planets and causes heat transfer and pressure differentials in

weather patterns and ocean currents. This sets air into motion to migrate from a highly

pressurized space to a less pressurized space. The resulting motion of air sets wind turbine into

motion and thereby produce electricity. Sun’s energy heats up and evaporates ocean, river, and

seawater, which later falls as rain and flows in rivers to build up behind dams and flow down-

hills to generate electricity via hydropower.

Kalogirou, S.A. (2013) added sunlight is converted to electricity directly by employing

photovoltaic technology. Theoretically, solar radiation delivers 1370 W per square meter if

conversion efficiency were to approach 100%. There are currently two methods of solar

energy conversion that show a promising potential to continue harnessing some of that energy

and to grow in application and efficiency into the future: photovoltaic and solar-thermal

technologies.

Solar-thermal energy (STE): refers to how the heat from the sun is extracted for direct

application or further conversion to electricity. The United States Energy Information

29
Administration distinguished solar-thermal collectors into low-temperature thermal collectors,

medium-temperature thermal collectors, and high-temperature thermal collectors (Kumar, L.,

et al, 2019). Kumar, L. further explained that low-temperature thermal collectors as the name

implies, capture heat from the sun, up to 90oC of temperature. They find application mostly in

warming of swimming pool and in warming of air for ventilation. They are normally unglazed

and in form of flat plates. Medium-temperature thermal collectors extract heat from solar

radiation with temperature range of (50 – 200)oC. They are usually flat plates in their

construction. They find application in water heating for residences and businesses. High-

temperature thermal collectors concentrate solar radiation with lenses and mirrors. They are

applied in industrial heating to around 3000C and for power generation (Green, M. A. (2000).

Solar-photovoltaic (PV): refers to the use of solar radiation to generate electric power, by

applying the photovoltaic characteristics of semiconductor materials. PV systems employ solar

modules, each comprising several cells that produce electricity. PV modules can be mounted

on the ground, on top of roof, or afloat on water. The mounting structure can be rigidly

mounted in one position. It can also be made to vary its inclination in response to the sun’s

position in the sky (Nwaigwe, K. N., et al, 2019).

Hydroelectricity: this is one of the most versatile green energy technologies. It generates

up to 21% of Nigeria's electricity. The current hydro generation in Nigeria has reached 2,062

MW. Hydroelectric plants generate power by converting the energy stored in water at a higher

elevation into electricity (USAID, 2021). One the most versatile way of harnessing

hydroelectric energy is by impounding a river with a dam across stream to form a reservoir.

The stored water is then made to flow through penstock to the turbine runners thereby

propelling turbine to generate electricity. Conversely, run-of-river plant reroutes water flow of

30
the river through the penstock to the turbine. The process of electrical energy generation from

the turbine’s mechanical energy output is the same for both impoundment and run-of-river

(Abdullahi M.M., 2020).

Hydroelectric plants: They are green energy technologies as they do not pollute environment.

However, care must be taken in their design and construction to avoid adverse effect to the

ecology. The design and operation of hydroelectric station must conduct assessment of the

wildlife and how it is going to be affected by the plant, and therefore device means of

mitigating the effect. Celestino, L. F., et al, (2019) explained that fish ladders and improved

turbine design can be applied to aid migration and avert mortality of fish due to the plant.

2.2.2 The Theory of Hydroelectricity

Defined variously in various engineering literature, hydroelectricity being the most versatile

and robust of renewable energy sources, utilize the potential energy of water at a higher

elevation to generate electricity (Nematollahi, O., et al, 2016). Hydroelectricity is the

phenomenon of converting energy in the flowing water energy as it falls from higher ground

to electric energy, as the water propels the runners of a turbine, which is coupled to a

generator. The generation potential of a hydroelectricity plant is a function of the volume of

water flowing into the turbine per second (discharge) and the effective height from which the

water is falling (head). Hydroelectricity generation is classified by the size of the plant,

according to the output power obtainable, into micro (1kW – 100kW), mini (100kW – 1MW),

Small (10 – 30 MW), and large (10–30 MW). It is also classified by nature of flow and storage

of water as impoundment (or pondage) and run of river plant.

31
According to Iglinski, B. et al (2019) hydroelectric plant is classified into impoundment, run-

of-river, and pumped storage. Hydroelectric plant can be small systems that supply a small

load such as a village or a school. The plant can also be large to supply the grid. Dams are

constructed across water channels to provide for irrigation, municipal water supply, or for

hydroelectricity generation. Some hydro schemes are built across a flowing stream without

any dam weir (Allen, J. W et al 2014). Dam weirs are also used for recreation or stock/farm.

Flood control is another application of dam weir. Likewise, water supply and irrigation are

among the uses of river impoundment. Hydroelectricity plants range in size from small

schemes that can feed a small residential load to large scheme that feeds the grid.

Impoundment: One of the most common methods of hydroelectricity generation is by

impounding a large volume of water behind a dam weir; a system called impoundment or

pondage (see Figure 2.1). This is typically a large hydroelectric system. Stream water is

impounded in a reservoir with dam weir. The water flows via penstock, down to turbine. The

waterpower rotates the blades of the turbine, which in turn, being mechanically coupled to a

generator, converts the energy to electricity (Allen, J. W et al 2014), (Richard B.A et al, 2021).

Figure 2.1 Impoundment of a river, source: Alaska Public Media

(https://alaskapublic.org/2020/08/06/global-mine-tailings-standards-rest-on-voluntary-
compliance/)

32
Run-of-River: Sometimes called diversion, diverts part of a river flow down to the turbine by

capitalizing on the inherent continuous fall in elevation of the riverbed to generate electricity

(see Figure 2.2). The diverted part of the river flow, after driving the turbine, flows

downstream to join the main river flow. This way there is no need for a reservoir. However,

often the flow is collected at a fore bay to regulate the flow to the turbine. Electricity

generation is highly seasonal in the run-of-river plant. During the rainy season, the stream

flow is more. Therefore, yield is more in the rainy season. With the decline of river flow in the

dry season, electricity generation of the run of river falls drastically till the threshold river flow

is reached where generation cannot be achieved.

Pumped Storage (PSH): In this type of hydropower scheme, rather than generation, the

scheme is huge energy storage. It utilizes the excess energy generated from a gas turbine,

steam turbine, combustion engine turbine, solar, and wind turbine, at a time when such sources

are abundant and cheap, powers a pump which in turn sends water up into an elevated

reservoir from a ground reservoir. The elevated reservoir later sends water back to the ground

reservoir though the pump that now serves as turbine. This way, electricity is generated

(Allen, J. W et al 2014 and Richard B.A et al, 2021).

Figure 2.2 Pumped storage station, source: Department of Energy

(https://www.energy.gov/eere/water/pumped-storage-hydropower)

33
Harnessing Waterpower: The power obtainable from a hydroelectric plant is directly

proportional to the rate at which water is flowing to the turbine, technically termed discharge.

It is also a function of vertical distance from the intake to the turbine, also called head. The

higher the discharge, the higher will be the generated power. Similarly, the greater the head is

the higher will the generated energy be. The mathematical relationship between the head,

discharge rate, and power is called the power equation (Weijia, Y., 2018).

Power Equation: In the context of hydroelectricity generation, the SI unit of discharge rate is

m3/s. The vertical height (head) is measured in meters. The power equation is computed as

follows:

From Elementary Physics, the potential energy held by a body of mass M, at an elevation h

may be determined by (Weijia, Y., 2018)

g is the free-fall acceleration. At sea level, and for all practical purposes, a value of 9.81 m/s2

is commonly used regardless of the elevation of the object. Also from elementary physics, the

mass of water is its density (ρ) multiplied by its volume (V), or . Thus

Dividing through this equation by time t, (E/t) is power (P) in watts (W), and (V/t)

is the discharge rate (Q) or discharge in m3/s. Therefore, substituting these terms into the

equation, the power equation becomes (Bikash P & Ajoy K. 2017).

Principles of thermodynamics show that, when energy is converted from one form to another,

there are always losses incurred that are inversely proportional to the system efficiency of the

conversion process. In hydroelectricity generation, the energy stored in the falling water

rotates the turbine to generate mechanical energy. The common shaft of the generator and the

34
turbine is consequently driven to generate electricity, when the field-coil of the generator that

is mounted on the shaft rotates its magnetic field to cut the armature coil. This way, the

mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy. Frictional losses are generated as the

water runs down the penstock pipe as well as inside the turbine whereas there are electrical

losses in the generator. The overall yield of the hydroelectric system is determined after

factoring out the combined system efficiency (Bikash P & Ajoy K. 2017).

Feasibility Study Process: There may be many applicable alternatives to generate power in a

given proposed hydroelectric project site. It is the function of the feasibility study to point out

the most promising option. In the case of large hydroelectric projects, it is usually necessary to

make multiple site visits to arrive at the most preferred optimal design alternatives for the

project. According to Bikash P. and Ajoy K. (2017), Feasibility study of a hydroelectric

project is an iterative process because of the need to examine locations of key structures

against many constraints.

In addition to system requirements and user requirements, hydroelectricity generation project

needs to consider the applicable policies and regulations guiding such projects. Aspects of

environmental policies, engineering practice regulations, and land use regulations must be

carefully considered in the design process. According to Danladi Y.B et al, (2016), large

hydroelectric generation projects take more considerable effort in identifying the optimal site.

The process involves analyzing information on paper based on reports of published

hydrological studies, topographical maps, power line route maps, and so on. Use of satellite

images and GIS is taking lead in the current trends of hydrological and topographical survey.

Based on the satellite images and GIS data topographic maps are plotted to describe the

waterways and their sources with contours and elevations. With the topographic map

35
generated, a proposed layout of the plant can be generated, which is then iteratively examined

and optimized. The gross head, the flow rate and the resulting gross power generation

potential of the site can therefore be studied (Bikash P. & Ajoy K. 2017).

2.2.3 Components of Hydroelectric Station

Generally, in a hydroelectric station, the goal of electricity generation is achieved by the

combined roles of the fore bay, the intake structure, the penstock, the surge chamber, the

hydraulic turbine, the powerhouse, the draft tube, and the tailrace. Although not all the

components are present in all hydroelectric stations, this is a representation of the general

requirement for a hydroelectric station (Iglinski, B. 2019).

Fore bay: A fore bay is a receptacle out of a reservoir in a hydroelectric station that

transitionally reserves water volume prior to being discharged through the penstock to the

turbine. Where the reservoir feeds water directly across its dam to penstocks and the turbine,

the reservoir itself serves as a fore bay (Bilal A.N. 2014).

Figure 2.3 Fore bay structure source: iStock

(https://www.istockphoto.com/photos/forebay-pictures)

36
Intake Structure: this is a set of civil structures which receives water that flows from the
forebay, or sometimes directly from the reservoir, and routes it to the penstocks. The design of
intake structures depends mainly on the prevailing site conditions (Iglinski, B. 2019).

Figure 2.4 Intake structure, source:

https://www.fao.org/fishery/docs/CDrom/FAO_Training/FAO_Training/General/x6708e/x670
8e07.htm

Penstock: Penstocks are the conduits across which water gets to the turbine from fore bay.

Penstocks are mostly made of steel, although in some micro hydro generations, reinforced

concrete is employed in penstock construction. If a penstock is a short run, with multiple

turbines, each turbine is fed by its own penstock. However, for a long span, the penstock

branch-up to supply the turbines (Bilal A.N. 2014).

Figure 2.5 Penstock, source:

(https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/html/10.11648.j.ijepe.20150404.14.html)

37
Surge Tank: alternatively called surge chamber is a vertical cylinder connected to the

penstock close to the turbine with its upper end open to the atmosphere. Its function is

principally to regulate the penstock’s pressure. It operates by raising the water level inside it

when the turbine rejects the in-surge of water from the penstock. Likewise, it lowers its water

level when the flow from penstock to turbine is low (Bilal, A. N., 2014).

Figure 2.6 Surge tank, source: (https://pixels.com/featured/blue-ridge-dam-greg-and-

chrystal-mimbs.html)

Hydraulic Turbine: This is a mechanical component equipped with a set of blades called

runners and mounted on a shaft. When water strikes the runners, the water pressure forces the

turbine runners to rotate about the axis of the shaft. This rotation is transmitted generator

which is also mounted on the shaft.

The two types of hydraulic turbines are the reaction and the impulse turbines. An impulse-type

turbine is the type that rotates upon receiving the collision force from a high velocity water jet.

Example of an impulse-type turbine is the Pelton turbine.

38
On the other hand, a reaction-type turbine is the type of turbine in which the tangential force

of water stream entering the turbine is converted to rotation by the turbine runners, which

consequently causes the shaft to rotate about its axis and thereby, rotate the generator.

Examples of reaction-type turbine are Francis and Kaplan.

Figure 2.7 Hydraulic turbines, source: science direct

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydraulic-turbines)

Powerhouse: This is the masonry structure erected at the plant site to house the electrical,
mechanical, and hydraulic equipment. The powerhouse provides structural base and protection
from the elements to the equipment. The dimension of the foundation of a powerhouse needs
to be adequate and strong to provide the required space and structural integrity for the
electrical and hydraulic equipment (Bilal A.N., 2014).
Draft Tube: this component channels the outflow of water from a reaction turbine to the
tailrace. The draft tube is designed and constructed in such a way that its diameter increases in
size gradually outwards towards the tail race (Bilal A.N. 2014).

39
 Figure 2.8 Francis turbine with a draft tube, source: Research Gate
(https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Francis-turbine-model-with-the-actual-draft-tube-left-
and-the-simplified-computational_fig1_250612738)
Tailrace: This describes the waterway that channels water downstream from the
powerhouse unto the mainstream. Depending on the site structure and lay-out, some tailraces
are close enough to the mainstream that the draft tube directly discharges directly into the
stream. In other situations, the tailrace must be constructed in the form of a channel to connect
to the mainstream (Bilal A.N. 2014).

Figure 2.9 Tailrace, source: (https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Tail_race)

40
2.3 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This section describes published recent research works that are related to this proposed study.

For each study, the main idea is presented along with possible limitations.

Otun et al, (2012), The Kangimi reservoir was found to be in the subbasin of the river Kaduna

at a height of 612m above the sea level with generation potential of 1.109MW provided the

turbine is installed. However, the researcher limited his work not to examining the

hydroelectric potential of the river holistically but concentrated on Kagimi.

Adamu et al, (2014), proposed to design a mini hydroelectric system on the river of Tuwan.

The proposed project, the researchers supposed, will supply Tuwan Agribusiness Resort

(TAR) with part of its power demand. The researchers examined the technical, the economic

and the environmental implication of the project using RETScreen software. The proposed

project the researchers pointed out can generate 21 kW of electricity with a Kaplan turbine

after measuring the discharge and gross head for the proposed site. The result shows that the

river holds viable potential both economically and technically and is environmentally friendly.

The work only assessed the power output but did not show in detail the analysis of the type of

turbine used.

Dele et al, (2014), assessed the hydroelectric generation potential of the Opeki River. The

flow duration curve (FDC) of the river was established by using the mean daily flow record of

seven years together with some statistical tools in processing the value of head was evaluated.

Power equations were adapted and modified to determine the power output, power duration

curve and optimal operation period. Projection from PDC was carried out to determine energy

production of the plant and its potential capacity factor. The average power of 8.8 MW,

optimum operation period of 148 days and potential energy generation of 50018 MWh were

41
determined after assessment of the plant at average potential power and net head of 46.5 m

with a single Kaplan turbine. From the results, it can be deduced that hydroelectric system can

be a technically viable venture that holds the potential to enhance electricity supply in the

communities around Opeki River.

Stefano et al (2014) discussed the techno-economic feasibility evaluation model for 2 MW

generation potential of run-of-river small hydroelectricity systems in the rural settlements of

Tanzania. In their work, flow data of rivers and local electricity demand were used to analyze

the power ratings of potential plants and economic feasibility. The model was tested on two

existing systems to validate costs and feasibilities. From the results it can be concluded that

the validation of the power rating model falls by 16.3% below the value obtainable from the

existing system. The model suggested a generalized adaptability to all similar scenarios

everywhere in the world. Having considered only one type of turbine is the drawback of this

work.

Alie W. D., (2016) presented analyzed the design requirements of a mini hydroelectric plant

for electricity supply in rural areas. In his work, a run-of-river plant was designed to supply

electricity to the rural communities using the crossflow turbine. Mathematical model was

formulated to describe the system whereby discharge and head were the variables. The design

adapted maximum system efficiency as a general guide; specific situations can always factor

in the specified, analyzed or measure efficiencies.

Otuagoma et al, (2016) proposed work on evaluating and comparing effectiveness of Propeller

type or Kaplan turbine (in a group of three each) to identify the most efficient and the most

yielding turbine type for optimal power generation in a small hydroelectric system across river

Ethiope. Discharge and head data were analyzed using the RETScreen software tool. Kaplan

42
was found to be the most promising, and therefore recommended for its potential to generate

more power at an efficiency of 90%, 9.2 m of head and 31.73 m3/s discharge rate.

Nasir et al, (2017), used RETScreen software to examine the generation potential of river.

Data was acquired from relevant authorities pertaining to the seasonal variation of weather and

its effect on the river flow. RETScreen software was used to evaluate four different project

alternatives. It was found that a design discharge of 31.73m3/s, head of 5 m and power

generation capacity of 1.20 MW can be achieved. However, if the head were to be increased to

15 m, the power generation potential could reach 3.8 MW. Not discussing the turbine type for

the specific discharge rate and the head was the drawback of this work.

Adejuwon et al, (2018), conducted an evaluation of the potentials for hydroelectric generation

in the rivers of Ekiti State. The researcher examined ten rivers and studied nine impounded

reservoirs. Analysis done with RETScreen software considered the technical and the economic

viability of hydro generation in each river and reservoir. Data collected showed that the

average river-discharge is between 25 and 70 m3/s in Ekiti state. It also revealed that water

head is between 2.5 m and 6 m. it is found from the results that five of the nine reservoirs will

generate around 270MW. When compared with the electricity demand of Ekiti State, this

generation potential holds a great prospect of adequately satisfying the demand. However,

economic analysis indicated that only eight of the rivers in Ekiti State are potentially viable

hydroelectricity generation. Payback on average is 4 years as the threshold of viability for all

the existing water supply schemes. The work has proven that in the light of the available

information, hydro generation in the state is a promising alternative as it will easily supply

electricity to the remote and rural communities, who will otherwise be difficult to supply from

national grid.

43
Hatata et al, (2019) conducted feasibility study for small hydro generation in some potential

sites across Nile-Delta, Egypt. From results of hydrological study, discharge rate and water

head data were extracted five years and processed to determine the generation potential of the

selected regions. MATLAB software was used to analyze and compare the efficiencies and the

energy generation of three types of hydraulic turbines for a year. The work has proven that

electricity generation can be greatly improved when Crossflow turbine and Kaplan turbine are

employed in the hydro generation at these potential plants.

44
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
3.0 INTRODUCTION

The work presented in this thesis is done following a logical order to outline its technical and

economic viability, and its statutory and environmental implications. The work is therefore

segmented into three main phases:

1. Technical feasibility

2. Economic viability

3. Statutory and environmental acceptability

3.1 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY

The technical feasibility study describes all the physical activities carried out to examine the

available hydrological, structural, and electromechanical engineering parameters with a view

to optimize solution to the problem being studied. Stages involved in the conduct of this

technical feasibility study are described in the following block diagram of figure 3.1.

Site Demand Site Civil and Electro- Transmissio

n & Distrib.
Identifica Analysis Survey & Structural Mechanica
tion alysis
Figure 3.1 Block diagram of technical feasibility

3.1.1 Site Identification

The proposed site was identified as a reservoir called Gwaigwaye Water Reservoir, also

known locally as Gwaigwaye Dam (see figure 3.2). It is located on longitude 7 012’23‖ E and

latitude 11034’31‖ N. Design data extracted from World Bank, (1994) shows that the reservoir
45
has a catchment area of 120 km2, an earth dam length of 350 m with a height of 13 m. The

reservoir, at full-service level (FSL) of 109 m has a depth of 12 m and the reservoir capacity is

determined to be 42.99 x 106 m3, and surface area of 1,701,966.333 m2. The shoreline at FSL

of 109 has been determined to be 8.2 km.

Figure 3.2 Satellite image of Gwaigwaye Reservoir

The reservoir was dammed along river Gwaigwaye at Unguwar Biri village, 3 km off Funtua –

Sokoto Road in Funtua, Katsina State. The river is a local segment of Sokoto River which

originated from the hills of Machika in the neighboring Dandume local government area

(Lawal, N., et al 2020). See Figure 3.2.

Sokoto River: also known as Gulbin Kebbi, stretches 275 km to Sokoto. The river flows

northwest through Gusau Dam in Zamfara State, where it forms a confluence with Rima River

in Sokoto. The conjoined rivers then flow 120 km through Bakalori Dam to Kebbi, and further

down to its confluence with River Niger.

46
This river is a focal point of economic activities, social and cultural heritage. Dams along the

river provide means of irrigation and horticulture, fishing, transportation, and metro water

supply. See Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 River Sokoto, source: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zauro_polder_project)

3.1.2 Demand Analysis

Comprehensive load forecast is beyond the scope of this research. However, the load to be

supplied has been profiled from the point of view of the total connected load on the 11 kV

feeders at Funtua transmission substation. The total connected load is presented in the table

below.

Table 3.1: Total connected load on Funtua 11 kV feeders (KEDCO, 2022)

30 MVA Transformer 132/33/11 Kv 60 MVA Transformer 132/33/11 kV
Katsina Road feeder 33 kV Total 9.5 Textile feeder 33 kV Total 9.5
connected load (MW) connected load (MW)
Jabiri 11 kV feeder (MW) 4 Nakowa feeder 11 kV 4.5

Dutsen Reme 11 kV feeder 1.5 Mairuwa feeder 11 kV 1.3

47
 (MW)

Town feeder 11 kV (MW) 2.2 Water works 11 kV 1.2

Industrial feeder 11 kV (MW) 1.8 Textile feeder 11 kV 2.5

From the table above it can be deducted that the total connected load in the 11 kV feeders is

19 MW. That is obtained from summing up the individual 11 kV feeders loads connected to

the 60 MVA, 132/33/11 kV Katsina Road transformer and the 30 MVA, 132/33/11 kV

Textiles transformer. In addition, however, there are two 33 kV feeders feeding the remote

areas of Malumfashi (13 MW) and Dandume (4.0 MW) from the same transmission

substation.

Existing supply from Kano Electricity Distribution Company (KEDCO) has a maximum value

of 15.1 MW for 1000 hours (KEDCO, 2023). This is shared between the remote supplying 33

kV feeders and the town feeding 11 kV feeders. By its nature, this supply can be considered

roughly as the maximum demand on the substation.

Obviously, the prospect of the proposed project cannot supply this entire load independently.

Meanwhile, the proposed hydroelectricity generation is meant to complement the grid supply

to Funtua town. Therefore, the load is first de-rated by its diversity factor. The diversity factor

(DF) of the 11 kV distribution network is determined thus:

( ) …………………… 3.1

The terms of demand in this formula can be reduced to the ratings of the breakers protecting

the feeders.

Therefore,

48
 ………………………………………………………………………………..…. 3.2

Ii: rating of individual 11 kV breakers

In: rating of the breaker feeding the 11 kV bus

These breakers have the following ratings:

Table 3.2: Rating of breakers protecting the feeders (KEDCO, 2022)

30 MVA Transformer 132/33/11 kV 60 MVA Transformer 132/33/11 Kv
Katsina Road feeder 33 kV 400 Textile feeder 33 kV main bus 400
main bus breaker rating (A) breaker rating (A)
Jabiri 11 kV feeder breaker 300 Nakowa feeder 11 kV breaker rating 350

rating (A) (A)

Dutsen Reme 11 kV breaker 200 Mairuwa feeder 11 kV breaker 250

rating (A) rating (A)

Town feeder 11 kV breaker 250 Water works 11 kV breaker rating 150

rating (A) (A)

Industrial feeder 11 kV breaker 100 Textile feeder 11 kV breaker rating 100

rating (A) (A)

But Katsina Road feeder 33 kV main bus breaker rating and Textile feeder 33 kV main bus-

breaker rating are on the 33 kV sides of the transformers. The quantities are therefore referred

to 11 kV sides of the transformers to tally with the ratings of the individual breakers.

………………………………………………………………………………. 3.3

The de-rated value of the demand is therefore calculated as:

………………………………………………... 3.4
49
Even this value is found to be too large to be supplied from the prospected capacity of the

hydro power project. It is therefore proposed that the project being complementary in its

design purpose should be able to always supply half of the demand. The remaining demand

would therefore be supplied from the grid.

Hence, the prospective capacity of the hydro station is calculated as follows:

( )
……....… 3.5

This capacity is required to supply the load. However, there are incurred electrical losses from

transmission and distribution. Consequently, the generating capacity of the project is also de-

rated in terms of the losses and the own use of the power station. The following formula is

used to calculate the proposed generation capacity:

( ) ……………………...…………. 3.6

3.1.3 Site Survey and Analysis

Having identified the potential site for this hydroelectricity project, the site is surveyed to

identify physical, hydrological, and geological features that may influence the feasibility of the

project. The survey conducted in this case is limited in scope mainly to determine the

hydropower potential of Gwaigwaye Dam. The survey involved two stages: the topographical

survey and the hydrological survey.

Topographical Survey: Generally, topographical maps of 1:50,000 are generated in

hydroelectricity feasibility study to optimize the project planning. The topographical map is

made to cover areas of major civil structures such as dam, waterway, powerhouse, reservoir,

and access road. In this case, having some standing structures and a ready-made topographical
50
map from previous study by Lawal, N., et al (2020), the map is adapted and incorporated in

the study.

Although the site has existing structures like the reservoir, the access road, intake tower, and

spillway, some of these structures would be optimized to suit the requirements of the proposed

project. See Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4 Topographic map of Gwaigwaye Reservoir (Lawal, N., et al 2020)

Hydrological Survey: River Gwaigwaye, like most other rivers in the north-western region of

Nigeria is not gaged. So also, the river flows only in the wet season and merely dry otherwise.

It is therefore difficult to extract runoff data directly from the river. Furthermore, Gwaigwaye

reservoir is continuously supplying water to Funtua town, which also affects the water level of

the reservoir.

It is therefore most appropriate to utilize the operational records of monthly water level

captured at the intake tower of the reservoir by the management of Funtua Water Works. The

51
availability of water in the reservoir is more accurately represented by the water level records.

This assumption is backed by the findings of Heike, H., et al (2008), where the scholars

studied the relationship between the runoff of Yangtze River and its water level. The result

showed a strong correlation between the two variables. Other scholars such as Zixiong W., et

al (2020) conducted similar studies with similar results.

Table 3.3 shows some physical properties of the water (Lawal, N., et al, 2020), together with

the monthly log of water level. Figure 3.5 shows the graphical representation of the water

level by months of the year.

Table 3.3: Extracted data from Gwaigwaye Reservoir

Monthly Average of Water Temperature pH

Month Water level (m) (°C) Value

January 10.9 25.69 7.37

February 10.6 27.19 7.35

March 10.1 20.63 7.5

April 9.7 24.95 7.6

May 10.2 21.33 7.46

June 10.5 26.14 7.16

July 11.7 25.17 7.1

August 12.0 25.71 7.53

September 11.8 26.48 8.13

October 11.6 25.87 7.97

November 11.4 25.53 7.91

52
 December 11.2 25.53 7.35

14 14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
July

July
October

October
August

August
April

September

November

April

September

November
January

May
June

January

May
June
February

December

December
March

March
February
Figure 3.5 Monthly Hydrograph of Gwaigwaye Reservoir

Iguniwari, T. E., et al (2018) determined a power relationship for volume of water in a

reservoir using water surface area captured from satellite images as

…………………………………………………………………3.7

Where V (m3) is the volume of water stored in the reservoir whose water surface area is A

(m2).

Using equation (3.6) and the Google Earth satellite tool for area computation (Figure 3.6)

Table 3.1 can be further populated with corresponding values for water surface area and

volume of water for the months of the year.

53
 Figure 3.6 Determination of water surface are using Google Earth pro.

Table 3.4:Maximum Depth, Water Surface Area and Volume of Stored Water
Area Volume
Month Depth (m) (m^2) (m^3) Qm (m^3/s)
January 10.9 1824171 47130079 17.6

February 10.6 1742299 44343504 17.7

March 10.1 1525733 37181310 13.9

April 9.7 1496299 36232339 13.98

May 10.2 1577247 38856571 14.51

June 10.5 1799353 46280967 17.86

July 11.7 1957112 51742130 19.31

August 12 2020052 53962138 20.15

September 11.8 2097885 64027550 24.70

October 11.6 2051728 55088044 20.57

November 11.4 2071009 55776172 21.51

December 11.2 2060708 55408273 20.69

Monthly flow rate (QM) can be deducted from the monthly volume as

54
 …………………………………………………………………………3.8

This takes into consideration that flow rate is.

( )
( )

Vi: Volume of water stored in month i

Di: Days of month i

8600: Number of seconds in a day

The values of flow rate Q in Table 3.4 have been generated using equation 3.8. With those

values, a flow duration curve was plotted with flow rate (Q) on y-axis and % exeedence on x-

axis (see Figure 3.7). From that also, average flow rate was determined to be 18.54083 m3/s.

FDC
30

25

20
Q (m^3/s)

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
% Exeedence

Figure 3.7 flow duration curve

55
Lack of gauge station on site made it difficult to capture data for more than one year.

However, being this research a pre-feasibility study, this data suffices for the intended

purpose.

3.1.4 Civil and Structural Design

During site visits, locations have been identified for civil and structural works that are

necessary for the realization of this project. These items have been detailed in this section.

Intake Structure: The intake point has been identified as a point on the earth-dam, close

to the intake tower bridge of the reservoir. It is a point on latitude 11.5758950 and longitude

7.2071240 with elevation of 2070 m above sea level. See Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8 Intake Point

Physical measurements on site reveal the following facts.

Thickness of earth dam: 56.01 m

Height of earth dam: 13 m

56
Elevation of water at FSL: 631.5 m

Ground elevation of the powerhouse: 620.6 m

Gross Head: 10.9 m

Based on these measurements, the structural and civil works have been designed.

Powerhouse: The powerhouse has been selected at the edge of reservoir’s spillway tailrace.

This is done tentatively to simplify the work by utilizing a common tailrace for the hydro

turbine and the main reservoir spillway. See figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9 Location of the Powerhouse

Fore bay: Being the chamber that receives water from the reservoir before discharging it

through the penstock to the powerhouse, fore bay design is very strategic in this project. The

fore bay is located at the intake point, where a reinforced concrete open channel is constructed
57
across the earth dam into the fore bay chamber. At the inlet of channel, it is equipped with

sluice gate to control the flow of water into the fore bay. After the sluice gate, a trash rack is

provided to block any unwanted particle from reaching the turbine chamber. See Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10 Fore-bay Sketch

The walls of the fore bay were made of reinforced concrete, whose thickness is given by

Equation (3.9). The eastern wall is fitted with an opening through which the penstock pipe is

to be installed. The diameter and the thickness of the penstock pipe are given by Equations

(3.10) and (3.11) respectively.

Design Parameters: Having established locations for the civil and structural design and

having measured values both on site and on Google Earth, the following calculation were

made to determine the required parameters for the design.

58
Generally, hydroelectric stations have an overall efficiency of 80% as the global best practice

(Elie, B., et al, 2017). On this basis, and taking the average discharge as indicated in the flow

duration curve, the power generation capacity of the station is determined as

………………………………………………………………………………3.10

P (W): Generation capacity

ρ (kg/m3): Density of water, constant at 1000 kg/m3

(m/s2): acceleration due to gravity

H (m): gross head

ή: overall efficiency of the plant

Likewise, the diameter of the penstock pipe, which is preferably of galvanized steel is given as

( )
…………………………………………………………………….…3.11

……………………………………………………………………….3.12

(m): Diameter of the penstock pipe

: Manning’s coefficient

(m): Length of the penstock pipe

(m): Gross head

59
 (m): thickness of the penstock pipe

Figure 3.11 Gwaigwaye Hydroelectric Plant Lay out

3.1.5 Design of Electromechanical Elements

Electromechanical elements of hydroelectricity generation are those components that are

responsible for the energy conversion from hydraulic energy to mechanical energy and then to

electrical energy. In this context in addition, electromechanical elements include those

components that process the generated electricity for safe and efficient utilization. These

components have been carefully studied and selected to suit the requirements of this project.

Hydraulic Turbine: Turbine was selected for this application with the guidance of turbine

application chart (see Figure 3.10). The chart is an industry standard guidance for the selection

of hydraulic turbine type for a particular application based on the operational discharge rate

and measured head. Turbines are grouped in ranges of discharge versus head (termed

60
envelopes). Although the envelopes vary for different manufacturers, the chart is generally

used to serve as guide (ESHA, 2009).

Figure 3.12 Turbine Application Chart (Source:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_Turbine_Chart.png)

In addition to the head versus discharge relationship, other factors that influence the selection

of turbine type for a particular application include the rotational speed, the specific speed, and

the turbine efficiency.

The rotational speed of the turbine for this project should match the requirements of the

generator to generate voltage waveform with a frequency of 50 Hz. Choosing a 4-pole

61
generator for convenience, the rotational speed of the turbine which is the same as that of the

generator is given by.

……………………………………………………………………………… 3.13

Conversely, the specific speed (which is defined as the speed a geometrically similar turbine

that produces 1 kW of power discharged under 1 m of net head) is determined by

√
……………………………………………………………………………… 3.14

This project is therefore characterized by high specific speed and low head and low discharge.

Generator: The generator is mechanically coupled to the turbine on the same shaft in a

hydropower system. It converts the mechanical energy produced by the turbine into electricity.

It is therefore a fundamental requirement that the specifications of the generator should match

those of the turbine. The generator power capacity, the rotor speed, and the voltage frequency

must tally with those of the turbine.

3.1.6 Transmission and Distribution Network

The electricity generated by the hydroelectric plant has a voltage range between 11.5 – 16kV.

This voltage must be stepped up to primary distribution voltage of 33 kV to match the bus

voltage of the town feeders at Funtua transmission substation. Furthermore, the distance from

Gwaigwaye Reservoir to Funtua transmission substation (21.3 km) requires that the voltage be

stepped up to minimize voltage drop and consequently transmission losses.

62
3.2 ECONOMIC VIABILITY

The economic viability of this proposed project has been analyzed in terms of the total initial

cost of installation, the cost of running the plant and the revenue that can be generated from

the plant. Bill of Engineering Measurements and Evaluations (BEME) has been generated

with details of all aspects of works to be done and all the materials, equipment and tools to be

procured with their respective quantities and costs. The BEME gives the total initial cost of

installation together with a provisional allowance of 30% (Elie, B., et al, 2017) for running

cost per annum.

To project the revenue generation of the project, the annual energy generation of the plant was

determined based on the average annual flow rate. The energy is then priced according to the

Multi Year Tariff Order (MYTO) of the Nigeria Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC).

However, local consumption of the plant and transmission and distribution losses have been

factored out to give the resultant revenue projection a more realistic value.

3.2.1 Net Present Value (NPV)

Net Present Value is an economic tool used to measure the profitability of a project. The NPV

of a project is the sum of all future cash flows over the project’s lifetime, discounted to the

present value (Jason, F., 2022).

The NPV formula in equation 3.15 was used in Excel to examine the viability of this project.

( )
∑ ( )
…………………………………… 3.15

Cash Flow: the sum of money spent, and money earned on the investment or project for a

given period.

63
n: the number of periods of time.

r: the discount rate.

3.2.2 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

The internal rate of return (IRR) is another indicator of project profitability used to analyze

the economic viability of a project. IRR of this project was calculated using Excel formula

tool with the following formula.

∑ ………….………………….. 3.16
( )

IRR: The internal rate of return

Ct: Net cash inflow

t: The number of times

3.3 STATUTORY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY

To examine the feasibility of this hydroelectricity project, in addition to technical and

economic aspects, the statutory policies and the environmental regulations have also been

examined. This is to give the prospective project a more holistic level of confidence in terms

of practicability, viability, and achievability. Some of the aspects of statutory and

environmental policies and regulations examined are presented in the succeeding sections.

3.3.1 Nigeria Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC)

NERC is the custodian of all electricity affairs in Nigeria, ranging from generation to

transmission & distribution down to utilization. A small generation system connected to the

distribution network like this project is termed embedded generation by NERC regulations.

64
Therefore, such embedded generation plants are licensed to generates power and evacuates the

power generated either through the existing distribution network of a distribution company or

through an independent distribution network. The embedded generator engages and negotiates

relevant power purchase agreements with an electricity distribution company, or an

independent distribution company. Embedded generation does not require power purchase

agreement with Nigeria Bulk Electricity Trading (NBET), or connection agreement with

Transmission Company of Nigeria.

NERC requires that an entity engaged in any or all the following needs licensing:

1. The generation of electricity greater than 1 MW excluding captive power

2. Electricity system operation

3. Power transmission

4. Power distribution (<100 kW) and trading

In the case of this hydroelectricity generation, NERC license is therefore needed for

generation, distribution, and trading. The process of embedded generation licensing includes

submitting a written application signed by the representative of the applicant, filling

application for license form, payment of processing fees, and finally, approval or refusal of

license.

3.3.2 Land Use and Environmental Protection

The proposed site of this project is under the custody of Katsina State Ministry of Water

Resources. The ministry is responsible for water resources management, commercial services

in sewage disposal, and water sanitation,

65
In line with the responsibilities of Katsina State Ministry of Water Resources, it is obvious that

this project seeks the consent of the ministry for approval of the project.

In addition, the project should seek consent of Katsina State Ministry of Lands and Survey for

land use permit, Ministry of Works, and Housing for environmental impact assessment.

3.3.3 Council for The Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN)

COREN is a government institution responsible for appraising the qualifications of, and

issuance of license to engineering practitioners, both individuals and corporate organizations,

engaged in the practice of engineering in Nigeria. An engineering project of this nature is valid

only if it is designed and constructed by a COREN registered engineer or engineering firm.

In view of the above-mentioned fact, this prospective project should be leased to a COREN

registered firm at design and construction phases.

66
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.0 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, results of the research work carried out as presented in chapter three are

presented and discussed. As the research aims at the determination of the feasibility of

hydroelectricity generation at Gwaigwaye Reservoir, the work was carried out in three phases:

examination of technical practicability, examination of economic viability, and reviewing the

statutory and environmental regulations.

In examining the technical feasibility, the following items have been considered and their

result is presented and discussed in this section.

i. Site identification

ii. Demand analysis

iii. Site survey and analysis

iv. Civil and structural design and analysis

v. Electromechanical design and analysis

vi. Transmission and distribution design

The results from these design and analyses are presented and discussed.

Likewise, to examine the economic viability, the initial cost of construction was generated as a

Bill of Engineering and Evaluations (BEME). The revenue projection was also determined by

adapting the MYTO rate of kWh price for the projected average annual energy generation.

67
With the cost generated in BEME and the revenue projection determined from MYTO cost of

average kWh generated, economic analysis of the project was conducted, and the result

presented and discussed.

So also, the statutory and environmental regulation were reviewed and discussed in this

chapter.

4.1 TECHNICAL FEASIBILTY ANALYSIS RESULTS

The technical feasibility examination conducted in this work is analyzed and the result

presented and discussed following the same sequence of steps as in the Research

Methodology.

4.1.1 Site Identification

Having identified the suitable locations on site for major hydro-technical, structural, civil,

mechanical, and electrical structures and installations, the following data has been recorded.

Table 4.1 Key structure’s locations

# Structure Location Description

1. Intake point Lat. 11.575917 A point on the dam close to the existing

Lon. 7.207110 intake tower access track

2. Canal Lat. 11.576435 Beginning from the intake point and

Lon. 7.206834 terminating at the fore bay

3. Fore-bay Lat. 11.576435 Beginning from the end of the canal

Lon. 7.206834

4. Penstock Beginning from the fore bay and terminating

at the powerhouse

68
5. Powerhouse Lat. 11.577115 A room to shelter the hydraulic and

Lon. 7.206979 electromechanical components located at the

edge of the existing reservoir spill way tail

race

6. Draft tube Directly discharging into the existing

reservoir spill way tail race

7. Tailrace Same as the existing reservoir spill way tail

race

4.1.2 Demand Analysis Results

As explained in chapter three, full-scale load forecast is beyond the scope of this research due

to limited time and resources, and considering the research is a feasibility study.

Consequently, the load connected to the 11 kV feeder bus at Funtua Transmission Substation

was adapted and analyzed.

Connected Load: It can be seen from table 3.1 of chapter three that the total connected

load on the 11 kV feeder bus feeding Funtua township is given as

∑ ∑

Demand Factor: As generally accepted, total connected load of a power system does not

represent the actual power demand of the system. It is therefore obvious that the 19 MW total

connected loads be de-rated by demand factor. From equation 3.2, the demand factor is

determined as

69
 ∑

But ( ) ( )

Therefore

The actual demand can therefore be determined as

Proposed Generation Capacity: This is the required generation capacity that can safely

and continuously supply power to the load in Funtua. It is not, however the potential

generation capacity of the proposed hydroelectric plant, which is determined later in this work.

From equation 3.6, if we assume the value of TD – losses to be limited to 5% and the own use

of power by the plant to be 1%, the proposed generation capacity was determined as

( )

In summary, the calculated values from this section have been tabulated in Table 4.2 below.

Table 4.2 Demand Analysis Results

# Quantity Value
1. Total connected load 19 MW

2. Demand Factor 70%

3. Actual demand 13.3 MW

4. Proposed generation capacity 14 MW

70
4.1.3 Site Survey and Analysis Results

As detailed in chapter three the site analysis conducted covered two topics, the topographical

survey, and the hydrological survey.

Topographical Survey: The topography of the proposed site has been studied and

analyzed previously by Lawal, N., et al, (2020). In this work, the topographical map of the site

was adapted from Lawal, N., et al, (2020) as depicted in Figure 3.4 of chapter three.

Hydrological Survey: In this section, the hydrological setting of the proposed site was

studied and analyzed. This was done by capturing and the monthly water surface area for one

year with the aid of Google Earth pro and, the results were tabulated in Table 3.4. The water

surface area was then used to calculate stored water volume in the reservoir for the months of

the year using equation 3.7 adapted from Inguniwar, T. E., et al, (2018). The volumes were

later used to calculate the discharge of water to the turbine using equation 3.8 as shown below.

Table 4.3 Monthly Water Level, Surface Area, Stored Volume and Discharge
Qm
Month Depth (m) Area (m^2) Volume (m^3)
(m^3/s)
January 10.9 1824171 47130079 17.6
February 10.6 1742299 44343504 17.7
March 10.1 1525733 37181310 13.9
April 9.7 1496299 36232339 13.98
May 10.2 1577247 38856571 14.51
June 10.5 1799353 46280967 17.86
July 11.7 1957112 51742130 19.31
August 12 2020052 53962138 20.15
September 11.8 2097885 64027550 24.7
October 11.6 2051728 55088044 20.57
November 11.4 2071009 55776172 21.51

December 11.2 2060708 55408273 20.69

71
 ( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

72
 ( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

73
14

12

10

6
Series1
4

Figure 4.1 Monthly Water level of the Reservoir

Figure 4.2 Annual Water Surface Area Variation

74
 Volume (m^3)
70000000

60000000

50000000

40000000

30000000 Volume (m^3)

20000000

10000000

0
0 5 10 15

Figure 4.3 Annual Variation of Stored Water Volume

Flow Duration Curve: with the discharge data calculated, the flow duration curve can

be generated. This was done by first calculating the percentage of exceedance using excel

formula tool. These data are tabulated in Table 4.3.

Table 4.4 Discharge data

3
Rank Discharge (m /s) % Exceedance Average Discharge
1 24.7 8.33 18.54083

2 21.52 16.67 18.54083

3 20.69 25 18.54083

4 20.57 33.33333 18.54083

5 20.15 41.66667 18.54083

6 19.31 50 18.54083

7 17.86 58.33333 18.54083

8 17.7 66.66667 18.54083

9 17.6 75 18.54083

75
 10 14.51 83.33333 18.54083

11 13.98 91.66667 18.54083

12 13.9 100 18.54083

FDC
30

25

20
Q (m^3/s)

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
% Exeedence

Figure 4.4 Flow Duration Curve

Using the excel graph tool, flow duration curve was plotted. From the flow data, average

annual flow was determined as 18.54083 m3/s.

4.1.4 Civil and Structural Design

In this section, design parameters were calculated for the civil and structural works as

presented below.

Intake Structure: From site analysis, intake point has been identified as a point on the

dam, close to the existing intake tower access track at latitude of 11,575895 and a longitude of

7.207124 and an altitude of 630.936 m. The intake canal was designed to be excavated and

constructed of reinforced concrete across the dam fill. The dimension of the dam is determined

from the following measurements and calculations.

76
Given that the average discharge into the turbine is 18.54083 m3/s, it is desirable that this

volume of water travels at least five seconds in the intake canal before settling in the fore-bay.

Since the thickness of dam is measured at 56 m, additional 4 m outside the dam wall is added

to isolate the fore-bay form the dam structure. The total length of the canal is therefore 60 m.

For a single discharge volume to take five seconds from the reservoir to the fore bay, the canal

should be able to accommodate five times single discharge volume at any given time.

Therefore

The capacity of the canal should be 5*Qav

Since the length of the canal is designed to be 60 m, the cross-sectional area of the canal is

therefore

The canal is designed to be of a square cross-section. The cross-sectional length and breadth is

therefore determined to be √

The canal dimension is therefore presented as

Longitudinal length: 60 m

Cross-sectional length: 1.243 m

Cross-sectional breadth: 1.243 m

Fore-bay: It is desired that the fore-bay be of sufficient volumetric capacity to

accommodate the discharge of five-minutes before being exhausted without replenishment.

This is so that the penstock becomes completely submerged at all times to avoid turbulence
77
and air bubbles that may destabilize the required smooth flow into the turbine chambers. The

desired capacity of the fore-bay can therefore be determined thus:

The design of the fore-bay considered the need for the effective volume of the fore-bay to be

at least 2 m deep, below the floor of its intake canal. Therefore, the floor area of the fore-bay

was determined to be.

The floor was also designed to be a square surface. The length and breadth of the floor was

determined therefore as a square root of the floor area.

√ √

The dimension of the fore-bay is, therefore.

In summary, the following results were obtained by measurements and calculations from civil

and structural design and analysis.

Table 4.5 Civil and structural design parameters

# Quantity Value/Unit Remark
1. Canal dimension 1.243 m * 1.243 m * 60 m Calculated

2. Fore-bay dimension 52.7 m * 52.7 m * 2 m Calculated

3. Dam thickness 56 m Measured

4. Dam height 13 m Measured

78
 5. Gross Head 10.9 m Calculated

Powerhouse: the powerhouse is located at the edge of the tailrace of the reservoir spillway.

This location was strategically selected for its proximity to the tailrace which in essence

reduces the length of the turbine tailrace by utilizing the existing tailrace of the reservoir to

serve the powerhouse too. The architectural design of the powerhouse is left for the detailed

design phase. However, the location is important in determining the length of the penstock to

be installed.

The ground distance from the fore-bay to the powerhouse was measured from Google Earth

Pro to be 65 m. The penstock intake on the fore-bay is at a height of ( ) .

Applying Pythagoras theorem, the penstock length is determined as

Penstock: The penstock in this application is desired to be of galvanized steel (pressure

pipe). The diameter of the pipe was determined from equation 3.11, taking Manning’s

coefficients for smooth steel as 0.012,

( )

Thickness of the penstock pipe is determined from equation 3.12,

79
Generation Potential: The main goal of this research work is to determine how much

electricity can be generated from Gwaigwaye Reservoir. This aspect was achieved in this

section using equation 3.10 as described in chapter three.

4.1.5 Electromechanical Design and Analysis

In this section, the components that convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy and then to

electrical energy are selected from results of analysis.

Hydraulic Turbine: as the penstock was separated into four separate pieces, so also was the

turbines separated into 445 kW capacities. The turbine application chart of Figure 3.10 was

used to identify the most suitable turbine type for this application. It is a conventional practice

to use turbine application chart in selecting turbine type for any site configuration which is

based on discharge or flow rate in m3/s, head in meters and output power (generation) in

Watts.

From the chart, the point of convergence of discharge of 18.54 m3/s, head of 10.9 m and

output power of 445 kW falls within the envelope of Kaplan turbine. This is because this site

configuration can be categorized as low head, low discharge, and low output power. However,

a more appropriate turbine type for this setting can be a bulb turbine. Its operations are like

Kaplan turbine with added advantage of better yield under very low head. Notwithstanding,

Kaplan turbine can be employed for this application, but it has proven to be uneconomical for

very low heads.

Specific Speed: To ascertain the selection of bulb turbine for this application, specific

speed of the system was calculated and compared with the range of specific speeds within

80
which bulb turbine is best suited for generation. However, to determine the specific speed as

described in equation 3.14 of chapter three, the rotational speed of the system was calculated

first. This was done with the aid of equation 3.13 as shown below.

For a four-pole generator.

The specific speed is therefore determined to be

This value of specific speed indicates that the best type of turbine for this application is bulb

turbine having a specific speed range of 750 rpm to 1200 rpm.

Generator: The generator for this application was selected to match the requirements of the

load as well as the statutory regulations. NERC requires that voltages for utility in Nigeria for

domestic, commercial and industrial applications must be 230 V or 220 V, 400/230 V or

380/220 V and 15,000 V, 11,000 V, 400/230 V or 380/220 V respectively (Electrical

Installation Guide, 2022), and have a frequency of 50 Hz ± 1%. For this purpose, the generator

was selected as 4 – pole synchronous generator. The output power was determined considering

a Transmission and Distribution loss of 5% and own use of power by the station limited to 1%.

Therefore, the output power of the generator, from equation 3.6 is given as

81
4.1.6 Transmission and Distribution Network Design

As explained in chapter three, the generation voltage is usually within the range of 11.5 to 16

kV. It was therefore designed that the generated voltage is stepped up to 33 kV to match the

sub-transmission bus voltage at the transmission substation. It is therefore designed that a

control substation should incorporate a 2 MVA step – up transformer together with its

associated control and protection hardware.

The site is located at 21.3 km from Funtua Transmission Substation. This distance should be

covered with 426 spans of 33 kV distribution line to the 33 kV distribution bus, together with

the associated distribution infrastructure.

4.2 ECONOMIC VIABILITY ANALYSIS

As explained in chapter three, the total initial cost of installation of the project was determined

in the Bill of Engineering Measurements and Evaluations (BEME). The cost breakdown

summary is shown below.

Cost Summary:

Civil and Structural Works N41,425,000.00 - Provisional Sum

Powerhouse Equipment N48,400,000.00 - Provisional Sum

Transmission infrastructure N105,623,000.00 - Provisional Sum

82
Detailed BEME:

Table 4.6 Bill of Engineering Measurements and Evaluations (BEME)

# Description Quantity Unit (Naira) Cost (Naira)
A. Civil and Structural works

1. Site clearance and ground N/A P/S 2,000,000.00

preparation

2. Construction of a 1.243 m x 60 m long P/S 5,000,000.00

1.243 m x 60 m reinforced

concrete intake canal

3. Construction of a 52.7 m x 2 m deep P/S 10,000,000.00

52.7 m reinforced concrete

for-bay

4. Construction of reinforced 10 nos. 300,000.00 3,000,000.00

concrete bases to support the

penstock.

5. Thrust boring across dam P/S 15,000,000.00

wall. P/S 1,000,000.00

6. Construction of the P/S

powerhouse 3,500,000.00

7. Equipment rental 1,925,000.00

8. Contingencies 41,425,000.00

Subtotal 1

83
B. Hydrological, Mechanical and

Electrical Equipment in the

Powerhouse

1. Provision and installation of 22 nos. 750,000.00 16,500,000.00

galvanized steel penstock

pipe

2. Provision and installation of 4 no. 5,625,000.00 22,500,000.00

750 rpm bulb turbine 445 W

complete with generators.

3. Construction of tailrace Bulk sum P/S 5,000,000.00

4. Contingencies P/S 4,400,000.00

Subtotal 2 48,400,000.00

C. Transmission and Distribution

1. Provision and installation of 1 no. 7,000,000.00

a 2 MVA, 11/33 kV

generation transformer

2. Provision and installation of 43 no. 55,000.00 2,365,000.00

33 kV lightning arresters

complete set

3. Earthing and PE wire Bulk sum P/S 3,500,000.00

4. Provision and installation of 1 no. 50,000.00

11 kV lightening arrestors

complete set

84
5. Provision and installation of 1 no. 150,000.00

33 kV drop-out fuse

6. Provision and installation of 1 no. 150,000.00

11 kV drop-out fuse

7. Provision and installation of 469 nos. 45,000.00 21,105,000

10.6 m reinforced concrete

poles for 33 kV line

8. Provision and installation of 383 nos. 35,000.00 13,475,000

33 kV cross – arm complete

with tie straps and associated

bolt and nuts

9. Provision and installation of 86 nos. 20,000.00 1,700,000.00

33 kV set of tension clamp.

10. Provision and installation of 86 nos. 50,000.00 4,300,000.00

33 kV galvanized channel

iron

11. Provision and installation of 4 nos. 40,000.00 160,000.00

33 kV galvanized angle iron

12. Provision and installation of 1,149 nos. 6,000.00 6,894,000.00

33 kV pin insulators, spindle

and associated nuts and

washers

13. Provision and installation of 129 nos. 6,000.00 774,000.00

85
 33 kV disk insulator

(complete D – set)

14. Provision and installation of 100 nos. 45,000.00 4,500,000.00

stay-wire complete assembly

with stay insulator, rod, base

arrangement and fastening

devices.

15. Provision and installation of 79,000 m 500.00 39,500,000.00

150 mm2 ACSR Aluminum

conductor for overhead line

Subtotal 3 105,623,000

D. Summary

A. Civil and Structural Works 41,425,000.00

B. Hydrological, Mechanical 48,400,000.00

and Electrical Equipment

in the Powerhouse

C. Transmission and 105,623,000.00

Distribution

Total: 195,448,000.00

Allow 5% for project

administration: 9,772,400.00

Grand Total: 205,220,400.00

86
Projection of Annual Revenue Generation: It is assumed that the generated electricity in this

hydropower project will be dispatched at 90% utilization factor. The annual energy dispatched

will therefore be.

According to NERC, electricity generated in Nigeria should be sold using the Multi Year

Tariff Order. Kano Electricity Distribution Company (KEDCO) operates a MYTO scheme

shown below.

Table 4.7 2023 MYTO rates for Kano Electricity Distribution Company
TARIFF PLAN PRICE (N)
R1 4.00 Lifeline 50 kWh Residential

R2A 18.49 Single phase Residential

R2B 24.33 3 – phase Residential

R3 35.03 LV Maximum Residential

Demand
R4 35.03 HV Maximum Residential
Demand 11/33 kV
C1A 19.47 Single phase Commercial

C1B 24.34 3 – phase Commercial

C2 33.09 LV Maximum Commercial

Demand
C3 33.09 HV Maximum Commercial
Demand 11/33 kV Industrial
D1 26.27 Single and 3 – phase

D2 34.06 LV Maximum Industrial

Demand
D3 34.06 HV Maximum Industrial
Demand 11/33 kV
A1 26.27 Single and 3 – phase

A2 26.27 LV Maximum Special

87
 Demand

A3 26.27 HV Maximum Special

Demand 11/33 kV

S1 20.44 Single and 3 – phase Street Lighting

The proposed generating plant is intended to supply Funtua town, where the largest portion of

demand is from residential and commercial consumers. The revenue projection will assume an

average rate between the different categories of residential and commercial customers thus:

( )

( )

Similarly,

( )

For the year 2025,

( )

88
 ( )

( )

If the projected annual energy generation is multiplied by the average tariff, we get the annual

revenue projection.

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

Annual Expenditure Estimate: It is assumed that since this project is small, the running

expenditure can be limited. The following costs are therefore estimated to incur recurrently per

annum.

Table 4.8 Running costs

# Cost % of revenue Amount (N)

1. Maintenance cost 5 14,959,178

89
2. Operations and administrative cost 5 14,959,178

3. Wages and salaries 10 29,918,356

Total: 119,673,424

4.2.1 Net Present Value (NPV)

To examine the economic viability of this project, one of the tools employed was NPV. It is

assumed that the discount rate is at 2%. The cash flow for five years is given below.

Table 4.9 NPV calculation table

Yr Cash flow Interest factor Present value

Revenue – Expenditure = (1+r)-n = Cash * Int. F

0 (205,220,400.00) 1 (205,220,400.00)

1 179,510,136 0.33333 59,836,712

2 231,151,576 0.11111 25,683,508.44

3 179,559,466 0.0370370 6,502,201.69

4 233,817,846 0.012345679 2,886,640.07

5 229,748,276 0.0041152263 945,466.15

The Net Present Value is therefore determined as NPV was

determined to be positive, indicating the viability of the project.

90
 300000000
250000000
200000000
150000000
100000000 Yr
50000000 Cash flow
0 Interest factor
-50000000 1 2 3 4 5 6
Present value
-1E+08
-1.5E+08
-2E+08
-2.5E+08

Figure 4.5 Net Present Value

4.2.2 Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

To calculate the internal rate of return, we apply equation 3.16.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

From MS Excel analysis, the IRR was found to be 10%. When this value is compared with the

discount rate of 2%, the IRR is greater. This indicates that the project is profitable.

4.3 STATUTORY REGULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION ANALYSIS

As explained in chapter three, statutory regulations guiding the generation, distribution, and

utilization of electricity in Nigeria have been investigated and the results are presented here in

this section.

91
4.3.1 Nigeria Electricity Regulatory Commission (NERC)

For any power generation project intended to serve two or more customers, NERC is the

regulatory agency saddled with responsibilities of monitoring and ensuring quality and

conformity. The following are NERC’s requirements for an embedded power generation

project.

1. Licensing for generation of power

2. Application and registration of the generating station

4.3.2 Land Use Permit and Environmental Protection

It was investigated as laid down in chapter three, that the site proposed for this project is under

the custody of Katsina State Ministry of Water Resources. All necessary permits must

therefore be acquired thereof. It is pertinent to consult Katsina State Ministry of Works,

Ministry of Lands and Survey, and Ministry of Agriculture for professional advice and

guidance.

Federal and State Ministries of Works and Housing as well as Federal Ministry of

Environments provide professional guidance, requirements, and templates on how to conduct

Environmental Impact Assessment.

4.3.3 Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN)

COREN is the regulatory agency that oversees the practices of engineering practitioners in

Nigeria. They provide license, policies, and regulations to ensure that engineering products

and services are safe, secure, and reliable. It is therefore pertinent to ensure that the regulations

of COREN are adhered to in the construction of this project.

92
4.4 FINDINGS

The following facts and figures are the results found from this research.

1. Locations for major structures to be structure to be constructed on site for this

hydroelectricity generation project are Intake point: A point on the dam close to

the existing intake tower access track located at latitude 11.575917 and longitude

7.207110; Powerhouse: latitude 11.577115 and longitude 7.206979 at the edge of

the existing reservoir spill way tail race. Other structural components such as the intake

canal, the fore-bay and the penstock are strategically located between these two ends.

The gross head was found to be 10.9 m from the difference in elevation between the

intake point and the ground elevation of the powerhouse.

2. The total connected load intended to be supplied was found to be 19 MW, however,

this value had been modified by means of demand factor to reflect the actual demand.

The new value was found to be 13.3 MW. The generation capacity that would be

capable of safely and continuously supplying this demand was found to be 14 MW, by

taking TD – losses and own – use by the plant to be 5% and 1% respectively.

3. Hydrological survey revealed the average discharge obtainable as 18.54 m3/s. This was

calculated from the monthly volume of water stored by the reservoir in a year.

4. Analysis of the design requirements of civil and structural works revealed that the

dimension of the canal should be 60 m long with a square cross-section of 1.243 m x

1.243 m. The dimension of the fore-bay was equally determined as 52.7 m x 52.7 m

square floor, 2 m deep. The penstocks need to be 66 m long with a total diameter of 0.8

m and gross thickness of 2.5 cm. It has however been desired that the penstocks be

made four separate smaller pipes with smaller cross-section and thickness. This is done

93
 so that the resulting reduction in cross-section will reduce turbulence and ease handing

during construction. The resultant smaller penstocks were found to have a diameter of

20 cm and a thickness of 6.25 mm each.

5. The generation potential for this configuration was calculated as 1.78 MW.

6. The four turbines were selected to be bulb turbines with capacity of 445 kW each to

generate the cumulative 1.78 MW. They would have a rotational speed of 750 rpm and

specific speed of 895 rpm. The generators were selected to suit the turbine

specifications as well. Their capacities were augmented to 500 kW each to provide for

own use and TD – losses.

7. A generation transformer (step – up transformer) was designed to step – up the

generation voltage from 11.5 kV to 33 kV to suite the distribution bus voltage at the

transmission substation. The transformer is designed to be 2 MVA, 11/33 kV

transformer. The distance from the site to the transmission substation was found to be

21.3 km. this distance would be covered with a 33 kV sub-transmission line.

8. The project cost was estimated and summarized as follows. Civil and Structural Works

Provisional Sum of N41,425,000.00; Powerhouse Equipment Provisional Sum of

N48,400,000.00; Transmission infrastructure Provisional Sum of N105,623,000.00

9. It is found that the project would generate an annual energy of 14.033 GWh, which

would be sold at an average MYTO tariff of N25/kWh and generate an annual revenue

of N350,825,000 per annum.

10. Economic analysis using NPV and IRR revealed that the project would be a profitable

venture if executed.

11. Investigations revealed that permits and professional advice should be obtained from

the state and federal ministries of works and housing, land and survey and
94
environments. Likewise, NERC and COREN should be consulted for relevant

licensing, regulations, and guidelines.

95
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSSIONS

From the results and findings of this research work and reflecting on the objectives of the

research, the following conclusions can be drawn.

1. The locations identified for the major site structures took advantage of the existing

reservoir infrastructure, such as dam wall, tailrace, access road and intake tower.

2. The surface area was used in this work to calculate the volume of the water and

consequently the flow rate. This is due to absence of flow gauging at River

Gwaigwaye, like in many rivers in Nigeria. This technique can be used therefore as an

alternative to flow gauging data.

3. The selected hydraulic, mechanical, and electrical equipment for the powerhouse may

not be the only option for selection however it is considered the optimal selection for

the prevailing site configuration in question.

4. The power generation of the project, 1.78 MW precisely, when compared to the

demand of the target load 13.3 MW, cannot suffice to supply the load. However, it is

only intended for the project to complement the supply from national grid.

5. As a general conclusion, the research is found to satisfy its purpose; the Hydro-

generating potential has been determined, components to be used to achieve this

potential have been identified; and the project was found to be economically viable.

96
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

From the fore going in this research, the following recommendations were made:

1. As identified in the background of study, access to quality and reliable supply of

electricity is essential for economic development of any society. So also, the national

grid cannot continuously supply the electricity demand of Funtua community. It is

deemed worthy to recommend that Katsina State Government make a provision in its

budgets for capital expenditure to implement this project.

2. Further studies can be done to examine the generation potential of Mairuwa Dam to

explore the potential of other resources.

3. As the demand for electricity by the target load is high and the supply is low even with

this project more supply is needed to make access to electricity an achievable goal.

5. CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

This research has highlighted the factual feasibility of hydroelectricity generation at the

Gwaigwaye Reservoir. It is therefore a basis for further analysis and design. Methodology

adapted as well as the Results obtained should inspire young talents to come up with more

innovative alternative solutions. In addition, this research when mirrored and suitably tailored,

will serve as a guide for similar study in other locations.

97
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