Clinical examination of the thoracic spine
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principal differences between the thoracic and
the lumbar and cervical spines . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Referred pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pain referred from musculoskeletal structures . . . . 366
Pain referred from visceral structures . . . . . . . . 369
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Paraesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Anticoagulant treatment and bleeding
disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Inspection and palpation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scoliosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Kyphosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Functional examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Sitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Lying prone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Accessory tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Technical investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction
Thoracic or abdominal wall pain is a common complaint and
poses a major diagnostic challenge to physician and therapist.
The pain is often referred from visceral disorders, although
the frequency of musculoskeletal lesions of the thorax and the
abdomen should not be underestimated. A physician not
familiar with the musculoskeletal disorders of the region could
be tempted to ascribe unexplained pain to vague lesions such
as intercostal neuralgia, neuritis, cardiac neurosis, pleurodynia
© Copyright 2013 Elsevier, Ltd. All rights reserved.
25 
or rib syndromes. Again, lack of an exact diagnosis leads to
365 inadequate and unsuccessful treatment. The absence of a
precise (orthopaedic) diagnosis can, to a certain extent, be a
consequence of the complexity of the region itself. However,
another important reason is the lack of an appropriate clinical
366 approach to this part of the body. Thorough examination
should not be restricted to the routine visceral examination
(e.g. auscultation, percussion and palpation) but also must
include proper orthopaedic and neurological tests. Although a
370
large number of reliable technical investigations for detecting
all types of visceral disorders are available, the same cannot
be said when it comes to musculoskeletal disorders, for
which technical investigations are often of limited diagnostic
value.
372 Clinically, the thoracic region is approached in a different
way from the cervical or the lumbar spine because it behaves
differently in many aspects.
372
Principal differences between the thoracic
and the lumbar and cervical spines
Visceral versus musculoskeletal pain
376
Because referred pain from visceral problems can mimic pain
381 of musculoskeletal origin and vice versa, the first step towards
diagnosis must always be to differentiate these two categories.
The character of the pain is usually of little help in the dif-
ferential diagnosis because it has the same features in both.
Pain referred from heart, lungs and intestines is usually poorly
localized and vaguely delineated, and is referred to a segmental
or multisegmental distribution. The behaviour of the pain may
also mislead the examiner. One of the main characteristics of
pain in lesions of moving parts is that it is brought on by
posture and movement. This is also the case in thoracic lesions:
if the patient’s symptoms depend on activity rather than on
visceral function, a cause originating from moving parts should
be considered. However, it is important to keep in mind the
 The Thoracic Spine
Visceral Musculoskeletal
examination examination
is negative is positive
Orthopaedic lesion
Discodural Non-discal lesion
Discoradicular
Fig 25.1 • Routine for differentiation between thoracic and
abdominal wall pain.
fact that posture, physical activity, a deep breath or a cough
may also influence visceral pain in the thorax or abdomen.
The best method of differentiating is to work in two com-
plementary ways: exclusion of any visceral disorder through a
thorough internal check-up, together with positive confirma-
tion of a provisional orthopaedic diagnosis (Fig. 25.1). This
routine will also safeguard against unnecessary technical inves-
tigations and delays in diagnosis and treatment.1–3
Discal lesions
Discodural and discoradicular interactions are well-known
causes of cervical and lumbar pain.
In a discodural lesion, a shifted component of the disc
impinges on the dura and causes pain that has multisegmental
characteristics (crossing the midline and occupying several der-
matomes). Discodural conflicts are characterized by two sets
of symptoms and signs: articular and dural (see Ch. 33).
In a discoradicular lesion, the subluxated disc component
impinges on the nerve root and its dural sleeve. The pain and
paraesthesia that result are strictly segmental. Discoradicular
conflicts are characterized by three sets of symptoms and signs:
articular, root and cord.
Disc lesions also commonly occur in the thoracic spine but
often show characteristics that are quite different from those
found at the lumbar and cervical spines.
• The articular signs are subtle: a discodural interaction at
the cervical or lumbar level usually presents with a clear
partial articular pattern: some movements hurt or are
limited and others do not, always in an asymmetrical way.
This is not so in the thoracic spine. Because of the rigidity
of the thorax, such an obvious pattern is seldom found.
Very often, only one of the six passive movements, usually
a rotation, is positive and then only slightly so. Therefore
diagnosis in the thoracic spine is more tentative and may
have to be based on smaller, subtler abnormalities.
• Neurological deficit is seldom encountered in a thoracic
disc lesion: whereas some degree of neurological deficit is
a common finding in cervical or lumbar posterolateral disc
lesions, muscular weakness is rarely detectable in thoracic
discoradicular lesions. Also, disturbance of sensation is
very rare. This absence of neurological signs is probably
the outcome of the location of the nerve root in the
intervertebral foramen, where it lies mainly behind the
366
lower aspect of the vertebral body and less behind the
disc (see online chapter Applied anatomy of the thorax
and abdomen).
• There is no tendency to spontaneous recovery: in the
lumbar and cervical spines there is usually a spontaneous
cure for root pain, which seldom lasts longer than 4
months at the cervical level and 12 months at the lumbar
level. At the thoracic level, no such tendency exists and
constant root pain can persist for many years.
• Protrusions can usually be reduced: although thoracic disc
lesions are more difficult to diagnose, they are easily and
effectively cured. Protrusions – no matter how long they
have been present, or whether they are posterocentral or
posterolateral, or soft or hard – can usually be reduced by
1–3 sessions of manipulations. Unlike at the lumbar or
cervical levels, time is not a criterion for reducibility.
Hence a disc displacement may well prove reducible after
constant root pain, even of several years’ standing.
Traction is seldom required because the protrusions are
usually of the annular type.
Non-discal lesions
In the thorax, non-discal musculoskeletal lesions are also
encountered frequently. To name but a few: ribs, rib joints,
cartilage, intercostal and abdominal muscles. This is in contrast
to the cervical and lumbar spines, where lesions of the disc are
the principal cause of dysfunction and pain.
Referred pain
Both musculoskeletal and visceral lesions can be the source of
pain referred to the thoracic and/or abdominal wall.
Pain referred from musculoskeletal
structures
Dura mater and nerve roots
Pain originating from the dura mater is referred in a multiseg-
mental way: it crosses the midline and may cover several con-
secutive dermatomes (see p. 18). A possible explanation for
this phenomenon may lie in its multisegmental origin, which
is reflected in the considerable overlap between the fibres of
the consecutive sinuvertebral nerves innervating its anterior
aspect.4 Recent research has demonstrated that dural pain may
spread over eight segments with considerable overlap between
adjacent and contralateral dura mater.5 This may be an explana-
tion for the fact that lower cervical discodural conflicts may
produce pain that spreads into the upper thoracic level (Fig.
25.2a) or that lumbar dural pain causes pain in the lower tho-
racic region (Fig. 25.2b).
Pain originating from a nerve root sleeve has a strict segmen-
tal reference and is restricted to the borders of the
dermatome.
Thoracic disc lesions may thus cause referred pain in the
thorax, not only as the result of extrasegmental reference in
 Clinical examination of the thoracic spine
(a)
(b)
Fig 25.2 • Extrasegmental pain: (a) cervical origin; (b) thoracic
origin.
the case of discodural contact, but also when a discoradicular
interaction has been created. However, cervical and lumbar
discal lesions may also be the origin of thoracic referred pain.
Cervical disc lesions
Some cervical disc lesions may cause pain in the thoracic
region.
Cervical discodural interactions
Low cervical discodural interactions very often result in uni-
lateral interscapular pain, usually felt above T6 and spread over
several dermatomes. The pain is also often referred to the
sternum and the precordial region. Exceptionally, the pain may
be felt only in the anterior chest, so misleading almost all clini-
cians. It is important to remember that extrasegmentally
referred pain of cervical origin never spreads into the upper
limb (see p. 18).
C H A P T E R 2 5 
Cervical discoradicular interactions
A posterolateral disc protrusion compressing the C5, C6, C7
or C8 nerve root gives rise to unilateral root pain characterized
mainly by a sharp pain down the upper limb. There may also
be some degree of scapular pain, especially in C7 lesions, but
this is usually not very severe (see p. 156).
The C4 nerve root gives rise to pain in the trapezius area,
the infraclavicular chest and the scapular region above the
scapular spine.
Thoracic disc lesions
Thoracic discodural and discoradicular interactions are common
causes of referred pain in the thoracic and abdominal region.
Thoracic discodural interactions
It is important to note that extrasegmental pain from a postero­
central thoracic disc protrusion usually remains in the trunk
itself, where it can spread anteriorly and/or posteriorly over
several segments (see Fig. 25.2b). It seldom spreads into the
neck or into the buttocks. The pain is usually unilateral and
spreads over several segments. Exceptionally it is felt centrally
at the spine, radiating bilaterally towards the sides.
Thoracic discoradicular interactions
A posterolateral impingement on the two upper thoracic roots
produces pain felt in the arm (Fig. 25.3). If the T1 nerve root
is involved, pain may be referred to the ulnar side of the
forearm, whereas a T2 nerve root compression gives rise to
pain felt over the inner aspect of the arm from the elbow to
the axilla, at the anterior aspect of the upper thorax around
the clavicle and at the posterior upper thorax around the
scapular spine. Clinically the upper two thoracic segments
belong to the cervical spine and are thus most easily examined
with the cervical segments.
If the 3rd–12th root is compressed, pain spreads unilaterally
as a band around the thorax, sometimes reaching anteriorly as
far as the sternum (see Fig. 25.3).
The following landmarks may be helpful in determining
which root is involved:
• If pain is felt around the nipple, the T5 nerve root is at
fault.
• Because the epigastrium belongs to the T7 and T8
segments, pain present here arises from structures of the
same origin.
• Pain at the umbilicus and in the iliac fossa may point to a
lesion of the T9, T10 and T11 nerve roots.
• If the T11 or T12 thoracic root is compressed, pain may
be referred to the groin or even further down to the
testicle.
Lumbar disc lesions
Lumbar discodural interactions
Extrasegmentally referred pain from a lumbar discodural inter-
action is usually felt in the lumbar area and the abdomen,
sometimes radiating into the lower limbs. The pain seldom
spreads into the lower thorax.
Lumbar discoradicular interactions
Segmentally referred pain from L1, L2 and L3 nerve roots may
be felt in the side and in the groin.
367
 The Thoracic Spine
T1
T2 T3
Fig 25.3 • Segmental referred pain of thoracic origin.
Nerves
Neuritis
Neuritis of the spinal accessory nerve, the long thoracic nerve
and the suprascapular nerve can provoke unilateral pain at the
base of the neck and over the scapula.
Herpes zoster
In that the thorax is often the seat of a herpes zoster infection,
unilateral spontaneous pain of recent onset always calls for a
careful inspection of the skin for erythema and grouped
vesicles.
Bones
Osseous structures usually do not give rise to much in the way
of referred pain; the pain remains typically local. Intense
though localized pain is a warning sign and the following condi-
tions should be considered:
• Traumatic fracture of a vertebral body: severe central pain
is to be expected for about 2–6 weeks. For the first week
there is often girdle pain. Thereafter it gradually
disappears. If uncomplicated, spontaneous cure is to be
expected within 12 weeks.
368
T5 T7
T10 T12
• Vertebral tumours: all types of bony tumour of the
vertebrae, primary or metastatic, as well as infections,
initially provoke local pain in the centre of the back.
• Contusion or fracture of a rib: the patient can point
exactly to the tender spot. The same is the case in
malignant invasion.
• Disorders of the sternum: traumatic disorders and tumours
of the sternum may also give rise to local sternal pain.
Joints and ligaments
Ligaments and joints consistently obey the rules of referred
pain, which means that the deeper the location of the affected
structure and the closer its position to the midline, the more
referred pain is to be expected. On the other hand, the further
the lesion lies from the spinal axis and the more superficial it
is, the more accurate will be its localization by the pain it
provokes.
• Manubriosternal and sternoclavicular joints: as these are
superficially located, the pain is felt locally.
• Costochondral and chondrosternal joints (Tietze’s
syndrome and costochondritis): the patient is able to
indicate the site of the lesion accurately.
 Clinical examination of the thoracic spine
• Intervertebral facet joints: these give rise to unilateral
paravertebral pain, felt deeply and locally, but not going
further lateral than the medial edge of the scapula. If
several joints are affected at the same time, as may be the
case in ankylosing spondylitis, the pain spreads more in a
craniocaudal direction than mediolaterally; the opposite is
true for a disc protrusion.
• Costovertebral and costotransverse joints: the pain is felt
unilaterally between the vertebral column and the scapula.
• Anterior longitudinal ligament: when this ligament is
affected, pain is usually located anteriorly behind the
sternum.
• Posterior longitudinal ligament: involvement of this
ligament causes pain in the back, felt centrally between
the scapulae.
• Disorders of the costocoracoid fascia or the trapezoid and
conoid ligaments (see online chapter Disorders of the inert
structures): the pain is usually felt in the infraclavicular
fossa.
Muscular lesions
Muscular sprains of the intercostal muscles, the abdominals
and the muscles of the shoulder girdle usually provoke well-
localized pain at the site of the lesion.
Pain referred from visceral structures
The heart
Pain arising from disorders of the heart can be referred to
dermatomes C8–T4 because the heart is derived largely from
these segments. Therefore pain can radiate towards the tip of
the shoulder, to the anterior chest and to the corresponding
region of the back. It may also be referred towards the ulnar
side of both upper limbs, though referral to the left side is
more common (Fig. 25.4a). Pain from the pericardium always
arises from the parietal surface because this is the only part
which has a sensory innervation.
The aorta
Pain from the aorta, as in dissecting aneurysm, may be felt
behind the sternum or in the abdomen, depending on the exact
level of the disorder. It often radiates into the back and may
expand as the lesion progresses.
The lungs
The lungs are insensitive. Therefore pain is caused either by
the parietal pleura, as in pleurisy, or by invasion of the chest
wall by a tumour.
The parietal pleura
Pleuritic pain is caused by an inflammation of the parietal
pleura (pleurisy). Though the visceral pleura does not contain
any nociceptors, the parietal pleura is innervated by somatic
nerves that sense pain when the parietal pleura is inflamed.
Parietal pleurae of the outer rib cage and lateral aspect of each
C H A P T E R 2 5 
hemidiaphragm are innervated by intercostal nerves. Pain is
localized to the cutaneous distribution of those nerves. The
phrenic nerve supplies innervations to the central part of each
hemidiaphragm which is a C4 structure, with pain reference
to the trapezius area.6
The oesophagus
Disorders of the oesophagus (T4–T6) usually give rise to pain
felt at any part of the sternum, often radiating between the
scapulae into the back (Fig. 25.4b).
The diaphragm
The central part of the diaphragm is mainly derived from the
third, fourth and sometimes, although rarely, the fifth cervical
segments. Pain from irritation of the central part of the dia-
phragm is felt at the tip of the shoulders and the base of the
neck. Pain from the peripheral part is felt more locally in the
lower thorax and in the upper abdomen at the costal margin
(Fig. 25.4c).
The stomach and duodenum
Pain from stomach and duodenum (T6–T10) is most com-
monly felt in the epigastrium and upper abdomen, sometimes
substernally and exceptionally in the lower thoracic part of the
back (Fig. 25.4d).
The liver, gallbladder and bile ducts
The liver is derived from the right side of T7–T9. The gallblad-
der and bile ducts are of right T6–T10 origin. Pain is felt in
the right hypochondrium and may radiate towards the inferior
angle of the right scapula (T7–T9) (Fig. 25.4e).
The pancreas
Patients suffering from a pancreatic disorder complain of upper
abdominal pain often referred to the back at T8 (Fig. 25.4f ).
The spleen
Pain arising from disorders of the spleen is usually felt in the
left hypochondrium, sometimes in the left side at low thoracic
level (T7–T10).
The small intestine, appendix and colon
Problems in the small intestine (T9–T10) give rise to pain felt
around the umbilicus. In disorders of the colon (T10–S5), pain
is usually felt in the neighbourhood of the lesion. The appendix
is a T10–L1 structure.
The kidneys and ureters
Disorders of kidney and ureters (T10–L1) give rise to pain felt
posteriorly in the side, at and just below the lower ribs, and at
the anterolateral aspect of the abdomen. The pain often radi-
ates towards the testicles or the labia (Fig. 25.4g).7
369
 The Thoracic Spine

(a) Heart Oesophagus (b)

(c) Diaphragm Stomach (d)

(e) Gallbladder Pancreas (f)

(g) Kidney–Ovary–Testicles

Fig 25.4 • Pain referred from visceral structures: (a) heart; (b) oesophagus; (c) diaphragm; (d) stomach; (e) gallbladder; (f) pancreas;
(g) kidney/ovary/testicles.

Reproductive system between the patient’s symptoms and positions or activities

does not necessarily exclude a visceral disorder, because in
Disorders of the ovaries (T11–L1) may result in unilateral low
several visceral disorders the same relationship exists.
abdominal pain, sometimes felt in the periumbilical area. Tes-
The history is kept simple and clear. Detailed information
ticular problems (T11–L1) give rise to scrotal pain, sometimes
is elicited about pain, paraesthesia and the intake of anticoagu-
radiating into the groin and to the side.
lants or the presence of bleeding disorders.
See Box 25.1 for a summary of referred pain in the thorax
and abdomen.
Pain
History
What made the pain come on?
In dealing with pain in the thorax or abdomen, the main goal If the patient mentions an injury to the chest, a bony problem
of history taking is to differentiate between musculoskeletal of the ribs, sternum or vertebra is likely. In a pathological
and visceral problems. As already pointed out, a relationship fracture sudden pain may follow a very trivial movement.

370
 Clinical examination of the thoracic spine C H A P T E R 2 5 

When the pain has come on without trauma, it is of interest

Box 25.1  to know what the patient was doing at the time and in which
position the body was held. Thoracic disc lesions are, just like
Summary of referred pain in the thorax and abdomen lumbar ones, most often the result of a combined flexion–
rotation movement. However, in disc lesions a history of such
Pain of musculoskeletal origin
provocation cannot always be obtained, the patient stating that
Dura mater and nerve roots the pain started without any specific activity or posture.
• Cervical disc lesions Pain that came on after a forceful movement of trunk or
• Thoracic disc lesions arms – such as during sporting activities – may be from a mus-
• Lumbar disc lesions cular lesion.
Nerves Arthritis of the costovertebral, costotransverse or facet
• Neuritis joints begins spontaneously. When it is the result of ankylosing
• Spinal accessory nerve spondylitis, pain and stiffness often occur in phases and are
• Long thoracic nerve usually worst in the early morning.
• Suprascapular nerve
• Herpes zoster
Bones Warning
• Vertebrae
• Fracture Pain of spontaneous onset, increasing in intensity and constantly
• Bony tumours expanding, should be suspected of being caused by a tumour.
• Infections
• Ribs
• Contusion and fracture Where was the pain at the beginning, where did
• Malignant invasion of a rib it spread or shift to, and where is it now?
• Sternum
When the pain is felt between the scapulae above T6, a cervical
• Fracture disc problem is most likely. In such cases, clinical examination
• Tumours of the cervical spine should be done initially. If this is negative,
Joints and ligaments clinical examination of the thorax follows.
• Manubriosternal and sternoclavicular joints A thoracic disc lesion usually gives rise to discomfort felt
• Costochondral and chondrosternal joints centrally or unilaterally in the posterior thorax. Here, as in the
• Intervertebral facet joints cervical spine, the pain may be felt centrally at first and then
• Costovertebral and costotransverse joints shift more to the side. A shifting pain suggests a shifting (disc)
• Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments lesion.
• Costocoracoid and coracoclavicular ligaments A posterocentral protrusion interfering with the dura nor-
mally results in unilateral extrasegmental referred pain, usually
Muscular lesions
felt in the anterior chest. However, it can also give rise to
• Intercostals
abdominal pain, discomfort in the groin and even lumbar pain.
• Pectoralis major
Sometimes bilateral extrasegmental pain is felt posteriorly and
• Pectoralis minor
over several segments on both sides.
• Subclavius
An acute ‘thoracic’ lumbago may exceptionally cause pain
• Latissimus dorsi
felt only at the sternum. This is a most misleading phenome-
• Serratus posterior inferior
non, as it is not very logical to think of a disc problem in a
• Abdominals
patient with an acute sternal ache not preceded by any poste-
Pain of a visceral nature rior thoracic pain. The possibility of such reference should
• Heart always be borne in mind.
• Aorta In posterolateral disc protrusions, pain is felt unilaterally
• Pleura and lungs and is referred to one segment only. It is mainly felt posteriorly
• Oesophagus and at the side but sometimes also anteriorly. This type of
• Diaphragm protrusion usually follows a posterocentral displacement that
• Stomach and duodenum has subsequently shifted more laterally. In this case, root pain
• Gallbladder and bile ducts is preceded by a period of extrasegmental referred dural pain.
• Pancreas In the rare event of a primary posterolateral protrusion, the
• Spleen disc fragment moves directly in a posterolateral direction.
• Small intestine and colon From the onset, pain is felt to the side, radiating segmentally
• Kidney and ureters anteriorly and not preceded by extrasegmental pain.
• Genitals Pain which increases and expands all the time is from a
‘growing’ disorder, usually a tumour. Older patients who are
symptom-free on first waking in the morning but complain of

371
 The Thoracic Spine
central posterior thoracic pain that starts after some hours and
increases throughout the day, are likely to be suffering from
posterior bulging of the whole content of an intervertebral disc
as a consequence of excessive thoracic kyphosis.
Pain felt at the base of the neck is sometimes the result of
a problem at the first costovertebral joint, the sternoclavicular
joint or a fracture of the first rib.
Pain at the sternum is seldom the result of a musculoskeletal
disorder. Most often it has a visceral origin. The same is true
for pain felt in the abdomen: muscular lesions do exist but are
rare. They usually give rise to well-localized pain.
Is the pain influenced by coughing, sneezing or
deep inspiration?
When a Valsalva manœuvre or a deep breath provokes or
increases the cervical or lumbar pain, it is generally interpreted
as a dural symptom, from interference with the dura mater by
a protruded disc or a tumour. In the thoracic area, it is not so
simple. Many disorders other than problems of the dura may
give rise to the same symptom. Deep inspiration may increase
pain because of one of a number of visceral disorders or other
musculoskeletal problems. Tumours of the respiratory tract,
pleurisy, lung embolism, pneumothorax and even pericarditis
can all give rise to pain increased by coughing or respiration.
The same may be found in non-discal musculoskeletal problems
of the ribs and sternum. Fractures and contusions of the ribs,
a sprained intercostal muscle and a fracture of the sternum are
all in the same class. Consequently, the influence of respiration
on symptoms at the thoracic level is only regarded as a dural
symptom once there is clinical certainty of disc protrusion. In
thoracic disc protrusions it is more usual for deep inspiration,
rather than a cough, to exacerbate the symptoms.
Paraesthesia
Protrusion of a disc in the thoracic region can produce pins and
needles in two ways. First, it may be the result of compression
of the spinal cord, which is characterized by extrasegmental
pins and needles felt in both feet and typically increased or
provoked by flexion of the neck. Cord compression and par-
aesthesia can also be caused by intra- and extraspinal tumours,
intraspinal haemorrhage or a vertebral fracture. Second, par-
aesthesia can be stem from posterolateral protrusion compress-
ing a nerve root. For example, pins and needles may be felt in
the groin from compression of the T12 nerve root. In this
event, the features are always localized and limited to the cor-
responding dermatome.
Both causes are rare, and when paraesthesia is present, other
conditions, such as neuropathy due to generalized disorders
(diabetes, pernicious anaemia and multiple sclerosis), must
always been considered first.
Anticoagulant treatment and
bleeding disorders
The use of anticoagulants is always an absolute contraindica-
tion to manipulation of the spine, because it can lead to
372
uncontrollable intraspinal bleeding. The same applies in con-
genital or acquired disorders of blood coagulation.
Inspection and palpation
On inspection, the curvature of the thoracic spine is noted.
Scoliosis and hyperkyphosis may be detected.
Scoliosis
A deformity in the frontal plane is named scoliosis. If present,
it is important to determine whether it is located at the lumbar
or thoracic level. Thoracic scoliosis can often be voluntarily
corrected by the patient. In this event, it is postural and has
no specific pathological implications. In structural scoliosis, the
deformity cannot be corrected by muscular activity. There is
often associated shoulder asymmetry too. In this event, the
scapula at the convex side is usually more prominent and the
arm of this side touches the hip, but the other arm hangs
further away from the body.
Kyphosis
A hyperkyphotic thoracic spine with a flattened lumbar spine
may suggest ankylosing spondylitis. An excessive low thoracic
and high lumbar kyphosis can be the result of Scheuermann’s
disease or osteoporosis.
Sometimes a localized angular kyphosis is found as the result
of a collapsed vertebral body, usually due to pathological or
traumatic fracture or resulting from adolescent osteochondro-
sis. It is best felt by gliding the fingers over the spinous proc-
esses in a craniocaudal direction. It is more difficult to detect
at the thorax than elsewhere because of the general kyphotic
shape of the thoracic spine.
Functional examination
Clinical routine differs significantly according to the level of
the pain (Fig. 25.5). For a number of reasons, pain felt above
the T6 level (mid-scapular) demands a preceding clinical
examination of the cervical spine and the shoulder girdle. First,
the upper two thoracic vertebrae, anatomically belonging to
the thoracic spine but clinically part of the cervical spine, are
tested in the clinical examination of the cervical spine. Second,
it was demonstrated previously that cervical discodural inter­
actions often provoke extrasegmentally referred pain in the
upper half of the thorax. Third, numerous lesions of the tho-
racic apex and the shoulder girdle, although causing pain in the
cranial aspect of the thorax, are only detected by proper exam-
ination of the cervical spine and/or the shoulder girdle: a
tumour of the apex of the lung involving the T1 nerve root is
only detected by cervical tests; neuritis of the suprascapular
nerve causes pain in the supraspinatus fossa and is detected by
a combined weakness of supra- and infraspinatus muscles. A
fracture of the first rib provokes upper thoracic pain but the
diagnosis can be missed if the examiner proceeds immediately
 Clinical examination of the thoracic spine C H A P T E R 2 5 

with examination of the thoracic spine. For all these reasons, Standing
in patients with upper thoracic pain, a full cervical examination
followed by examination of the shoulder girdle must be done
Dural tests
first. Only when these are negative should a thorough examina-
tion of the thoracic spine follow. It is believed that deep inspiration, neck flexion and some
If the patient has pain below T6, a cervical or shoulder girdle scapular movements may indirectly stretch the dura mater.
problem is unlikely and attention is immediately directed to
Taking a deep breath (Fig. 25.6a)
the thoracic spine.
Functional examination of the thoracic spine consists of a The patient is asked to take a deep breath and to state if the
large set of basic tests. The examination is performed with the pain increases. A positive test is regarded as a dural sign only
patient standing, sitting and lying prone. During the procedure, when, after the rest of the examination is performed, a disc
dural, articular, muscular and cord signs are sought. Some- lesion seems to be present. In such a case, stretching of the
times, when particular symptoms or signs from the basic exam- dura mater via the intercostal nerve roots is interfered with.
ination warrant, the procedure is completed by specific
Flexion of the neck (Fig. 25.6b)
accessory tests.
The patient is asked to bend the head actively forward. This
may increase the pain or provoke paraesthesia.
Thoracic pain In thoracic spine problems, pain during active neck flexion
is basically regarded as a dural sign because flexion stretches
the dura mater from above. However, pain on neck flexion as
Above T6 Below T6 the result of impaired dural mobility does not necessarily mean
a disc lesion is present. Indeed, any kind of intraspinal space-
occupying lesion that interferes with the dura, such as a
Full cervical spine examination Full thoracic spine examination
tumour, may provoke pain on neck flexion. A problem with
+
Shoulder girdle examination one of the posterior ligaments or posterior paravertebral
muscles may also cause pain on neck flexion.
Sometimes a patient feels a sudden sensation on neck
Positive Negative Negative Positive flexion, resembling an electrical discharge going down his back
and occasionally even spreading towards both arms and legs.
Sometimes it also occurs on extension of the neck. This is
Cervical spine or Thoracic/abdominal known as Lhermitte’s sign and was previously regarded as
Visceral disorder?
shoulder girdle lesion wall lesion
pathognomonic for disorders of the cord at the cervical level.
In later reports it has been suggested that problems of the
Fig 25.5 • Examination strategy in thoracic pain. thoracic cord may cause the same sign. This can be caused by

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 25.6 • Dural tests at the thoracic level: (a) taking a deep breath; (b) flexion of the neck; (c) backward movement of the scapulae.

373
 The Thoracic Spine
multiple sclerosis, a tumour of the cord, disc lesions, tubercu-
losis, spondylosis, arachnoiditis or radiation myelopathy.8
Neck flexion may also provoke or increase pins and needles.
If these are felt in one or both lower limbs, this draws attention
to compression of the spinal cord at the thoracic level, which
is most commonly the result of a disc lesion or a tumour.
Shoulder movements: upwards, forwards
and backwards
The patient is now asked to shrug both shoulders and to bring
them forwards and backwards.
These tests are basically active movements of the structures
of the shoulder girdle. Therefore some will be positive when
a disorder of one of those structures is present (see online
chapter Applied anatomy of the shoulder girdle).
However, if one or all of these movements elicits pain, it is
most frequently the result of a thoracic disc lesion, because
they all (to a greater or lesser degree) stretch the dura mater
at the thoracic level, which is elongated in a cranial direction
via the T1 and T2 nerve roots (Cyriax9: p. 202). The most
sensitive test is scapular approximation (shoulders backwards,
Fig. 25.6c).
Active trunk movements
The patient is now asked to perform six active movements of
the trunk. These involve both the thoracic and the lumbar
spine. Differentiation is made by the level of the pain, as indi-
cated by the patient, and on extension pressure at the end of
the examination.
On flexion, extension and side flexion to both sides the
range of movement is greatest in the lumbar spine, rather than
the thorax. Rotation movements, in contrast, occur only slightly
at the lumbar level and involve mostly the thoracic spine.
The movements performed are:
• Anteflexion (Fig. 25.7a)
• Extension (Fig. 25.7b)
• Left side flexion (Fig. 25.7c)
• Right side flexion (Fig. 25.7d)
• Left rotation (Fig. 25.7e)
• Right rotation (Fig. 25.7f).
The patient performs these movements actively. Pain and limi-
tation are noted. In structural scoliosis the associated hump
persists and is accentuated on forward bending.
While performing rotations, the patient keeps the head in
neutral position in relation to the shoulders, to avoid cervical
rotation.
Conclusions from active trunk movements
In principle, the six movements described so far are articular.
However, because they are performed actively, they involve
some contractile structures as well. Passive and resisted move-
ments (see below) provide the key in differential diagnosis
between inert and contractile structures. After these tests, the
examiner should know whether an articular pattern is present
or not.
The articular pattern of the thoracic spine is an equal degree
of pain and limitation of both side flexions and of both
374
rotations, together with a larger limitation of extension and
little or no limitation of anteflexion (Fig. 25.8). It resembles
the pattern for the cervical spine. If this is found, a disorder
of the entire segment of motion, such as in ankylosing spondyl­
itis or osteoarthrosis, is present.
Any other combination of abnormal tests is regarded as a
partial articular pattern (Fig. 25.9). Such a combination could
be, for instance, pain on one rotation or one side flexion
together with one rotation, or one side flexion and extension,
or three, four or five of the six movements being positive in
producing pain or limitation. As long as abnormal tests are
present in a non-symmetrical way, the pattern is regarded as
being partial articular.
In all types of disc lesion a partial articular pattern is
expected. In the thoracic spine, a common finding is that only
one out of the six articular movements is positive – usually one
of the rotations. Differentiation must always be made from a
facet joint lesion or a muscular lesion, in which a partial articu-
lar pattern is also found. In the latter, some of the resisted
movements are more painful.
Warning
When side flexion away from the painful side (Fig. 25.10) is the
only painful and limited movement, this always indicates a severe
extra-articular lesion such as a pulmonary or abdominal tumour or
a spinal neurofibroma.
Sitting
The examination is now continued by looking at passive and
resisted rotations to both sides, with the patient sitting. In the
seated position Babinski’s reflex is also elicited.
Passive tests
• Passive left rotation (Fig. 25.11a)
• Passive right rotation (Fig. 25.11b).
The patient crosses both arms in front of the chest. The knees
are held between the examiner’s legs to immobilize the pelvis.
The patient’s trunk is now twisted towards the left and the
right by the examiner. Pain, range of movement and end-feel
are noted.
The normal end-feel is elastic. A hard end-feel is typical of
ankylosing spondylitis or advanced arthrosis. Both an empty
end-feel and muscle spasm suggest a severe disorder: neo-
plasm, fracture and infectious disorders.
Rarely, pain is present at half range, disappearing when rota-
tion continues. This is known as a painful arc and was regarded
by Cyriax9 as pathognomonic for a disc lesion when combined
with a partial articular pattern.
At the end of both passive rotations the patient is asked to
bend the head actively forwards. If this movement further
increases the pain, it is regarded as a dural sign if the rest of
the examination suggests that a disc lesion is present.
 Clinical examination of the thoracic spine C H A P T E R 2 5 

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Fig 25.7 • Active trunk movements: (a) anteflexion; (b) extension; (c) left side flexion; (d) right side flexion; (e) left rotation; (f) right rotation.

Resisted tests Cord sign: plantar reflex

In the same position as used for the passive tests, isometric
contractions are done. The patient is asked to twist the trunk
to the left (Fig. 25.12a) and to the right (Fig. 25.12b) while
the examiner applies counterpressure at both shoulders, so that
the patient is kept immobile. Pain and weakness are noted.
Because muscular lesions do occasionally occur at this level,
these tests must always be performed.
The results of both resisted and passive rotations are care-
fully compared. In a disc lesion, passive rotations are more
painful than resisted ones. Given that resisted movements are
more painful, a muscular problem is most likely, unless a psy-
chogenic problem or a rib fracture is present. In both events,
accessory tests should follow (see below).
The examiner glides a relatively sharp instrument along the
lateral aspect of the sole, starting at the heel and moving for-
wards and medially towards the big toe (Fig. 25.13). Normally
the toes either do not move at all or they all uniformly go into
flexion. This test is pathological if the patient spreads the toes
apart and the big toe moves into extension. A positive test
indicates interruption of the descending motor fibres. If there
is the slightest doubt about interference with the spinal cord,
a full neurological examination of the lower limbs must be
carried out. This includes all reflexes in the lower limbs and
abdomen, resisted movements of the thigh and leg muscula-
ture, control of coordination, testing for numbness and tem-
perature sensitivity, and the straight leg raising test.

375
 The Thoracic Spine
Fig 25.8 • The full articular pattern.
Fig 25.9 • Examples of partial articular patterns.
376
Fig 25.10 • Pain and limitation on side flexion away from the painful
(coloured) side is a warning sign for serious disorders.
Lying prone
Location of affected level by passive .
extension thrust
The patient lies prone and a hyperextension thrust is given over
every thoracic spinous process to locate the painful level. To
do this, the hand is placed obliquely, with the fifth metacarpal
bone on the spinous process (Fig. 25.14). Identification of the
exact level is important, because some manipulations for tho-
racic disc protrusions are performed specifically at the level
at fault.
During extension pressure, attention is also paid to the type
of end-feel. Normally it is elastic. Muscle spasm is a warning
of more severe disorders.
Accessory tests
To reach a diagnosis, the basic clinical examination normally
suffices. In circumstances that remain unclear or when a mus-
cular problem is suspected, accessory movements must be
carried out.
Stretching the T1 nerve root
The patient is asked to lift the arm sideways from the horizon-
tal. The hand is now put in the neck by flexing the elbow (Fig.
25.15). This movement stretches the T1 nerve root via the
ulnar nerve, which may provoke pain between the scapulae or
down the arm when the mobility of the T1 nerve root is
impaired. The test is useful for differentiating between a
problem of the cervical spine and one of the upper thorax
which interferes with the dura or the T1 nerve root: if it is
painful, a thoracic problem is more likely.
 Clinical examination of the thoracic spine C H A P T E R 2 5 

(a) (b)

Fig 25.11 • Passive rotation: (a) left; (b) right. At the end of each movement the patient is asked to bend the head forwards.

(a) (b)

Fig 25.12 • Resisted rotation: (a) left; (b) right.

377
 The Thoracic Spine

Fig 25.13 • Testing the plantar reflex.

Resisted movements and extension of the trunk (a)

To gain more information on a muscular lesion, the following
resisted movements should be performed.
Resisted side flexion (Fig. 25.16)
The patient stands, with the feet slightly apart. The examiner
places himself at the patient’s painless side, hips against each
other, and puts the arm around the patient’s farther shoulder.
The patient is now asked to bend sideways away from the
examiner. By holding the patient’s shoulder, side flexion of the
trunk is resisted.
Resisted flexion (Fig. 25.17)
With the patient sitting down, the examiner places one hand
on the proximal part of the sternum and the other on the
patient’s knees. The patient tries to bend forwards against
resistance exerted by the examiner. This is a test for all the
flexors of the abdomen and of the hip.
(b)
Extension of the trunk
This movement is performed in three different ways.
Resisted extension (Fig. 25.18a)
Resisted extension is best done with the patient prone. Coun-
terpressure is applied at the proximal part of the thorax and
at the posterior aspect of the knees.
Active extension (Fig. 25.18b)
For active extension the patient remains prone and is asked to
lay both hands on the sacrum and lift the trunk off the couch
actively by use of the paravertebral muscles.
Passive extension (Fig. 25.18c)
For passive extension the patient pushes the body up off the
couch by means of the arms. The pelvis must stay down on
the couch.
The results of extension movements are carefully compared (c)
with each other. In a muscular lesion, active and resisted exten-
sion is painful but resisted extension is the most distressing. In
a lesion of an inert structure, active and passive extension is
painful but the latter provokes the most pain. Fig 25.14 • Passive extension thrust.

378
 Clinical examination of the thoracic spine
Testing the long thoracic nerve
The patient pushes against a wall with the arms stretched out
horizontally in front (Fig. 25.19). If the medial edge of the
scapula moves away from the thorax to produce a winged
appearance, a disorder of the long thoracic nerve is present.
Oscillation of a rib
The examiner stands on the pain-free side and places one
hand distally on the thorax, with the fifth metacarpal bone
Fig 25.15 • Stretching the T1 nerve root.
(a)
Fig 25.16 • Resisted side flexion: (a) right; (b) left.
C H A P T E R 2 5 
exactly on the suspected rib. The other hand rests with the
pisiform bone on the contralateral transverse process of the
corresponding vertebra (Fig. 25.20). Oscillations are now
given by the hand resting on the rib. At the same time, the
other hand is used to prevent rotation of the vertebra by
pressing simultaneously on the transverse process. These oscil-
lations influence mainly the costovertebral and costotransverse
joints. When there is inflammation, pain will be provoked;
when ankylosing spondylitis is present, the movement will be
less elastic.
Fig 25.17 • Resisted flexion.
(b)
379
 The Thoracic Spine

(a)

Fig 25.19 • Testing the long thoracic nerve.

Neurological examination
A full neurological examination must be carried out when
compression of the spinal cord or a neurological disorder is
suspected.
The following accessory tests should be performed.

Beevor’s sign
The patient lies supine, crosses the arms in front of the chest
and is asked to raise the trunk slightly off the couch. The
examiner pays attention to the umbilicus, which should not
move during this test. Any movement in a cranial or caudal
(b)
direction or to the side may point towards a denervation of the
contralateral muscles.

Cremasteric reflex (in men)

When the pointed end of a reflex hammer is glided over the
medial aspect of the thigh, the ipsilateral half of the scrotum
moves upwards via contraction of the cremaster muscle.
Absence of this reflex may point towards a lesion of the
spinal cord.

Full neurological examination of the lower limbs

This is described in Table 25.1.

Oppenheim’s sign
This may confirm a positive Babinski’s sign. When the fingers
are slid downwards along the tibia, no movement of the toes
should occur. In cord compression, the big toe extends while
the others spread. However, this test is less reliable than a
(c)
Babinski’s sign.

Palpation
Fig 25.18 • Extension of the trunk is performed in three different If a muscular lesion is suspected, the affected structure should
ways: (a) resisted; (b) active; (c) passive. be palpated.

380
 Clinical examination of the thoracic spine C H A P T E R 2 5 

Table 25.1  Full neurological examination of the lower limbs

Tests Nerve root
Inspection of gait
Motor tests
Resisted flexion of hip L2–L3
Resisted extension of knee L3
Resisted dorsiflexion of foot L4
Resisted extension of big toe L4–L5
Resisted eversion of foot L5–S1
Resisted flexion of knee S1–S2
Squeezing the buttocks S1–S2
Raising on tiptoe S1–S2

Reflexes
Patellar reflex L3
1 Achilles tendon reflex S1

Sensitivity
Temperature
Numbness

During the last decades the use of computed tomography

2
Fig 25.20 • Oscillation of a rib: 1, position of fifth metacarpal right
hand; 2, position of fifth metacarpal left hand.
Palpation is also necessary to differentiate between a lesion
of an intercostal muscle and a true rib problem.
In a disc lesion, cutaneous anaesthesia must always be
checked. If present in the territory of one nerve root, a poste-
rolateral protrusion is likely; bilateral numbness suggests com-
pression of the spinal cord instead.
The clinical examination of the thoracic spine is summarized
in Box 25.2.
Technical investigations
Plain radiographs are useful in confirming osseous lesions and
in the evaluation of degree and development of scoliosis.
(CT) in combination with myelography and magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) has greatly increased the ability to visual-
ize thoracic spine disorders accurately. MRI is the best way to
define the specific abnormality, as well as the effect on the
adjacent spinal cord. CT after myelography may be useful as
well, especially in those patients in whom there is involvement
of the posterior ligamentous and osseous structures of the
thoracic spinal canal.10
However, the superior resolution of the available imaging
methods has also made the incidental detection of asympto-
matic thoracic disc abnormalities more common.11 As with the
lumbar and the cervical spine, it has become evident that the
correlation between gross anatomical findings on MRI and
clinical signs and symptoms detected by the clinician may be
lacking. A significant proportion of the population has disc
disease as depicted on imaging studies, yet many have no clini-
cal findings at all.12,13 The relative frequency of asymptomatic
thoracic herniated nucleus pulposus has been documented in
several studies.14,15 Wood et al reviewed MRI studies of the
thoracic spines of 90 asymptomatic individuals to determine
the prevalence of abnormal anatomical findings: 66 (73%) had
positive anatomical findings at one level or more, including
herniation of a disc in 33 (37%), bulging of a disc in 48 (53%),
an annular tear in 52 (58%), deformation of the spinal cord in
26 (29%) and Scheuermann endplate irregularities or kyphosis
in 34 (38%).16
Awwad et al retrospectively reviewed postmyelography CT
scans of 433 patients and identified 68 asymptomatic thoracic

381
 The Thoracic Spine

Box 25.2 

Summary of the clinical examination of the thoracic spine

History Inspection
Pain Functional examination
What made the pain come on? Standing
• Injury? • 3 dural tests
• Bony problem • Taking a deep breath
• Spontaneous onset? • Flexion of the neck
• Disc lesion • Shoulders backwards
• Arthritis • 6 active trunk movements
• Tumour • Anteflexion
• Forceful activity? • Extension
• Muscular lesion • Left side flexion
Where was the pain at the beginning/where did it spread or • Right side flexion
shift to/where is it now? • Left rotation
• Interscapular above T6? • Right rotation
• Cervical problem
• Shoulder girdle Sitting
• Thoracic lesion • 2 passive tests
• Interscapular below T6? • Passive left rotation (+ neck flexion)
• Thoracic lesion • Passive right rotation (+ neck flexion)
• Base of the neck? • 2 resisted tests
• Costovertebral • Resisted left rotation
• First rib • Resisted right rotation
• Sternoclavicular • Cord sign
• Shifting pain? • Plantar reflex
• Disc Lying prone
• Increasing or expanding pain?
• Location of the affected level by passive extension thrusts
• Tumour
Is the pain influenced by coughing, sneezing or a deep Accessory tests
inspiration? • Stretching the T1 nerve root
Paraesthesia • Resisted movements of the trunk
• Multisegmental/lower limbs? • Testing the long thoracic nerve
• Cord compression • Oscillation of a rib
• Segmental? • Neurological examination
• Root compression • Palpation
• Undefined?
• Other neurological disorder
Anticoagulant treatment and bleeding disorders

herniated discs. After comparing the imaging characteristics
with a series of five symptomatic thoracic herniated discs, the
authors were unable to identify any features that could reliably
classify a herniated disc as asymptomatic or symptomatic.17
All these studies clearly demonstrate that thoracic disc
herniations shown by MRI may not be related to patients’
symptoms. The diagnosis ‘symptomatic thoracic disc lesion’ is
therefore primarily a clinical one.
  Access the complete reference list online at
www.orthopaedicmedicineonline.com

382

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