Ratta Mar Final PDF

Dr.
Suraj Karwade
INDEX
SR.NO. CHAPTER NAME
01. Digestion & Absorption
02. Breathing and Exchange of Gases
03. Body Fluid and Circulation
04. Excretory Products and Their Elimination
05. Locomotion and Movment
06. Neural control and Co-ordination
07. Chemical Co-ordination and Integration
08. Animal Kingdom
09. Animal tissue
10. Biomolecules
11. Human Reproduction
12. Reproductive Health
13. Evolution
14. Human Health and Disease
15. Animal Husbandary
16. Biotechnology Principles and Process
17. Biotechnology and Its Application
18. Microboes and human Walfare

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Digestion & Absorption

01
1. Conversion of complex food substances into simple absorbable form is called Digestion.
2. Human teeth are the condont diphyodont heteropdout.
2123 2102
3. Dental formula for adult children
2123 2102
4. The tongue is a freely movable musclear organ attached to the floor of the oral cavily by the
frenulum
5. Anatomical regions of human stomach lable .
6. A cartilagenoy flap called Epiglottis prevents the entry of the food in to glottis.
7. A muscular sphincter (Gastroesophageal sphincter) regulate the opening of oesophagus

into stomach also called as cardiac spincter.
8. Small intestine is distinguished into three regions a ‘C’ shaped duodenum, coiled jejunum
and hightly coiled ileum.
9. The opening of the stomach into the duodenum is guarded by the pyloric sphincter.
10. Smalled blind sac which host some sumbiotic micro-organisms is called caecum.
11. A narrow finger like tublar projection, the vermiform appendix which is a vestigial organ.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 1

The human digestive system

12. The wall of alimeutary canal form oesophagus to refltum posses 4 layers.
a. Serosa
b.
c. Submucosa
d. Mucosa
Diagrammatic representation of transverse section of gut

13. Lumen of alimentay canal forms irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and small finger –
like folding called villi in the small intestine.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 2

14. The cells living the villi produce numerous microscopic projection called “microvilli” giving
a bush border appearance.
A section of small intestinal mucosa showing villi
15. Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands) and cvypts in between the bases
of villi in the intestine. (crypts of Lieber kuhn)
16. 3 digestive glands salivary gland Liver and pancrease
17. 3 salivary gland Duct Saliva
. a. Partoid (cheek) Stenson’s duct 25 %
b. Sub mandibular Warton’s duct 70 %
or (Lower jaw)
c. Sub-lingnal Bartholin’s Duct 5%
(below tongue)
18. Liver has hepatic lobule which are structural and functional unit of liver, each lobule is
covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called “glisson’s capsule”.
19. Bile secneted (Produced) by hepatic cell (Liver) through the hepatic duct and stored and
concentrated in a thin muscular sac called. “gall Bladder”.
20. The duct of gall bladder is called “cystic duct”.
21. The bile duct and pancreatic duct open together into the duodenum as common hepato –
pancveatic duct (Ampulla of water) which is guarded by a sphinter called the sphincter
of oddi.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 3

The duct systems of liver, gall bladder and pancreas

22. The pancreas is a compound (both exocrine and endocrine) release pancreatic juice by acini
cell and Islets of langerhans (endrocrine) secrets hormone glucagon ( cell ), ( cells)
insulin.
23. Bolous 

 food mixed with silva. (acidic present in oesophagus)
Chyme 
 Food mixed with acidic gastric juice. (acidic)
Chyle 
 fully digested food after small intestine. (basic)
Salvaryamylase
24. 70 % of starch digested by pancreatic amylase and 30 % starch 
pH 6.8

maltose.
25. Gastric gland has 3 cells.
a. mucus neck cell 

 mucus
b. peptic cell/ chief cell 

 pepsinogen and prorenin
c. Parietal/ oxyntic cell 

 HCl and instrinsic factor of castle.
[essential for absorption of vit B12]

26. Enzyme of gastric gland.
M 
 Mucus R 
 Renin P 
 Pepsinogen
27. Enzyme of pancreatic juice
{ÉÉ{ÉÉ 
 Protease
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 4

+¨¨ÉÉ 
 Amylase
Lemon 
 Lipase
SÉÉªÉ(Tea) 
 Chymotrypsinogen
Try 
 Trypinogen
Eò®úÉä 
 Carboxy peptidase
xÉÉ 
 Nuclease
28. Enzymes of intestinal juice / succus entricus
S 
 Sucrase
M 
 Maltase
E 
 Enterokinase
L 
 Lipase
L 
 Lactase
E 
 Erepsin (Protein digestion)
D 
 Dipeptidases ,(Disaccharidases)
Na 
 Nucletidase, Nuclesidase
29. The bile released in to the duodenum continue bile pigment (Bilirulin and bili-verdin) ,
Bile salt, cholesterol and phospholipid but No enzyme.
30. Digestive reation.
Proteins, proteoses and peptones (partially hydrolysed proteins) in the chyme reaching the
intestine are acted upon by the proteolytic enzymes of pancreatic juice as given below:
Proteins
Trypsin/Chymotrypsin
Peptones 
Carboxypeptidase
 Dipeptides
Proteoses
Carbohydrates in the chyme are hydrolysed by pancreatic amylase into disaccharides.
Amylase
Polysaccharides (starch)   Disaccharides
Fats are broken down by lipases with the help of bile into di-and monoglycerides.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 5

Fats 
Lipases
 Diglycerides 
 Monoglycerides
Nucleases in the pancreatic juice acts on nucleic acids to form nucleotides and nucleosides
Nucleic acids 

Nucleases
 Nucleotides 
 Nucleosides
The enzymes in the succus entericus act on the end products of the above reactions to form
the respective simple absorbable forms. These final steps in digestion occur very close to the
mucosal epithelial cells of the intestine.
Dipeptides 
Dipeptidases
 Amino acids
Maltose 
Maltase
 Glucose + Glucose
Lactose 
Lactase
 Glucose+ alactose
Sucrose 
Sucrase
 Glucose + Fructose
Nucleotides 
Nucleotidases
 Nucleosides 
Nucleosidases
 Sugars + Bases
Di and Monoglycerides 

Lipases
 Fatty acids + Glycerol
The breakdown of biomacromolecules mentioned above occurs in the duodenum region of the
small intestine. The simple substances thus formed are absorbed in the jejunum and ileum
regions of the small intestine. The undigested and unabsorbed substances are passed on to
the large intestine.
31. Caloritic value and physiological value
Calorific Physiological
Carbohydrate 4.1 4 Kcal/gm
Protein 5.65 4 Kcal/gm
Fat 9.45 9 Kcal/gm
32. Absorption
Active Glucose, Amino acid, All positive ions (Na+).
Faciliated Glucose, Fructose Anino acid

Passive
Simple diffusion Gluco se, Amino acid, negative ions (Cl –)
33. Fat gets converted to micelles and absorbed as micelles than converted to chylomicrons.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 6

34. Table Absorption
mouth stomach small intestine large intelitine
glucose, Fructose Drugs

Drugs Alcohol Fatty acid, glyceol water
Amino acid, watch minerals
35. Jaundice is a disease in which affected skin and eyes turn yellow due to bile pigment.
36. Vomitting ejection of stomach contents through the mouth vomit centre is in ‘medulla’.
37. Abnormal Frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the faecal discharge is
known as diarrhoea.
38. The faces are retained within the colonas the bowel movement occurs irregularly in
‘constipation’.
39. The food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness. The causes of indigestion
are inadequate enzyme secretion , Anxiety, food poisoning, overeating and spicy food.
40. PEM protein energy malnutrition
Marasmus Kwashiorar
Below layer age 1-3 year age
Protein + Calorie Deficiency only protein deficiency
No Oedema Oedema
No Swelling Swelling

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 7

Breathing and Exchange of Gases
Breathing and
02 Exchange of Gases
01. Exchange of O2 from the atomosphere with CO2 produced by the cell is called Breathing
commonly known as Respiration.
02. Respiratory organs, breathing on their
}
Spongs Habits and Level of organisation.
Coelentrate Body surface by simple diffusion.
Falt worm
Earth worm Mosit cuticle (skin)/Cutaneous respiration.
insect Tracheals tubes.
}
Aq. Arthoropoda
Gills
Aq. Mollusca
03. Fishes - Gills (Branchial respiration on)
Amphibia - Skin, lung
}
Reptiles
Aves Lung (Pulmonary respiration)
Mammals
03. Common passes for food adn aiv Pharynx.
04. The pharynx opens through the larynx region in to the trachea.
05. Lanynx is cartialyginaus box which help in sound production and hence called “sound
Box”.
06. During swallowing glottis can be covered by a thin cartilasgenous flap called epiglottis to
prevent the entry of the food into larynx a trachea.
07. Trachea divides at 5th throacic vertabra.
08. C-shaped cartilarg ring extends from trachea and initial bronchioles.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 8

09. The two lungs which are covered by double layered pleura (Pleural membrane).
Outer is called Parietal pleura and inner i called visceral pleura.
Diagrammatic view of human respiratory system (sectional view of the left lung is
also shown)
10. The part starting with the external nostirils upto the treminal brounchioles constitute
conducting part.
11. Conducting part clear it form foreign particle , huminities and bring it to body
temperature.
12. Thoracic chamber
Dorsally 
 Vertebral coloumn
Ventrally 
 Sternum
Laterally 
 Ribs
Lower side 

 Dome shaped diaphragm
13. Respiration steps

a. Breathing / Pulmonary ventilation
b. Diffusion of gases at lungs level
c. Transport of gases by blood.
d. Diffusion of gases at tissue level
d. Cellular respiration
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 9

14. Breathing has 2 steps (5 sec)
inspiration 2 sec
expiration 3 sec
15. Inspiration can occur it the pressure within lung (intra pulmonary pressure) is less than
atmospheric pressure (negative pressure)
(1) (2)
Mechanism of breathing showing :(1) inspiration (2) expiration
16. Diaphragm 

 Antero-posterior volume
external intencostal muscle 

 Dorso-ventral volume
17. Muscle of inspiration and expiration diaphrasm and external intercostal muscles\
Diaphrasm and EICM Relax.
18. A healthy human Breaths 12-16 times/min.
19. Spirometer used for clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
20. Respiratory volume
T(TV) Tidal volume 

 500 ml
E(ERV) expiratory reserve volume 

 1000 -1100
R(RV) Residual volume 

 1100-1200
I(IRV) Inspiratory reserve volume 

 2500-3000
21. Tidal volume :- Volume of air inspired or expired during normal respiration is 500 ml.
A healthy man can inspire or expire approximately 6000 to 8000 ml of air perminute.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 10
22. Expiratory reserve volume :- Additional volume of air, aperson can expire by forcible expiration.
(1000-1100 ml)
23. Residnal volume:- Volume of air remaining in the lungs even after forcible expiration 1100-
1200 ml.
24. Inspiratory reserve volume :- Additional volume of air, a person can inspire by forcible
inspiration 2500 - 3000 ml.
25. Respiratory capacity
Teri TLC = VC + RV or TV + IRV + ERV + RV
V VC = IRV + TV + ERV or TLC – RV
I IC = TV + IRV
F FRC = ERV + RV
E EC = TV + ERV
26. ‘Trick to remember’.
IRV
IC
TV
EC VC TLC
ERV
FRC RV
27. Exchange of gases:-

Primary site of exchange of gases are Alveoli.
28. Rate of diffusion depends on solubicity of the gases as well as thicknes of the membrane.
29. Pressure exert by an individual gas in mixtrue of gases is called ‘Partial pressure’
respresented as PO2 and pCO2.
30. fig. 17.1
Partial pressure of O2 & CO2
Atmosphere Alveoli DOB OB Tissue

O2 159 104 40 95 40
CO 2 0.3 40 45 40 45
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 11

31.
Diagrammatic representation of exchange of gases at the alveolus and the body

tissues with blood and transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Diagrammatic representiation of exhcange of gases at the alveol adn bodytissue with Blood
and transport of oxygen and carbondioxide.
32. Solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than O2 the amount of CO2 that can diffuse through
the diffusion membrane per unit difference in partial pressure is much higher than
compared to O2.
33.
A Diagram of a section of an alveolus with a pulmonary capillary

Diffusion membrane A diagram of section of an alveolvs with a pulmonary capillary.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 12
A. Squamous epilhelium of alveolau wall (one cell thick)
B. Basement substance
C. Endothelium of the blood capillary.
34. Transport of gases.
Oxygen 97 % RBC (Hb) 3% Plasma
CO2 7 Plasma
23 RBC (Hb)
70 Bicanbonate ions
35. Hamoglobin is a red coloured iron containing pigment present in RBC, binds to O2 a reversible
manner to form oxyhaemoglobin.
36. One haemoglobin can carry maximum of Four molecules of oxygen.
37. Oxygen bindning to Hb depend on
C 
  CO2
A 
  acidity,  H ,  pH
+
D 
 DPG
E 
 exercise
T 
 Temperature
38. At tissue level Hb and O2 break due to hight  CADET and Low pO2.
39. At lungs level Hb and O2 binds due to low  CADET and high pO2.
40. When percentage saturation of Hb with O2 is plotted against pO2, we get sigmoid curve.
41. Every 100 ml of oxygenate blood candeliver around 5ml. of O2 to tissue under normal
physiological conditions.
42. Transport of CO2
Hb bind with O2 

 Oxyhaemoglobin
Hb with CO 
 carboxy-haemoglobin
Hb with CO2 

 carb-amino haemoglobin
43. RBC contain a very high concentraction of the enzymen carbonic anhydrase and minute
quatitiesof the same is present inplasma too.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 13

44. 
Carbonic
CO2 + H2O   
C.A.
 H2CO3  
 HCO3– + H+
anhydrate
Complete the Blank

45. Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.
46. A specialised centre present in the medulla region of the brain called Respiratory rhythm
centre.
47. Another centre present in the pons region o fthe brain called pneumotaxic centre can
moderate the function of respiratory rhythm centre.
48. Pneumotaxic centre can send rignal which can reduce the duration of inspiration on and
there by after the respiration rate.
49. Periphenal chemosreceptors can be activated by the concentration in CO2 and H+.
50. The role of oxygen in the regulation of respiratory rhythm is quite insignificant.
51. Disorders
Asthma :- is a diffculty in breathing causing wheeezing due to inflammation of bronchi and
Bronchioles.
52. A chronic disorder in which alveolar wall are damaged due to which respiratory surface is
decreased cavred due to cigarette smoking is called emphysema.
53. Occupational respiratory disorder in such industries involving grinding or stone breaking in
which inflammation leading to Fibrosis (Oroliteation of fibrous tissue). and thus caving
serious lung damage.

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 14

Body Fluid and Circulation
03 Body Fluid and Circulation
1. Simple organisms like sponges and coelentrata circulate water from their surrounding
through their body cavities to facilitate the cells to exchange these substances.
2. Blood is a specialized connective tissue consiting of fluid matrix, plasma and formed
elements.
3.
Diagrammatic representation of formed elements in blood
Blood
Plasma (55 %) Formed (45 %)

Protein-Albumin Element
globulin
fibriongen
RBC WBC Platelets
grondocytes Agranulocytes
Eosinophill Basophill Neutrophil

(2-3%) (0.5 %) (65 %)
Monocyte Lymphocyte
6-8 (25 %)
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 15

4. Albumin 
 maintain osmotic balance
(25 mm of Hg)
globulin 
 Defence mechanism
fibrinogen 
 Blood clotting
5. Plasma contain small amount of minerals

Like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3–, Cl– etc.
6. Serum = Plasma – Clotting factor
7. RBC 
 5 – 5.5 million mm–3.
WBC 
 6000 - 8000 thousand mm–3
Platelets 
 1.5 lakh - 3.5 lakh mm–3
8. Platelets/throbocytes are cell fragement produced from megakaryocytes.

9. Platelets can release avariety of substance which are involved inthe coagulation or clotting
of blood.
10. Blood group 

 two grouping
ABO system and Rh– system are widely used all over world.
11. table 18.1 Blood group and donor compability.
Bloodgroup Anitigen Antibody Donor group

A A Anti B A, O
B B Anti A B, O
AB AB Nil AB, A, B, O
O nil Anti A-B O
12. Universal donor is O–ve and universal receiver is AB+.

13. Rh antigen is present on the surface of RBC, firstly found in Rhesus monkey.
14. Enythroblastosis foetalis :- A condition in which the mother is Rh–ve and Foetus is Rh+
After is+ delivery the maxing of blood takes place and after that mother body prepare Rh
antibody. In the 2nd preganancy the Rh antibody the RBC of the baby condition is called
enythroblastosis foetalis.
15. Coagulation of Blood:
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 16

Tissue injury Blood vessel injury

tissue thrompoplastin Platelet thrombo plastin
Prothrombin Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin
Clot
16. Blood colothing factors. (imp)

I - Fibrinogen
II - Prothrombin
III - Tissue thromoboplastin
IV - Calcium ions
VIII - Antihemophilic factor
IX - Christmas factor or plasms thromboplastin consponent (PTC)
XI - Plasma thromboplastin antecedent (PTA)
17. Calcium ions play aniportant role inclotting
18. Lymph is a colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes which are responsible for the
immune responses of the body lymph is also an important carrier of Nutrient, hormone
etc.
19. Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.
20. Open circulatory system – Arthoropda and mollusca.
Closed circulatory system – annilids and chordata.
21. Chambers of Heart
fish – 2 venous heart single circulation
amphibia – 3 Mixed double circulation
1
reptieles – 3 Mixed double circulation
2
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 17

Mammals – 4
Birds – 4 Double circulation
22. Heart is mesodermally in origin.
23. Heart is protected by a doubled walled membranous bag, pericardium, enclosing pericardial
fluid.
24. Tricupid value is present between right auricle and right ventricle.
25. Bicuspid value is present between left auricle and left ventricle.
26.
Section of a human heart

27. A patch of tissue is present in the right upper corner is called sino-atrialnode of right
atrium.
28. Another mass of this tissue is seen in lower left corner of the right atriums close to atrio
ventricular septum called atrio - ventricular node (AVN).
29. AV bundle or bundle of His passes through atrio - ventricular septa.
30. Purkinje are present throughout the ventricular musculature.
31. SAN generate 70-75 min–1 called pacemaker.
32. Cardiac cycle
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 18

33. Cardiac output = Heart × stroke

(5000) ml = 72 times × 70 ml
34. ECG 


Diagrammatic presentation of astandard ECG

P – excitation (or depolarisation) of the atria
QRS – depolarisation of the ventricles,
T – Repolarisation (relaxation of ventricles)
35. DOUBLE CIRCULATION
Blood Vessels
Artery Vein
Outer - tunica externa tunica externa (fibrous connective tissue)
middle - T media T media (smooth muscle and elastic fibres)
inner T intima T . intima (Squamous endo thelium)
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 19

37.
Schematic plan of blood circulation in human
37. REGULATION OF CARDIAC ACTIVITY

Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., auto regulated by specialised
muscles (nodal tissue), hence the heart is called myogenic heart.
38. sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) can increase the rate of heart beat On the other hand.
Parasympathetic nervous system which can decrease the rate of heart beat.
39. Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the heart rate and increase the cardiac output.
40. Disorders : - Hypertension (High Blood pressure ) : blood pressure that is higher than normal
(120/80). if the BP is 140/90 than its called hypertension Also affect vitalorgans like
brain and kidney.
41. Coronary artery disease (CAD) : (Atheroscleosis) :- Blood vessel that supply oxygen to the
heart muscle. These vessels may deposit of calcium, fat chloesterol and fibrous tissue. lumen
become narrow.
42. Not enough oxygen reaching the heart muscles an acute chest pain appears called Angina
pectoris. It may occur in men and women of any age but it is more common among the
middle aged and elderly.
43. Congestive heart failure: Means state of heart when it is not pumping blood effectively enough
to meet the needs of the body.
43. Which is the main symptoms heart failure congestion of lung.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 20

44. Cardiac arrest when heart stops beating due to SAN stops sending singal to AV node.
46. When the heart muscle is suddenly damaged by inadequate blood supply is called
myocardical infaction / heart attack.

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 21

Excretory Products and Their Elimination
Excretory Products and

04 Their Elimination
1. Ammonia, ure and uric acid are the major forms of nitrogenous wastes excuted by the
animals.
2. Ammonia 
 more soluble 
 500 ml
Urea 
 Soluble 
 50 ml
uric acid 

 least soluble 
 10 ml
3 Ammonotelism 
 Bony fish, aquatic amphibia, aq.insect
Ureotelism 
 Reptiles Amphibia, Cartilagenous fish
Urecotelism 
 Reptiles , Birds, land snail, insect
4. Ammonia, as it is readily soluble, is generally excreted by diffusion across body surfaces or

through gill surfaces (in fish) as ammonium ions.
5. Protonephridia or flame cells are the excetory structures in platyhelminths (flatworms
eg Planaria) ,rotiters.
6. Nephridia are the tubular excretory structures of earthworms and other annelids.
7. Malpighian tubules are the excretory structures of most of the insects including cockroaches.
8. Antennal glands or green glands perform the excretory function in crustaceans like
prawns.
9.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 22

Human Urinary system

10. Kidney are reddish Brown, bean shaped structures siturated between the T12 and L3 vertebral.
11. Inside the kidney, there are two zones, an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
12.
Longitudinal section (Diagrammatic) of Kidney

13. The medulla is divided into a few conical masses (medullary pyramids) projecting into the
calyces (calyx).
14. Columns of Bertini are the part of cortex as renal coloum
15. Million nephron in each kidney called, structural and functional unit of kidney, called
structural and functional unit of kidney .
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 23

16.
A diagrammatic representation of a nephron showing blood vessels, duct and tubule

17. Glomerulus is a tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole – a fine branch of renal
artery.
18. The renal tubule begins with a double walled cup-like structure called Bowman’s capsule,
which encloses the glomerulus.
19. Malpighian body or renal corpuscle = glomerulus + Bowmans capsule
20. Parts of renal tubule
}
Bowman’s Capsule
PCT Present in cortex
DCT
21.
Loop of Henle
Colllecting Duct } Present in medulla
85 % of nephron cortical nephron
15 % of nephron Juxta medullary nephron.
22. Efferent arteriole emerging from the glomerulus forms a fine capillary network around the
renal tubules called pertiubular capillaries.
23. A minute vessel of this network runs parallel to Henle’s loop forming a U sphaed vasa
recta.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 24

24. Urine formation. (3 main process)
a. glomerular filtration
b. reabsorption
c. secretion
25. Glomerular filtration is 1100-1200 ml/min by kidney being filterred which roughly 1/5 of
blood pumped out by each ventricle.
26. 3 Layers filtrate pass during glomerular filtration.
a. Endothelium of glomerular Blood vessel.
b. Basemous membrane
c. Epithelial cells of bowman’s capsule called. (podocyte s)
26. Podocytes have some minute spaces called filtration slits or slit proes.
27. Ultra filtration is when filtratino through the membranes, that constitute of plasma excpet
protein and RBC.
28. The amount of filtrate formed by the kidney per minute is called glomerular filtration
rate (GFR) GFR = 125 ml/min i.e. 180 lit perday.
29. A fall in GFR can activate the JG cell to release renin which can stimulate the glomerular
blood flow.
30. 180 litres filtrate formed per day out of it only 1.5 litres, is executed remainly reabsorbed.
This process is called reabsorption
31. Reabsorption takes place in different segments of nephron perform this either by active or
passive mechanisms.
32. Active 
 Glucose , Amino acid, Na+
Passive 
 Nitrogenous wastes, water.
33. Secretion 

 tubular secretion of non useful substances like H+, K+, and ammonia in to
filtrate.
34. Function of tubules:-
A. PCT 
 PCT is lined by simple cuboidal brush bonder epithelium which increases
surface for reabsorption.
PCT help in selective secretion of H+, NH3+ K+ ions into filtrate and absorb HCO3–.
B. Henle’s Loop:- Reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb.
Osmoloaring increases in medullary intersitial fluid by loop of Henley.
The ascending limbis impermeable to water but allows transport of electrolytes actively
or passively.
C. DCT :- Conditional reabsorption of Na+ and water takes place in DCT.
– DCT capable of reabsorption of HCO3– and selctive secretion of hydrogen and
pottassium ions and NH3 to maintain pH and Na-K balance in Blood.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 25

Reabsorption and secretion of major substances at different parts of the nephron

(Arrows indicate direction of movement of materials.)
D. Collecting Duct : - Collecting duct extends form the cortex of the kidney to inner parts
of medulla.
– Large amounts of water could be reabsorbed from this region to produce a concentrated
urine.
– Collecting duct play role in the maintenance of pH and ionic balance of blood by the
selective secretion of H+ and K+ ions
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 26

36. MECHANISM OF CONCENTRATION OF THE FILTRATE
Diagrammatic representation of a nephron and vasa recta showing

counter current mechanisms
Loop of Henle and vasareeta forms counter current pattern
STEPS in concentration of urine.
a. NaCl is transported by a ascending limb of Henle to the Descending limb of vasa recta.
b. NaCl is returned to the interstitium by the ascending portion of vasa recta
c. small amounts of urea enter the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle’s loop which is
transported back to the interstitium by the collecting tubule
d. The main idea behind counter current mechanism is to maintain high NaCl and urea in the
inner medulla and it helps in absorption of water.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 27

e. Human kidneys can produce urine nearly four times concentrated than the initial
filtrate formed.
36. Regulation of kidney function by ADH
GFG BP

JGA Cell

Hypothalamus

Posterior lobe of pitutary release

ADH / Vasopression

Reabsorption oof H2O from DCT and collecting tube

GFR BP
37. Regulation of kidney function by RAAS
R - Renin GFG BP
A- Angiotensin

A - Aldosterone
S - system JGA Cell
 Release hormone ‘Renin’

Renin
Angiontensinogen  Angio tensin I
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 28


Angiotension II
angiotensinogen II is Activate
a powerfulvaso-constrictor adrenal gland
to release
Aldosterone hormone
BP , GFR
Reabsorption of
+
(Na )and (H 2O)
BP , GFR
38. Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) :-

– ANF released from right atrium cause vasodilation (dliation of blood veseel) and
thereby decrease the blood pressure.
ANF mechanism act as a check on renin angiotensin mechanism
39. When urinary bladder is full with urine the stretch receptors on the walls of the bladder
send signals to the CNS.
40. For micuration CNS send signal and smooth muscle of bladder contract and urethral
sphincter relaxes.
41. The process release of urine is called micturation.
42. Urine - pH6, 1.5 litre urine per dya on avarage, 25-30 gm of urea is excreted out per day.
43. Presence of glucose (glycosuria) and ketone bodies (ketonuria) in urine are indicative of
Diabetes mellitus.
44. Role of other organs inecretion.
Other than kidney lung, liver, skin also help in the elimination of excretory wastes.
45. Our lungs remove large amount of CO2 (200 ml/ minute)
46. Lung remove CO2 and Water.
47. Liver is the largest gland in our body.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 29

48. Liver secrete Bile which contain bilirubin, Bili verdin, cholesterol degraded steroid
hormones, vitamins and drugs.
49. The sweat and sebaceous gland in the skin can eleminate certian substance through their
secretion.
50. Sweat produced by sweat gland is watery fluid containing NaCl, urea .
51. Sebaceous glands eliminate certain substances like sterols, Hydrocarbons, and waxes
through sebum.
52. Small amount of nitrogenous wastes could be eleiminated through saliva too.
53. Disorders :-
Accumulation of urea in blood is called as uremia. leads to kidney failture
treatment hemodialysis (using artificial kidney)
54. The dialysing unit after adding an anticoasulant like heparin.
55. The unit contains a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by fluid (dialysing fluid) having
same composition as that of plasma except the nitrogenous wastes.
56. Blood taken from artery of hand and puritied and than cleared blood is pumped back to vein
affer adding anti-heparin.
57. Kidney failure / renal failure – can be corrected using Kidney transplantation.
58. Calcium oxalates are stone or insoluble mass of crystealised salts called renal calculi.
59. Glomerulonephirtis – inflammalion of glomeruli of kidney.

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 30

Locomotion and Movment

05
1. All locomotions are movement but all movements are not locomotions.
2. Types of movement
Amoeboid macrophages leucocytes
Ciliary ex. Cilia in trachea cillica in female reproductive tract
Muscular ex. Movement of limb jaw tongue
3. Sperm/ spermatozoa use to flagellar movement
4. muscles are mesodermal in origin
5. About 40-50 of the body weight of human body is contributed by muscle
6. Muscle cells have special properties excitability contractility extensibility and
elasticity.
7. Based on location, there are 3 types of muscles
Skeletal voluntary striaed multinucleate Absent
vis sceral involuntary non-striated uninucleated absent
Cardiac involuntary striated uninucleate Intercalated disc.
8.
Diagramatic cross sectional view of muscle showing muscle bundle and muscle fibres.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 31

9. Complete muscle has many muscle bundles or fascicles and these connected to each other
by common collagenous connective tissue layer called ‘Fascia’. Each muscle bundle has
many muscle fibre or muscle cell.
Two fascicles (muscle bundles) are connected to each other by fascia.
10. Plasma membrane of muscle fibre or muscle cell is called Sarcolemma’.
11. Muscle fibre is syncytium (multinucleated)
12. Endoplasmic reticulum is called sarcoplasmic reticulum and is the store house of calcium
ions.
13. There are 2 types of myofilament parallely arranged
Actin myosin
(Thin band) (thick band)
Anatomy of muscle fibre
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 32

14. Light band – Actin – I band (Isotrophic band)
Dark band – myosin – A band (Anisotropic band)
15. In the centre of each I band is an elastic fibre called ‘Z’ lines Which bisect it.
16. A band are also held together in the middle by membrane called ‘M’ line.
17. The protion of the myofibril between two successive ‘Z’ lines is considered as functional
unit of contraction and is called. “Sarcomere”.
18. Complete myosin A band
Only myosin Hzone
ActinI band
Refer Fig. 20.2
19.
An actin (thin) filament

20. Action ‘F’ (filamentous) actin helically wound to each other. And “Factin” is made up of
many ‘G’ (globular) actins.
Polymerisation
oo G actin 
Mg 
 F actin OOOOOOOO
oo
21. Troponin are present or regular interval on the ‘tropomyosin’.

22.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 33

LMM HMM
Myosin monomer (Meromyosin)
23. Each myosin (thick) filament is also a polymerized protein made up of many monomeric
proteins called meromyosin.
24. Meromyosin has 2 parts HMM (Head) LMM(tail)
25. The HMM component has a globular headis an active ATPase enzyme and has binding sites
for ATP and active sites for actin.
26. Mechanism of muscle contraction steps.
a. Signal sent by CNS via motor neuron
b. A neural signal reaching neuro-muscular junction release neuro transmitter
acetylcholine
c. Action potential generates in “Sarcolemma”.
d. Ca+ ions released from sarcoplasmic reticulum into sarcoplasm
e. Troponin attaches to the C+ ions, unmasking active site for myosin.
f. Myosin head acting as ATPase and forms a cross bridge with active site of actin.
Stages in cross bridge formation, rotation of head and breaking ofcross bridge
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 34

g. Myosin pulls actin, shorting the I bond and actin gets slided over myosin.
h. Z lines also gets pulled causing shortening of ‘Sarcomere’ ie. Muscle contraction.
27. The process of muscle contraction continue fill the ca++ ions are pumped back to sarcoplasmic
cisternae resulting in the masking ofactin filament z lines back to original position.
28. Repeated activation of muscles can lead to the accumulation of Lactic acid due to anaerobic
breakdown of glycogen in them causing fatigue .
29. Pigments
Blood  Haemoglobin (oxygen transporting)
Muscle  myoglobin (oxygen storing)
30. Red muscle fibre White muscle fibre
a. High myoglobin and cytochrome a. Low myoglobin and cytochrome
b. more mitochondria b. few mitrochondria
c. Blood supply more c. Blood supply less
d. Slow and continuous d. rapid contraction
eg. Extensor muscle of human back eg. Eye ball msucle
e. They provide energy by e. They provide energy by
Aeiobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
31. Skeletal System
Skeletal System
Axial (80) Appendicular (126)
a. Skull Limb Girdle

Cranial (8)
Facial (14) Forelimb Hind limb
60 (60)
Ear bone (6)
Hyoid (1) Pectorial girdle Pelvic girdle
b. Vetebral column(26) (Hip Bone) (X2)
c. Ribs(24)
Scapula(2) Clavicle(2)
a. Sternum(1)
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 35

32. Bone and cartilage are specialized connective tissue bone has hard matrix due to calcium
salt in it and cartilage has chondroitin salt and therefore cartilage is pliable.
33. Skill bones:
human skill
Carnial bones (8) Frontal (1)
Parietal (2) sphenoid (1)
Temporal (2) Ethmoid (1)
Occipital (1)
Facial bones (14) nasal bone (2)
Lacrimal (2)
Interior nasal conchae(2)
Maxilla (2)
Mandible (1)
Zygomatic (2)
Palatine (2)
Vomer (1)
Ear ossicle (6) Malleus (2)
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 36

Incus (2)
Stapes (2)
Hyoid (1) A single U-shaped bond called hyoid is present at the base of buccal cavity
34. Vertebral coloumn
Vertebral coloumn
(26)
Cervical (7) Atlas C1 (yes bone), Axis C2 (no bone)
Thoracic (12)
Lumbar(5)
Sacral (1)
Coccygeal (1)
The first vertebra is Atlas and it articulates with the occipital condyles.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 37

35. Ribs(24)
Ribs and Ribcage

each rib is Bicephalic as it has two articulation surfaces on its dorsal end.
1-7 Ribs True ribs/ vertebo-sternum
8,9,10 False vertebo-chondral
11,12 Floating ribs
Ribs arise from thoracic vertebral and ventrally connected to sternum with hyaline
cartilage.
36. Appendicualr skeleton
Appendicualr Skeleton
Fore Limb Hind Limb

(30 bones in each) (30 bones in each)
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 38

Right pectoral girdle and upper arm. (frontal view)
Fore limb(30)
Humerus (1)
Radius (1)
Ulna (1)
Carpals (8) wrist bone
Meta carpals (5) Palm
Phalanges (14) fingers
Hind Limb (30) Femur (1) longest bone/ thigh bone
30 × 2 Tibia (1)
Fibula (1)
Meta tarsals (5)
Phalanges (14) digit
Patella (1) Knee Bone / Kneecap
Phalanged formula 23333
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 39

Lower limb bones

37. Pectural girdle consists clavicle and scapular.
38. Scapula is triangular bone has slightly elevated ridge called the spine which projects as a
flat, expanded process called the ‘acromion’
39. The calvicle articulates with acromion and below acromion is a depression called “glenoid
cavity” which articulates with the head of ‘humerus’ .
40. Clavicle has Z curvatures and commonly called collar Bone.
41. Pelvic girdle has 2 coxal bones (Hip bone) formed by the fusion of 3 bone’s Iium Ischium
Pubis
42. At a point of fusion of ilium I schium Pubis a cavity called “Acetabulum”.
43. Disorder
Myasthenia gravis: - Auto immune disorder, affecting neuromuscular junction leading to
fatigve weaking and paralysis of skeletal muscle.
44. Genetic disorder where degeneration of skeletal muscle takes place called “Muscular
dystrophy’.
45. Low Ca++ in body fluid may lead rapid spasms (wild contraction) called Tetany.
46. Arthritis: - Inflammation of joint
47. Osteoporosis – Age related disorder in which decreased a bone mass and increase chances
of fracture Decreased level of estrogen is a common cause.
48. Gout – Inflammation of joint due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 40

49.
Joint
Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial joint

No movement Little movement Freely movable
Sutures of Vertebral 6 types

skull colomn
Balls and socket Hinge joint Pivot glinding Saddle

(humerus and (Knee joint) joint Joint (between carpal
pectoral girdle) (elbow joint) (Atlas and Axis) (between and metacarpals
(femur in pelvic (Trick AAP ) carpals) of thumb)
girdle) (Trick Gap (Trick Car me
between cars) sad ladki)

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 41

NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION
Neural control and

06 Co-ordination
1. Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact andcomplement the
functions of one another and maintain homeostasis
2. The neural system provides an organized network of point to point connections for a quick
coordination.
3. The neural system of all animals is composed of highly specialized cells called neurons
which can defect, receive and transmit different kind of stimuli.
4.
Nervous System
CNS PNS
(via motor neuron)
Brain Spinal
cord ANS Somatic
(visceral organs) neural system
(skeletal system)
Sympathetic Para sympathetic

Neural system neural system
HR
Dilation of pupil HR
Constriction of pupil
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 42

5.
Structure of a neuron
A nuron is a microscopic structure composed of three major parts namely cell body dendrites
and axon.
6. The cell body contain cytoplasm with typically cell organelles and certain granular bodies
called nissl’s granules.
7. Nissl’s granules absent in neck of axon and axon.
8. The axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is branched. Each branc terminates as a bulb
like structure called ‘synoptic knob’. Which possess synaptic vesciles containing chemicals
called “Neurotransmitters”.
9. 3 types of neurons based on no. of axon and
Dendrites
Multipolar Bipolar Unipolar

1 Axon 1 Axon 1 Axon
2 or more dendrite 1 dendrite Attached to cell Body
Cerebral cortex Retina of eyes Embryonic life
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 43

10. 2 Types of Axons
Axons
Myelinated Non-myelinated
The myelinated nerve fibres are enveloped with Schwann cells.

11. The gaps between two adjacent myelin sheaths are called “nodes of raniver”
12. Unmyelinated nerve fibre is also enclosed by Schwann cell that does not form a myelin
sheath and commonly found in autonomous and somatic neural system.
13. Generation and conduction of nerve impulse different ion channels present on the neural
membrane and these ion channels are selectively permeable to different ions.
14. At rest : - The axonal membrane is comparatively more permeable to K+ ions and nearly
impermeable to Na+ ions.
15. Axoplasm has K+ ions and negative protein but less Na+ .
16. These ionic gradient across the resting membrane are maintained by active transport of NA-
K pump. (3Na+ out and 2 K+ in)
17.
Impulse conduction
The electrical potential difference across the the resting plasma membrane is called resting
potential.
18. STEPS in generation and conduction of nerve impulse.
a. During rest the Na k pump is running 3na+ out and 2K+ in
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 44
b. At action potential voltage gated na ion channel open and influx of na+ ions inside the
axoplasm.
c. Depolarization due to Na+ ion influx and reversal of polarity out – and in + .
d. The charge moves from one to another from inside from point A to B.
e. To complete the circuit the impulse / current travel from B to A from outer surface.
19. At resting – 70 mV
At action + 55 mV
20.
Axon terminal andsynapse

A nurve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through junction called synapses.
21. A synapse is formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic neuron and post synaptic neuron
which may or may not be separated by a gap called synaptic cleft.
22. Central neural system
Brain has covering
Cranial meninges outer  Dura mater
Mid  arachenoid
Inner  Pia mater
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 45

22.
Brain
Brain
Forebrain Mid Brain HindBrain
Cerebrum Limbic system thalamus Pons Cerebellum
Amygdala
Emotions
Medulla
Hippocampus
Corpora
Long term memory
quadrigemina
Hypothalamus
temperature
regulation thurst
hunger emotion
23. A deep cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally into two halves, which are termed as the
left and right cerebral hemispheres.
24. Corpus collasum are nerve fibres tracks that connect two cerebral hemisphere
25. Layer of cells covers cerebral hemisphere is called cerebral cortex and has prominent folds
cerebral cortex is called grey matter.
26. Cerebral cortex has motor areas, sensing area and some of them are not clearly sensory
nor motor and are called association areas.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 46

27. Cerebral hemisphere appear opaque and are called white matter in the inner part.
28. Hypothalamus contain a number of centres controlling body temperature urge ofeating
and drinking also secrete hormones.
29. Limbic system has 2 parts amygadal(controls emotions) and hippocampus (convert
short term memory into long term memory)
30. Midbrain is located in between thalamus offorebrain and pons of hindbrain.
31. Hind brain has 3 parts pons, medullar cerebellum
Medulla is the control for respiration
Cardiova scalar reflex and gastric secretion
32. Brain stem = mid brain + pons + medulla
33.
Reflex action (showing knee jerk reflex)

The entire process of response to a peripheral nervous stimulation, that occurs involuntary
without conscious effort or thought and requires the involvement of a part of CNS is called a
reflex action.
Atterent (Sensory) nerve muscle to CNS
Efferent (motor) nerve CNS to muscle
34. Sense organs
Nose smell olfactory receptors
Tongue taste Gustatory receptors
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 47

Ear Hearing Sound receptors.

35. Eye
Layer of eye ball

outer  sclera  Dense C.T.
middle  choroid  vascular (Blue)
inner  Retina  Photo receptor cell

36. The middle layer is called choroid and contains blood vessel appears blue in colour. Choroid
layer is thin in posterior region and becomes thick in anterior part and forms the ciliary
body whose anterior part is called iris (pigmented and gives eye colour)
37. Lens held in place by ligaments attached to ciliary body
38. Pupil’s diameter is regulated by muscle of iris.
 (low light) pupil dilate 
 sympathetic
 (more light) pupil constrict 

 parasympathetic
39. Retina has 3 layers
Inner 
 ganglionic cells
Mid 
 bipolar cells
Out 
 photoreceptor cells
40. Rod 

 ®úÉiÉ (twilight / scotopic) vision
Cone 
 colour (daylight / photopic) vision
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 48

41. Rod and cone both have a purplish red protein called
Rhodospin or visual purple
Retinal Opsin
(Aldehyde of vit A) (protein)
42. In the human eye, there are 3 types of cones which possess their own type of photo pigment
respond to red, green and blue light.
43. blind spot when optic nerve leave the eye ball and it hasno photo receptor cells
No image is formed at blind spot
44. Yellow spot / Fovea macula lutea above bindspot there is a pit compactly packed with
cone cells is called yellow spot.
45. Aqueous chamber cornea and lens
Vitreous chamber lens and retina
45. Aqueous chamber has watering fluid called aqueous humor
Vitreous chamber has transparent gel called vitreous humor.
46. Mechanism of vision
Rod and cone cell has light
Rhodopsin
Retinal Opsin
(Aldehyde of vit A) when opsin separate from
retinal opsin changes chemically
generates impulse
transfer to bipolar neuron
transfer to ganglionic layer
transfer to optic nerve
visual cortex of brain
Im age formed
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 49

47. The ear
Ear performs two functions hearing and body balance.
48.
Diagrammatic view of ear
EAR
Outer Middle Inner

– Pinna has 3 bones malleus,
– Auditary canal incus stapes
Vestibular Cochlea
(Body balance) (Hearing)
3 semi Otolith Scala Scala Scala

circular canal vestibuli media tynpani
(3 cristae)
Saccule Utricle
(1 maculla) (1 maculla)
Dynamic
Balance
Static balance
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 50

49.
50. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and steps is attached to the oval window
of the cochlea.
51. Ear bones increases the efficiency of transmission of sound wave to the inner ear.
52. An Eustachian tube connect middle ear to pharynx.
53. The fluid – filled inner ear is called as labyrinth. Bony labyrinth outer has perilymph and
membranous.(labyrinth inner has endolymph)
54. The coiled portion of labyrinth is called cochlea, responsible for hearing.
55. Reissner’s membrane present between scala vestibuli and scala media.
56. Basilar membrane present between scala media and scala tympani.
57.
T.S. of cochlea
The organ of corti present on the basilar membrane which contain “Hair cells” that act as
auditing receptors.
58. Hair cells apical part has stereo cilia and above them o has a elastic membrane called
‘Tectorial membrane’.
59. Vestibular apparent has 3 semicircular canal and otolith (macula sensory part of utricle
and saccule.) The base of semicircular canal is swollen called crista ampularis.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 51

Mucula and crista helpin body balance.
60.
Mechanism of hearing
Sound in earpinna
Ear drum vibrate
Malleus incus stapes of middle ear
Oval window of inner inner into scala vestibuli (Perilymph vibrate)
Sound in scala media (Endolymph vibrate)
Basilar membrane vibrate impulse
Hair cell pressed against tectorial membrane generates impulse
Impulse transferred to afferent neuron
Auditory nerve carry the impulse to auditory complex of the brain

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 52

Chemical Co-ordination and Integration
Chemical Co-ordination
07 and Integration
1. The nearly system and the endocrine system jointly coordinate and regulate the
physiological functions in the body
2. Definition Hormones are non-nutrient chemical which as intercellular messengers
and are produced in trace amount.
3.
Location of endocrine glands
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 53

4. P 
 pituitary gland
P 
 Pineal gland
A 
 Adrenal gland
P 
 Parathyroid gland
P 
 Pancreas
iÉÉä office 
 Thymus, Thyroid
MÉªÉä 
 Gonads (Testes, Ovary)
½èþ 
 Hypothalamus
5. Hypothalamus is the basal part of diencephalon of forebrain. Hypothalamus produces
two types of hormones.
Releasing hormone (Ex.GnRH)
Inhibitiy hormone (Ex. Somatostatin)
6. Anterior lobe of piutary gland receive hormone from hypothalamus via portal
circulatory system.
7. The posterior cobe of pituitary is under the direct neural regulation of the hypothalamus.
8. The pituitary gland
Location bony cavity of spenoid bone called Sellaturica.
Pituitary gland
Anterior lobe Middle lobe Posterior lobe

Pardistalis Pars intermedia Pars nervosa
Neuro hypophysis
Adenohypophysis
9. Anterior lobe of pituitary release the hormone.
F L A T Paying guest
FSH LH ACTH TSH Prolactin GH
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 54

10. Middle lobe of pituitary releases MSH melanocyte stimulating hormone.
11. Posterior lobe of pituitary release two hormone oxytocine and vasopressin (ADH)
produces by hypothalamic nuclei but released by posterior lobe of pituitary
12.
Diagrammatic representation of pituitary and its relationship with hypothalamus
13. GH/ growth hormone  STH / somatotrophic hormone GH 
Dwarf / midget or pituitary dwarf GH inchildhood lead to gigantism
GH in
Adulthood leads to acromicria  GH in in adult hood leadsto Acromeglay
(Gorilla like appearance ) serve disfigurement

(face) premature death it unchecked.
14. In males FSH and LH function.
FSH LH
Seminiferous tubule Leydig cell
Sertoli cell Testosterone production
Spermatogenesis/ sperm production
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 55

15. Mensmal cycle and hormones.
1-5 6-16 14th 15-28
Bleeding Follicular phase Ovulation Luteal phase
(Developing ova) LH Progesterone eshogen
FSH and estrogen
16. Oxytocine: Stimulate contraction of uterus at the time of child birth and help in milk ejection.
(Birth hormone = oxytocin)
17. Vasopre ssin/ADH: Reabsorption of water from DCT and collecting duct of kidney.
18. Diabetes mellitus 
 insulin low
Diabetes insipidus 
 ADH low
19. Pineal gland: located on the Dorsal side of the forebrain Secretes a hormone called
melatonin.
Melatonin help in 24-hours (diurnal) rhythm of the body, sleep wake cycle, body temperature.
Metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle as well as our defence capacity.
20. Thyroid gland
Ventral side
Releases two hormones t3 and T4 known as triiodothyronin (T3) and Tetraiodo
thyronine (T4)
Iodine constitute 65 % of these hormones
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 56

Deficiency disorder
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism
Normal female Pregnant female
–Altered menses Leads to cirtinism in child

Grave’s disease
–Simple goitre –Low IQ
(Exophthalmic goitre)
– BMR – Mentally retarded
– Prostration of eyeball
–Deat-mutism
– BMR
– Abnormal skin
– Weight loss
21. Functions of thyroxine

 Metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and fats.
 Water and electrolyte balance
 Maintain Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
 RBC production (erythropoiesis)
22. Thyroid gland release Parathyroid gland release
Thyro calcitonin (TCT) Parathormone (PTH)
+ +
Ca Ca
Blood vessel Bone Blood vessel Bone

TCT puts Ca+ from blood to bone PTH puts Ca+ from bone to blood
(Hypo calcaemic hormone) (Hypo calcaemic hormone)
As they work against each other TCT and PTH are called Antagonistic hormones of
each other.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 57
Dorsal side
23. Parathyroid gland: Present on the back side of the thyroid gland releases a hormone called
parathyroid hormone/parathormone / PTH . which regulate the circulating level of
calcium.
Function of PTH Blood calcium level reabsorption of Ca+ by renal tubules and increase
Ca+ absorption from digested food. Therefore PTH is hyper calcemic hormone.
24. Thymus:- Located between lungs, behind sternum on ventral side of the aorta.
Release a hormone
Thymosin
T-lymphocyte maturation b-Lymphocyte maturation
Cell mediated immunity Antibody production
Humoral immunity
Thymus degenerates in old age low immunity in old age people.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 58

25. Adernal gland fig.,
(a) Adrenal gland above kidney

(b) Section showing two parts of adrenal gland
Zona Glomerulosa Salt Aldosterone (mineral corticoid)
CORTEX Zona Fasciculata Sugar Cortiso/ (Glucose corticoid)
Zona Reticularis (PET) progesterone estrogen Testosterone
Medulla Adrenaline andnor adrenaline

Or
Epinephrine and nor epinephrine
Aldosterone :- is mineralocorticoid help in absorption of water and Na+ from DCT and
collecting duct osmotic pressure and blood pressure.
Cortisol  stimulate gluco-neo-genesis
 lipolysis, proteolysis
 Cellular uptake of amino acids.
 maintain cardio vascular system.
Anti- inflammatory reaction and suppress the immune system.
PET (progesterone estrogen testosterone )
Growth of axial hair facial hair during puberty.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 59

26.
Pancreases
1% 99 %
Endocrine part Exocrine part
(Islets of Langerhans) (acinic cell)
1-2 million cells (hormone) Pancreatic juice
-cell glucagon
-cell – insulin
s cell -somatostatin
rmic horm
ypoglyce one
H
insulin
Glucose 
 
 glucagon
glocagon
Hyper glycemic hormone

Insulin:- peptide hormone, regulate glucose homeostasis work on hepatocyte and
adipocytes, enhance cellular glucose uptake and utilisation.
Diabetes mellitus: prolong hyperglycaemia leads to diabetes mellitus. Where glucosuria.
(glucose in urine), ketonuria (ketone body in urine)
27. Testes
Testosterone hormone released by Leydig cells responsible for
Development maturation and function of male accessory sex organs like epididymis, vas
defence, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra etc.
Muscular growth facial and axilla’s hair
Aggressiveness, low pitch voice.
Spermatogenesis
Male sexual behaviour (Libido)
Anabolic (synthetic) effect on protein and carbohydrate metabolism.
28. Ovary : release two hormones
Eshogen Proge sterone
Developing follicle release it Corpus luteumrelease it
Growth and female secondary sex organs supports pnegnancy
High pitch voice, mammary . Act on mammary gland and alveoli
gland development formation
Female sexual behaviour milk secretion (production)
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 60
29.
Hormone Source Action Target Organ
A right Atria
ANF Decreases BP by vasodilation Blood vessels
of Heart
Pyloric region
Gastrin Gastric juice gastric moticity Stomach GIT
of stomach
HCO3 (bicarbonateion and)

Secretion Duodenum Pancrease
H 2 O retease from pancrease
Pancreases
CCK Duodenum Pancreatic enzyme and Bile and gall
bladder
GTP
(Gastric gastric motility
Duodenum
inhibitory gastric juice
peptide)
30. Mechanism of hormone action
Protein hormone
Steroid hormone and T3T4 can cross the plasma membrane and nuclear membrane.
Receptor is side nuclear membrane hormone which are steroid and receptor inside.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 61

Adlosterone T3 and T4
Cortisol (Thyroxine)
Testosterone
Estrogen
Progesterone
31. Protein/peptide/polypeptide/Amino acid derivatives
Whose reeptors are on plasma membrane 2nd messenger take the information
towards DNA inside the nuclear membrane
Secondary messengers are Ca+ cAMP IP3 cGMP
Steroid hormone

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 62
Animal Kingdom
Animal Kingdom
08
1. Platyhelminthes have incomplete digestive system.
2. Mesoglea is present between endoderm and ectoderm.
(a) Diploblastic (b) Triploblastic

3. Metametric segmentation is present in Annelides
4. Origin of notochord is mesodermal.
5. Symmetry Echinodermata
 larvae   bilateral
 Adult   Radial
Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 63
Animal Kingdom
Level of
Symme Segmen Distinctive
Phylum Organi Coelom Features Features Features Features Features
try tation Features
sation
choanocycl Body with
e cell line
cellular level of Canal indirect pores
Porifera Cellular V arious Absent Absent Asymeetric the
againsation system development and canals
spongocoel
cavity in walls.
digestion is
both Obelia show
Coelenterata Cnidoblasts
Tissue Radial Absent Absent Free swimming hypostone metagensis extracellular attentation
(Cnidaria) present.
and of generation
intracelluar
Comb
Radially exclusively locomotion by external
Ctenophora Tissue Radial Absent Absent Bioluminescence plates for
symmetrical marine comb plates fertilisation
locomotion.
Organ & has flame development high
Platyhelm Flat body,
Organ Bilateral Absent Absent Flattened body endopara sites cells for by many regeneration
inthes suckers.
system excretion larval stages capacity
Pseudo Females Often worm
Aschelmin Organ Pseudo has muscular circular cross freeliving
Bilateral coelo Absent longer than shaped,
thes system coelomate pharynx section paraasitic
mate males elongated.
longitudinal
and circular Body
has
Organ Coelo metamerically has paired muscles segment
Annelida Bilateral Present hasparapodia hepridiafor
system mate segmented ganglia which help ation like
excretion
in rings.
locomtoion
Exoskeleton
statocysts or
has open of cu
Organ Coelo blanacing
Arthropoda Bilateral Present largest phyllum jointed appandages malphigian circulatory ticle, jointed
system mate organs
tubules system ap
present
pendages.
External
month has skeleton
Organ Coelo second largest body covered by has visceral rasping feather like
Mollusca Bilateral Absent of shell
system mate phylum calcareous shell hump organ called gills
usually
radula
present.
Water
endoskeleton of radially symmetric- water excretory free vascular
Echino Organ Coelo
Radial Absent calcareous Adults billaterally vascular system is swimming system,
dermata system mate
ossicles symmetric- carvae system absent larva radial
symmetry.
Worm-like
circulatory with
Hemi Organ Coelo are worm-like has proboscis fertilisation
Bilateral Absent has stomochord system is proboscis,
chordata system mate marine animals gland is external
open type collar
and trunk.
Notochord,
dorsal
hollow nerve
dorsal
Organ Coelo ventral pharyngeal cord,
Chordata Bilateral Present has notocord has post analtail nervous
system mate heart gills slate gill slits
system
with
limbs or
fins.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 64

Animal Kingdom
6. Aschelminths are pseudocoelomates
7. Water canal system is present in porifera.
(a) Sycon (b) Euspongia (c) Spongilla

8. Obelia show metagenesis
9. Polyp 
 sessile, cylindrical 
 hydra
Medusa 
 umbrella shaped, free swimming 
 aurelia
(a) Aurelia (Medusa) (b) Adamsia (Polyp)
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 65

Animal Kingdom
10. Sea walnuts /comb jellies are ctenophores
11. Biolumi nascence is property of chenophora.
Example of Ctenophora (Pleurobrachia)

12. Planaria posses high regeneration capacity.
13. Taenia have pseudometameric segmentation.
(a) Tape worm (b) Liver fluke

14. In Aschelminthes female are longer than male.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 66

Animal Kingdom
(a) Coelomate (b) Pseudocoelomate (c) Acoelomate
Example of Aschelminthes: Roundworm
15. Annelids have closed circulatory system

16. Annelids
 Monoecious 
 earthworm
 Dioecious 
 Nereis
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 67

Animal Kingdom
(a) Nereis (b) Hirudinaria

17. Arthropoda is largest phylum.
(a) Locust (b) Butterfly (c) Scorpion (d) Prawn

18. Exoskeleton in Arthropoda is made up of chitin
19. Excretion in arthropodas take place through Malpighian tubules.
20. 2nd largest phylum is mollusca.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 68

Animal Kingdom
(a) Pila (b) Octopus

21. Mouth of mollusca contain file like rasping organ called radula.
22. Echinodermata have endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles.
23. Water vascular system is present in Echinodermata.
Examples of Echinodermata : (a) Asterias (b) Ophiura
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 69

Animal Kingdom
24. In Echinodermata excretory system is is absent.
25. Stomochord is present in collar region of nemichordates.
Balanoglossus
26. Body division

 Arthropoda
 Head
 Thorax
 Abdomen
 Mollusca
 Head
 Muscular Foot
 Visceral hump
 Hemichordate
 proboscis
 collor
 trunk
27. Chordata division
 Urochordata/ Tunicata
 Cephalochordata
 Vertebrata
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 70

Animal Kingdom
Chordata characteristics Ascidia

28. Cyclostamata belong to division Agnatha
A jawless vertebrate - Petromyzon

29. Cranium andvertebral column in cyclostomata is cartilaginious.
30. In Chondrichthyes mouth is ventral.
(a) Scoliodon (b) Pristis

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 71
Animal Kingdom
31. Air bladder is
 Absent Chondrichthyes
 Present Osteichthyes
(a) Hippocampus (b) Catla

32. Amphibians Body is divided into head and trunk
(a) Salamandra (b) Rana
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 72

Animal Kingdom
33. Crocodile has 4 chambered heart
34. Heart chamber 2 Osteichthyes
3 Amphibia/ Reptiles
4. Aves
4. Mammals.
35. In Aves forelimbs are modified into wings.
36. Most unique character of mammals is presence of mammary gland.
37. Pavo is our national bird.
(a) Neophron (b) Struthio (c) Psittacula (d) Pavo

38. Snake and lizard shed their skin in form of skin cast.
(a) Chameleon (b) Crocodilus (c) Chelone (d) Naja

39. Air cavity is present in aves
40. Mammals are homoiothermous
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 73

Animal Kingdom
41. Platypus is oviparous
(a) Ornithorhynchus (b) Macropus (c) Pteropus (d) Balaenoptera

42. Digestive system is incomplete in
 Cnidaria
 Ctenophora
 Platyhelminthes
43. Segmentation is present in
 Annelida / Arthropodal chordates
44. In annelida
 Circulatory system present
 Respiratory system Absent
45. Comb plates for locomotion are present in ctenophora.
46. Fins are locomotary organ in oesteichthyes
47. Cyclostomata are most primitive chordates.
48. Ostrich is flightless bird.
49. In Reptilia tympanum represent ear.
50. cycloid scales cover skin in osteichythyes
51. External skeleton of mollusca is made up chitin.

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 74

Animal tissue
Animal tissue
09
Neural
Skeletal - arms, biceps, legs, abdomen, head, back, eye

Muscular
Smooth blood vessels, iris stomach, intestine
Cardiac heart, heart contain undercalculated disc which allow

contraction as a unit.
Animal Tissue
Areolar beneath skin

Soft Loose
Adipose beneath skin
Dense Regular tendons B-M
ligaments B-B
Connective
Irregular
Special ex. Skin
Cartilage bone blood
Simple lining ofbody cavity 1. Squamous wall of blood vessels and sacs
of lungs inner lining of checks. 2. Cubodial PCT and DCT of kidney
3. Columnar lining of stomach and intestine 4. Fallopian tube bronchioles.
Epithelial
Compound dry surface of skin moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx,

lining of duct of slivary pancreas.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 75
Animal tissue
Tissue group of similar cells along with intercellular substances perform specific is called
tissue organized in specific proportion and pattern and vary according to their function (imp
mcq)
1. Epithelial tissue
Has free surface which faces either body fluid or outside evn. This provide lining or converting
compactly packed with little intercellular matrix.
Simple
Single layer, lining of body cavity, tubes, ducts absorption, seret, diffusion.
compound
2 or more cell layers and has protective function as it does in our skin.
(a) Squamous (b) Cuboidal (c) Columnar (d) Columnar cells bearing cilia
Simple epithelium is classifed as
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

Flattened cells with Cube like cells duct of Tall slender cells having basal
irregular boundary wall of glands and tubular part nuclei may have microvilli
blood vessels, air sacs(alveoli) of nephron. PCT has lining of stomach and
F = diffusion only microvilli on it. intestine F = secrete, absorb.
F = Secrete, absorb.
Ciliated columnar epithelium is present in Fallopian tube, bronchioles

Some of cuboidal or columnar cells form
Glandular epithelium
Unicellular Multicellular Excorine Endocrine

Isolated glandular cells. Storge is not same Posses duct mucus, Ductless hormones
Goble cells. Both cell salivary gland. oil, ear wax, saliva,
formation and storage milk dig. Enzymes
in same cells.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 76
Animal tissue
(a) Unicellular (b) Multicellular, Compound epithelium

Compound multi layered protection against chemical and mechanical stresses, dry
surface of skin, moist surface of glands and pancreatic ducts.
3 type of junction found in epithelium
Types of junction
Tight Adhering Gap
Prevent leakage perform cementing communication, transfer

Connective tissue
Most abundant
Soft Specialised
Soft
1. Loose- a. areolar – beneath the skin, serve support framework, contains fibroblast,
macrophages, mast cells (histamine)
Loose connective tissue : (a) Areolar tissue (b) Adipose tissue
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 77

Animal tissue
b. adipose – beneath the skin store fat.
2. Dense –
a. regular many parallel bundles. Tendons attach muscle to bone, it is modifie, white
fibrous ligaments attach bone to bone yellow, fibrous, elastic, modified.
b. irregular has fibroblast and many collagen fibres present in skin.
Dense regular, Dense irregular

Specialised
(a) Cartilage (b) Bone (c) Blood

1. Cartilage – solid, pliable and resist compression chondrocytes have chondroitin salt replaced
by bones in adults tip of nose joint of ear, adjacent bones of vertebral column, limbs hands.
2. Bones: hard and non-pliable rich in ca salt andcollagen fibres ca provides strength and
rigidity osteocytes present in lacunae. Function = weight bearing support protection movement
and bone marro produce erythrocyte, leucocyte.
3. Blood : Fluid connective tissue, plasma RBC, WBC, Platelet, circulating fluid.
3. Muscular tissue : 2nd most abundant mesodermal fine fibrils functions of muscles are
adjust to change maintain position.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 78

Animal tissue
(a) Skeletal (striated) muscle tissue (b) Smooth muscle tissue (c) Cardiac muscle tissue
Skeletal smooth Cardiac
Voluntary involuntary involuntary

Striated non- striated Striated
Multi nuclei single nuclei Single nuclei
Biceps, eyes blood vessels intestine Heart
4. Neural tissue neurons unit of neural system neuroglia cells which constitute rest of the
neural system protect and support neurons and make up more than one half of the volume of
neural tissue.
Neural tissue (Neuron with neuroglea)
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 79

Animal tissue
IMP ques
1. In unicellular organism all functions performed by 1 cell -t/f
2. Simple epi is divided on the basis of St. Modification.
3. Gap junction rapid transfer of molecules- sometimes big or small, ions.
4. Connective tissue named connective because of their function of linking andsupporting. A-R
5. All connective except blood secrete protein collagen or elastin which provide strength,
elasticity, flexibility.
6. Fibroblast secrete modified polysaccharid which act s matrix,
7. Mast cell contain hepar in bones.
8. Haversian canal present in bones.
9. Transitional epi-appears cuboidal in relaxed and squamous in stretched state. Ex. Urinary
tract.
10. All diagrams of NCERT most imp -7.4 and 7.7
Compound dry surface of skin moist surface of buccal cavity, pharynx, lining of duct of slivary
pancreas.

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 80

Biomolecules
10 Biomolecules
1. Relative abundance of carbon and hydrogen is higher in any living organism than in
earths crust.
2. Trichloroacetic acid is Cl3CCOOH
3. Acid soluble pool 
 Filtrate
Acid insoluble pool 

 Retentate
4. Earth crust  maximum 

 oxygen
 Minimum 
 nitrogen
5. Human body  maximum 
 oxygen
 Minimum 
 silicon
6. Ash contain inorganic elements like Ca+2, Mg+2,
7. Amino acid are substituted methane’s.
8. Amino acid are monomer of proteins.
9. 4 substituted group in amino acid
 Hydrogen
 Carboxyl group
 Amino group
 Variable r-group
10. 20 type of amino acid occur in protein
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 81

Biomolecules
11. Amino acid
Diagrammatic representation of small molecular weight organic

compounds in living tissues
 Acidic 
 glutamic acid
 Basic 
 lysin
 Neutral 
 valine
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 82

Biomolecules
 Complexest 
 tryptophan
 Simplest 
 Glycine
 Aromatic 
 Tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan
12. Lipid are water insoluble lipid are actually biomacromolecule but consider as macromolecule.
13. No. of carbon  Palmitic acid 
 16
 Arachidonic acid 
 20
14. Trihydroxy propane is glycerol
15. Sugar present  glucose 
 pyranose
 Fructose 
 Furanose
16. 5-methyl uracil is thymine
17. 2° metabolites are produced during stationary phase.
18. Concanavalin-A is lectin
19. Role and function of 1° metabolites is known.
20. Curcumin and vinblastin are anticancer drug.
Diagrammatic representation of a portion of glycogen
21. In protein ammino acid are linked by peptide bond.

22. Protein is heteropolymer.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 83

Biomolecules
23. Composition of cell
H2O > protein > nucleic acid > carbohydrate > lipid > ions .
(a) A secondary structure and (b) A tertiary structure of proteins

24. Dietry protein are essential amino acid
25. Most abundant protein  Biosphere 
 RuBisCo
 Animal 
 Collagen
26. Rubisco stand for
Primary structure of a portion of a hypothetical protein. N and C refer to the two

termini of every protein. Single letter codes and three letter abbreviations for
amino acids are also indicated.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 84
Biomolecules
 Ribulose bisphosphate
 Carboxylase – oxygenase
Polysaccharide
27.
Homo Hetero
– Starch – Peptidoglycan
– Glycogen – Hyaluronic acid
– Cellulose
– Chitin
28. Glycosidic linkage is present in polysaccharide, peptide bond in protein and ester bond in
lipid.
29. Cellulose
 Most abundant polymer
 Polymer of -glucose
 Unbranched –(1-4) and (1-6) linkage
 Homopolymer
30. Chintin
 Unbranched
 B(1-4) linkage
 2nd most abundant polymer
31. N2 base are heterocyclic compounds.
32. Nucleotide are building block of nucleic acid.
Nucleic Acid
33. DNA RNA

Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 85

Biomolecules
34. N2 bases
 Purine A/G
 Pyrimidines C/U/T
DNA A=T RNA A= U
C=G C=G
2
35. Adult human Hb – 4 subunit
2
4° structure of protein
Diagram indicating secondary structure of DNA

36. 2 strands of polynucleotide are antiparallel
37. According to watson -crick DNA model, DNA exist as double helix.
38. DNA
 Form B-DNA
 Pitch 34 A°
 Turn 36°
 Distanceb/w base pair 3.4 A°
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 86

Biomolecules
39. Protein with catalytic property are called enzymes.
40. Glycolysis is completed in 10 steps
Concept of activation energy
Metabolism
41.
Catabolism Anabolism
– Degradation pathway – Biosynthetic pathway
– Release energy – Consume energy
– Complex simple – simple complex
– Glucose become latic acid – Acetic acid become cholesterol
42. ATP stand for Adenosine triphosphate

43. Blood concentration of glucose in normal healthy individual is 4.2-6.1 mol/L.
44. Living state is non-equilibrium steady state.
45. Inorganic catalyst work efficiently at high temperature and pressure.
46. Rate doubles (or) decrease by half for every 10°C temperature change.
47. Lactic acid is formed in skeletal muscle during anaerobic condition.
48. Glycolysis is responsible for production of ethanol in yeast.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 87

Biomolecules
49. Factor affecting enzyme activity
(a) pH (b) Temperature and (c) Concentration of substrate on enzyme activity

 Temperature
 pH
 Substance concentration
 Inhibitors.
50. Enzymes decreases the activation energy
51. Enzyme
 divided 6 classes 4-13 subclasses
 Named 4-digit number
52. Holoenzyme = apoenzyme + co-factor
Holoenzyme = apoenzyme ( protein part) + co-factor (non protein part)
Co-factor non-protein
Prosthetic group Co-enzyme Metal-ions

haem NAD,NADP (Zn)
(tightly attach (NIACINE-vit-b3)
to apoenzyme)
53. Zn +2 is co-factor for proteolytic enzyme carboxypeptidase.

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 88

Human Reproduction
Human Reproduction
11
1. Human are sexually reproducing and viviparous
2. Game to genesis 
 formation of gamets
Insemination 
 transfer of sperms into female gentile track

Fertilization 
 fusion of male and female gamete

Implantation 
 attachment of zygote to uterine wall

gestation 
 embryonic development

parturition 
 delivery of baby.
3. sperm formation continuous even in old men but ovum formation around 50 yers in women
stops.
4. Male reproductive system located in pelvic region.
5. Male reproductive system
Diagrammatic sectionalview ofmale pelvis showing reproductive system

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 89
Human Reproduction
Testes (a pair) (primary sex organ)

Accessory ducts
Glands
External genitalia
Diagrammatic view of male reproductivesystem (part of testis is open to show

innerdetails)
6. Temp of tests  2-2.5°C lower than normal body temp.
7. Each testes has  250 compartments called Testicular lobules.
Testicular lobules
Diagrammatic sectional view of seminiferous tubule
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 90

Human Reproduction
Each lobule = 1-3 seminiferous tubules
Male germ cells sperm foration
8. Seminiferous tubules
Sertoli cells provide nutrition
9. Leudig cell present in interstitial space and secret testicular hormone called androgen.
10. Path of sperm
Seminiferous tubule 

 S
Rete testis 

 R
Vasa efferentia 

 V
Epididymis 
 E
Vas deferens 

 V
Ejaculatory duct 

 E
Urethra 
 U
Urethral meatus 

 U
11. Male external genitalia is penis

12. Penis covered by lose skin caused foreskin
13. Male accessory glands
Seminal vesicle (paired)
A prostate (single)
Bulbourethral (paired)
14. Seminal plasma rich in  fructose calcium certain enzymes.
15. Secretion of bulbourethral gland = lubrication of penis
16. Scrotum maintain low temp of testes 2.5°C less than body temperature
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 91

Human Reproduction
17. Female reproductive system
Pair of ovaries
Oviduct pair
Uterus single along with mammary gland

Cervix vagina
External genitalia
Diagrammatic sectional view of the female reproductivesystem

18. 1° sex organ in females ovaries (mesodermal)
Peripheral cortex
19. Ovary stroma
inner medulla
20. Oviduct is internally lined by ciliated epithelium
21. Female accessory duct
Fallopian tubes (oviduct)
uterus
vagina
22. near to ovary  infundibulum (funnel shaped)
23. Fimbriae  Finger like projection  collect ovum from ovary
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 92

Human Reproduction
24. wider part  ampualla  at which fertilization takes place.
25. Isthmus  join uterus to ovary. Ampula is the site of fertilization
26. Uterus also called womb
Inverted pear shaped
27. cervical canal  cavity of cervix

28. birth canal  cervical canal + vagina
29. walls of uterus
External perimetrium
Middle myometrium  undergo contraction during porturation

Innerendometrium  undergo cyclical changes during M.C.
30. Female external genitalia
Mons pubis  cushion like fatty tissue covered by skin and hair
Labia majora
Labia minora
Hymen  opening of vagina partially covered
Clitoris  tiny finger like structure (homologus to penis)
diagrammatic sectional view of Mammary gland

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 93
Human Reproduction
Glandular tissue
31. Mammary glands
Variable amount of fat
Cluster of cells  alveoli
Secret milk
32. Mammary tubule  mammary duct  ampulla (connected to)
Laciferous duct
33. Primary sex organ of mule Testes

34. Spermatogonia limmature male germ cell  mature sperm
Spermatogenesis
meosis (I)
35. Spermatogonia (46) 
 1° spermatocyte(46)
(n) 2° spermatocyte (23)
meosis (II)
Spermatozoa (23) 

spermiogenesis
 4 spermatid (23)
36. Spermiation release of sperm from Sertoli cells

37. GnRH hypothalamic hormone
LH act on Leydig cell and secretion of androgen
FSH act on sertolii cells and stimulate secretion of some sub factor
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 94

Human Reproduction
Structure of a sperm
38. Sperm
Head elongated haploid nucleus covered with acrosome filled with enzyme
neck
middle piece
tail
39. Human male ejaculates 200 to 300 million sperms during coitus.
60% have normal shape & size
40 % show vigorous motility

40. Semen  seminal plasma sperm
41. Function of male sexual accessory ducts and glands are maintained by androgen (Testicular
hormone)
42. Process of formation of mature female gamete oogenesis
43. Oogenesis initiated during embryonic development
44. Oogonia  gamete mother cell
45. Meotic division arrested at prophase – I
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 95

Human Reproduction
46. Reproductive cycle in female primates called menstrual cycle
(monkey , apes, human)
Diagrammatic Section view of ovary
47.
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 96

Human Reproduction
48. Menarche 1st menstruation
49. Menstrual cycle  cycle of events starting from one menstruation till next
Schematic representation of (a) Spermatogenesis; (b) Oogenesis

50. Fertilization take place only when ovum and sperm are transported simultaneously to
ampullary region.
51. Sperm comes in contact with zona pellucida

52. Only one sperm can fertilize one ovum
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 97

Human Reproduction
53. Second meosis in voum occur after fertilization

54. Meotic division in ovum is unequal
55. zygote contain 46 chromosomes
56. sex of baby decided by father.
57. Cleavage mitotic division starts as zygote moves through the isthmus.
58. Blastomeres zygote with 2, 4, 6, 8, 16 daughter cells
59. Embryo with 8-16 blastomeres = morula
Outer layer trophoblast attach to endometrium

60. Blastomere in blastocyst
Inner group inner group inner cell mass
Get differentiated as embryo

61. implantation  leads to blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium
62. chorionic villi  finger like projections appear on trophoblast
63. placenta  chorionic villi and uterine tissue become integrated with each other
and jointly form structural and functional unit.
Fascilate supply of O2 nutrients
64. placenta
Removal of CO2 & excretory waste material
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 98
Human Reproduction
65. Placenta connected to embryo through an umbilical cord.
66. Placenta act as endocrine tissue

HCG (Human chorionic gonadotrophin)
HPL (Human placental lactogen)

Estrogen, progesterone
67. Relaxin secreted by ovary.
68. After implantation embryo divided into
Outer ectoderm
Middle mesoderm
Inner endoderm
69. Stem cells have potential to give rise to all tissue and organ.
70. Human pregnancy last 9 months.
71. duration development
1. 1 months 
 embryos heart first sign of growing
2. IInd month 

 limbs and digits
3. 12 week (1st) trimester 

 limbs and external gentians organs
4. 5th months 

 hair on head and 1st movement
5. 24 weeks (2ndtrimestor) body covered by hair
Eye lids separate
Eyelashes formed
BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 99

Human Reproduction
72. gestation period  9 months
73. parturition is neuro endocrine mechanism
74. Oxytocin released by material pituitary.
75. Cholostrum milk produced during initial few days. have IgA
76. The singnals of pretention originals from fully developed foetus

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 100

Reproductive Health
Reproductive Health
12
01. Reproductive health means total well being in all aspects of reproduction i.e. physical,
emotional, behavioral and social.
02. Reproductively healthy means
1. Physically and functionally normal reproductive organs.
2. Normal emotional and behavioral interaction.
03. Family planning were initiated in 1951.
04. Reproductive and child health care (RCH)
1. Creating awareness among people about various reproduction related aspects.
2. Providing facilities and support for building up a reproductively healthy society.
5. STD = sexually transmitted disease
6. Amniocentesis used for illegal sex determination but initially was discovered for
chromosomal disorders detections.
7. CDRI
 central drug research institute
 Located in Lucknow
 Developed Saheli contraceptive pill and is nonsteroidal
8. Saheli is a oral contraceptive pill
9. Properties of ideal contraceptive
 User friendly
 Effective and reversible

Reproductive Health
 With no side effects
10. World population
a. 2 billion (2000 million) in 1900.
b. 6 billion by 2000
c. 7.2 billion in 2011
11. Reasons for increased population
 Rapid decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate(MMR), infant mortality rate (IMR).
 Increase in no of population in reproducible age
12. Steps to overcome increasing population
 Motivate smaller families
 Using various contraceptives method
 Raising of marriageable age of the females to 18 years and that of males is 21 years.
 Incentives given to couples with small families.
13. MMR = maternal mortality rate
IMR = Infant mortality rate
14. Wide range of contraceptive
 Natural traditional
 Barrier
 Oral contraceptive
 Injectibles
 Implants
 Surgical methods
 IUD = Intra uterine divices
1. Natural method principle is to avoid meeting of sperm and ovum

High chances of failure
 Periodic abstinence :-
couples avoid or abstain from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the M.C. when ovulation
expected.
Reproductive Health
 Withdrawal/ coitus interruptus :-
Male partner withdraw his penis from the vagina just before ejaculation to avoid
insemination.
 Lactational amenorrhea (absence of menstruation)
a. Menstrual cycle do not occur during the period of intension lactation following
parturition. due to high prolactin hormone inhibit LH and FSH.
b. As long as mother breast – feeds child fully changes of conception are almost nil
2. Barriers ovum and sperms are prevented from physically meeting.
Condom for male Condom for female
a. Condoms
 Made of thin rubber / latex sheath that
 Both male and female condoms are disposable
 Can be self inserted.
 E.g .Nirodh
b. Diaphragm, cervical caps and vaults
 Made up of rubber
 Inserted into female reproductive tract to cover the cervex during coitus the
prevent conception by blocking the entry of sperms. Through cervix.
 Reusable
 Creams, jellies used to increase contraceptive efficiency

Reproductive Health
3. IUD Intra uterine devices
Copper T (CuT)
a. Ideal contraceptive
b. Most widely used method of contraceptive
 Inserted by doctors and expert nurses.
 Non-medicated lippes loop
 Cu releasing = CUT , Cu7, multiload 375
 Hormone releasing – Progestasert, LNG 20
 Increasing phagocytosis of sperm within uterus and cu ions suppress sperm motility
and fertilizing capacity of sperm.
Hormone releasing IUD : make uterus unavailable for implantation
4. Oral contraceptives : oral administration of progestogen or progestogen – estrogen

combination
 Used in the form of pills
 Taken daily for 21 days starting preferably within the first five days of M.C.
 Inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as alter the quality of cervical mucus.
 Effective with lesser side effects.
 Saheli  non steroidal prepration
 Once a week pill
 Less side effects and highly contraceptive

Reproductive Health
5. Injectables / Implants
Implants
 Progestogen alone or in combination with estrogen can be used by females as injections
/ implants under skin
 Similar as a pills
 Administration within 72 hours of coitus have been very effective as emergency

contraceptive can used to avoid pregenual due to rape or casual unprotected inter
course.
6. Surgical methods / also called sterilization
Vasectomy Tubectomy
Surgical intervention blocks gamete transport and prevent conception

Reproductive Health
 Vasectomy small part of vas deferns removed or tied up through small incision on the
scrotum.
 Tubectomy small part of fallopian tube removed
 Highly effective but their reversibility is very poor.
6. Affects of contraceptives
a. Nausea a
b. Abdominal pain
c. Break through bleeding
d. Irregular menstrual bleeding
e. Breast cancer
18. government of India legalized MTP in 1971.
19. MTP are safe during first trimester lie upto 12 weeks of pregnancy.
20. Nearly 45 to 50 million MTP are performed in a year all over the world which accounts 1/
5th of the total no. of conceived pregnancies in a year.
21. Government of India legalized MTP in 1971.
22. MTP are considered relatives saft during 1st trimester. Upto 12 weeks.
STI – sexually transmitted Infections
Infections / diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse
VD venereal diseases
RTI reproductive tract infections.
STD
a. Gonornoea b. suphilis *c. genital herps
d. chlamydiasis e. genital warts f. trichomoniasis
*g. hepatitis – B
*h. AIDS
(*- incurable diseaes)
most dangerous and incurable can be caused by

Reproductive Health
a. sharing of injection needles
b. surgical instruments
c. transfusion of blood
d. infected mother to foetus
sumptoms
itching fluid discharge slight pain swelling
Timely detection of STD is essential
This could lead to
 Pelvic inflammatory diseases
 Abortions
 Still births
 Ectopic pregnancies
 Infertility
Principle to avoid
 Avoid sex with unknown partners and multiple partners.
 Always try to use condoms during coitus.
 In doubt should go to qualified doctor for early treatment
Infertility is inability to conceive or produce children even after 2 years of un protected

sexual inhabitation.
IVF(In vitro fertilisation)
Fertilization outside the body in almost similar condition as that in body
ET = Embryo transfer
Test tube baby = ova from wife / donar × sperm from husband
Zygote / under stimulated condition)
ZIFT = zygote intra fallopian transfer
Zygote upto 8 blastomeres transferred into fallopian tube

Reproductive Health
IUT = Intra uterine transfer
Zygote transferred into uterus
IVF = In vivo fertilisation
Fusion of gametes within female
When female can not conceive
GIFT = Gamete intra fallopian transfer
Transfer of ovum collected from donar into fallopian tube of another female who cant produce
one.
ICSI = Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection
Sperm is directly injected into the ovum.
Infertility either causes due to male/ female
AI artificial insemination
Semen collected either from husband or donar artificially introduced either into vagina or
in uterus  IUI intra uterine insemination.


Evolution
13 Evolution
1. Evolution is to understand the changes in Flora and Fauna.

2. Stellar distances measured in light years.
3. Universe is 20 BYA
4. Big-bang theory explains us the origin of universe
Diagrammatic representation of Miller’s experiment

5. Our galaxy is milky way galaxy.

Evolution
6. Earth is formed 4.5 BYA
7. O2 combined with ammonia and methane to form H2O and CO2.
8. Theory of panspermia also called cosmozonic theory
9. Louis pauster demonstrated that life come from pre existing life.
10. The condition / atmosphere was reducing.
11. Formation of diverse organic molecule from inorganic constituent called chemical evolution.
12. First non- cellular from of life = 3BYA
13. 1st inorganic molecule = NH3
14. 1st organic molecule = CH4
15. 1st cell was chemoheterotroph and anaerobic
16. Observations made during sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
17. Any population can built in variation in characters.
18. Fitness according to Darwin is reproductive fitness.
19. All existing life forms share similarities and share common ancestor.
20. Fossils are remains of hard parts of life-forms found in rocks.
21. Dinosaurs represent extinct organism.
A family tree of dinosaurs and their living modern day counterpart organisms like
crocodiles and birds
Evolution
22. Evidences in form of fossil called paleontological evidences.
23. Embryos never pass through adult stage of other animals.
24. Father of embryology = Von Baer.
25. Embryology stated that all organism show common ancestor.
26. Homology (Divergent evolution) same origin different function
Example of homologous organs in , Plants and, Animals

 Whales, bats, cheetah, human
 Brain and Heart of different vertebrates.
 Thorn of bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita
27. Analogy (Convergent evolution) different origin same function
 Flippers of penguins and dolphins
 Sweet potato and potato
 Eye of human and octopus
28. Similarities in gene and proteins show common ancestory
29. Lichens can be pollution indicators.
30. Lichens do not grow in polluted area

Evolution
31. No variant is completely wiped out.

32. not a directed process in the sense of determinism.
33. Evolution is stochastic process based on chance events in nature and chance mutation
in the organism.
34. Darwin observed birds on Galapagos Island which are called as Darwin’s Finche
Variety of beaks of finches that Darwin found in Galapagos Island

35. The varities of Darwin’s finches evolved on Island itself.
36. Process of evolution of different species in given geographical area starting from a point
and literally radiating to other area of geography called Adaptive radiation.
37. Adaptive radiation
 Darwin finches
 Australian marsupials
38. When more than one adaptive radiation appeard to have occurred in an isolated area it
represents convergent evolution.
39. Placental mammals also show convergent evolution.

Evolution
40. The essence of Darwinian theory about evolution is natural selection.
41. Nature select fitness.
42. There must be genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve.
43. Adaptive ability is inherited
44. Fitness is end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.
45. Branching descent and natural selection are two key concept of Darwinian theory of
evolution.
46. Evolution is consequence of a process called natured selection.
Tasmanian wolf
Sugar glider Tiger cat
Marsupial
mole
Marsupial Banded anteater
Kodla
Radiation
Marsupail rat
Bandicoot
Wombat Kangaroo
Evolution
Adaptive radiation of marsupials of Australia

Placental mammals Australian mammals
Mole Marsupial mole
Anteater Numbat(anteater)
Mouse Marsupial mouse
Lemur Spotted cuscus
Flying squires Flying phalanger
Bobcat Tasmaian tiger cat
Wolf Tasmanian wolf

Evolution
Picture showing convergent evolution of Australian Marsupials and placental

mammals
47. 2000 MYAFirst cellcular form of life appeared
48. 500 myA Invertebrates were formed and active.
49. 350 myA Jawless fish
50. 320 myA seel weeds and few plants
51. 350 myA Fish with stout and strong fins would move on land and go back water.

Evolution
A sketch of the evolution of plant forms through geological periods

52. Lobefins evolved into the 1st amphibians that lived on both land and water.
These were ancestors of modern day frogs and salamander
53. Amphibians evolved into reptiles.
54. 200 myA Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptile
(Eg Ichthyosaurus) first mammals were shrew like
Tyrannosaurus rex 20 feet in height and had huge fearsome dagger like teeth.
65 myA dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from earth.

Evolution
Representative evolutionary history of vertebrates through geological periods

55.
56. Dryopithiecus and ramapithecus 15 myA
57. Ramapitheals more man like
Dryopithecus more ape like
58. Few fossils of man like pones have found in Ethopia and Tanzania about 3-4 myA man
like primates walked in east rum Africa.
2 myA = Australopithecines lived in African grassland.
First human like being the hominid and was called homo habilis

Evolution
A comparison of the skulls of adult modern human being, baby chimpanzee and
adult chimpanzee. The skull of baby chimpanzee is more like adult human skull
than adult chimpanzee skull
Bran capacity was 650-800 cc
Did not eat meat.
1.5 myA Homo erectus brain around 900 cc
Ate meat
Nenderthal man brain size 1400 cc lived near east and central Asia.
1,00,000 – 40, 000 years back
Homo sapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents
75,000 – 10,000 years ago = modern Homo sapiens arose
Pre-historic cave art = 18,000 years ago
10,000 years back = agriculture


Human Health and Disease
Human Health and

14 Diseases
1. Blood circulation was discovered by William Harvey
2. William Harvey disproved good humar hypothesis.
3. Immune system maintains our health.
4. Mind and mental state can affect our health
5. Health is affected by
a. Genetic disorder
b. Infections
c. Life style
6. Healthy people
 More efficient at work
 Increase productivity
 Bring economic prosperity
 Increase longevity of people
 Reduces IMR/MMR
7. Health is state of complete physical, mental and social will being.
8. Health is maintained by
 Balanced diet
 Personal hygine
 Regular exercise

9. Health is achieved by
 Yogo practice
 Awareness of diseases
 Vaccination/immunization
 Proper disposal of waste
 Control of vector
 Maintenance of hygine Food water
10. Diseases
Disease
Infections Non-infections
Easily transmitted Cancer Major cause of

most common death
AIDS – Fatal
11. Yoga has been practiced since time immemorial to achieve physical and mental health.
12. Pathogens are disease causing organisms
13. Salmonella typhi is a pathogenic bacterium, which causes typhoid fever in human beings.
14. Pathogens for typhoid enter small intestine through food and water0
15. Typhoid fever can be confirmed by Widal test.
16. Pneumonia is caused by
a. Streptococcus pneumonia
b. Haemophiles influence
17. Alveoli are infected in pneumonia
18. Bacterial diseases
 Typhoid salmonella typhi
 Pneumonia  streptococcus pneumoniae
 Haemophiles influence
 Dysentery
 Plague
 Diphtheria
19. Viral disease  common cold  due to rhino virus
Infect nose, respiratory, passage
Not, lungs
20. Protozoan disease
Malaria  due to plasmodium
P. vivax
P. malaria
P. Falciparum
Most serious  Malignant malaria caused by P. falciparum
21. Plasmodium enters the human body as sporozoites

Stages in the life cycle of Plasmodium
22. In malaria, haemozoin is responsible for chill and high fever

23. After multiplying the female mosquito body, sporozoids are stored in salivary glands.
24. Malaria parasite require two host human and mosquito
25. Female anopheles mosquito is vector for malaria parasite.
26. Entamoeba histolytica  protozoan parasite  cause Amoebiasis
27. Housefly act as mechanical carrier for amoebic dysentery.
28. Helminthis pathogenic to human are Ascaris and Wucheria.
29. Ascaris  common round worm  intestinal parasite  Cause Ascariasis
30. Wuchereria  Filarial worm  cause elephantiasis filariasis
W. bancrafti Vector  female mosquito
W. Malayi
Diagram showing inflammation in one of the lower limbs due to elephantiasis
31. Fungal disease
Diagram showing ringworm affected area of the skin

Ringworm  caused by
 Micros Porum
 Trichophyton
 Epidermophyton
Most common infectious disease in man
32. Pneumonia and common cold are air borne diseases
33. Malaria and filariasis are transmitted through insect vectors
34. Dengue and chikungunya are vector born diseases.
35. Gambusia fish is introduced in ponds to feed on mosquito larvae to control malaria vectors.
36. Immunity is overall ability of the host to fight the pathogens
37. Innate immunity non specific and in born
4 barriers
 Physical  skin, mucus coating
 Respiratory tract
 GIT
 Uro-genital tract
 Cellular WBC, PMNC, natural killercell
 Physiological Acid in stomach, saliva in mouth, tears from eyes.
Cytokine interferons
38. Acquired immunity
 Pathogen specific
 Have memory
39. Antibody
 produced by b-lymphocytes
 Have 4 peptide chains
 2 light H2L2
 2 heavy

Structure of an antibody moleculs
40. T-lymphocyte mediate CMI

41. CMI is involved in tissue grafting
42. Colostrum
 yellowish fluid
 secreted by mother during lactation
 has IgA antibodies
43. The principle of immunization/ vaccination is based on property of memory of immune
system.
44. Hepatitis B vaccine is produced from yeast.
45. In allergy IqE antibodies are produced.
46. The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the
environment is called allergy.
47. Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from mast cells.
48. Drugs such as anti-histamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of
allergy.
49. Rheumatoid arthritis is an auto-immune disease

50. Immune system
 Consists  lymphaid organs
 Tissues
 Cells
 Antibodies soluble molecules
 Role  Auto immune disease
 Allergic reactions
Organ translations
51. Lymphocytes are originated/ maturated/ proliferated in lymphoid organs.
52. Primary lymphoid organs are Bone marrow and thymus.
53. 2° lymphoid organs are
Diagrammatic representation of Lymph nodes
 Spleen Tonsils
 Lymph nodes Appendix
 Peyers patches of small intestine
54. Spleen is a large bean shaped organ.
55. MALT stands for mucosa associated lymphoid tissue.
56. MALT consists about 50% of lymphoid tissue in human body.
57. AIDS stands for Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

58. AIDS is caused by Human immune deficiency virus.
59. HIV is type of retrovirus
Replication of retrovirus
60. A widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is ELISA

61. ELISA stands for enzyme linked immune-sorbent assay.
62. Abbreviations
 NACO National AIDS control organization
 NGO Non-government organization
 CT Computed tomography
 MRI Magnetic resonance imaging
63. Contact inhibition is properly shown by normal cells by virtue of which contact with other
cells inhibit their uncontrolled growth.
64. Tumors
Benign  do not spread to other locations
Malignant  show metastasis
65. Metastasis is most feared property of malignant
66. Cancer causing virus are called oncogenic viruses
67. MRI use nan-ion sing radiations
68. Treatment of cancer
 Radiotherapy
 Surgery
 Immunotherapy
69. Heroin
 commonly called stack
 chemically diacetylmorphine
 white, odur less
 bitter crystalline campounct
 obtained by acetylation of morphine
70. Morphine is obtained from poppy plants Papaver somin ferum

71. Receptors
Opiod CNS and GIT
Cannabinoid Brain
72. Plant drug obtained
Cannabinoids cannabis sativa
Cocalne Erythroxylon coca
73. Cannabinoids affect the cardiovascular system of body
Skeletal structure ofcannabinoid molecule
Leaves ofCannabis sativa
74. Hallucinogenic property is present in

 Atropa belladonna
 Datura
 Cocaine

Flowering branch ofDatura
75. Drug to treat mental illness / depression

 Barbiturates
 Amphetamine
 Benzodiazepines
76. Morphine is effective sedative and pain killer.
77. Nicotin is an alkaloid
78. Smoking increases carbon monoxide [co] content in blood and reduces the concentration
of haembound oxygen.
79. Adolescence is vulnerable phase of mental and psychological development of individual.
80. Transmission
 AIDS through sexual contact
 Hepatatis B Through infected blood.


Animal Husbandry
Animal Husbandary
15
1. Embryo transfer technology and tissue culture technology play a pivotal role in further
enhancing food production
2. It is estimated that more than 70 % of the world livestock population is in India and china.
Surprising to note that contribution to the world farm produce is only 25 percent.
3. Dairying is the management of animals for milk and its products for human consumption
4. Milk yield is primarily dependent on the quality of breed in the farm
5. Stringent cleanliness and hygiene are of paramount importance while making storage
and transport of milk and its products.
6. Poultry is the class of domesticated fowl (birds) used for food or food or for their eggs.
7. Poultry topically include chicken, ducks, turkey, geese
8. Breeding of animal is an important aspect of animal husbandry
9. Breed a group of animal related by descent and similar in most character like general
appearances. Feature size configuration.
10. Breeding in between animals of the same breed it called inbreeding while crosses between
different breeds are called out breeding.
11. Breeding strategies follows superior female and superior male of the same breed are
identified and mated in pairs.
12. Purelines crossing of superior progeny for several generation.
13. Inbreeding increases homozygosity.
14. Close inbreeding usually reduces fertility and even productivity this is called inbreeding
depression.
15. Outbreeding breeding of unrelated animals which may be between individual of the same
breed or between different breed.

Animal Husbandry
16. Out crossing practice of making animals within some bred but no having common ancestor
for 4 to 6 generation.
17. Out crossing is best breeding method for animals.
18. A single outeross often helps to overcome inbreeding depression.
19. Hisardale is a new breed of sheep developed in Panjab by crossing Bikaneri ewes and
marino rams.
20. Interspecific hybridization include male and female animals of two different species.
21. Mule is hybrid obtained by mating of female horse and male donkey.
Mule
22. Controlled breeding experiment are carried out using artificial insemination.
23. Artificial insemination helps us overcome several problems of normal mating.
24.
inbreeding between animals of same breed.
Breeding
Out breeding between animals of different breed.
25. Inbreeding- Forms homozygocity and pure lines but causes inbreeding dipression.
26. Offsprings of dfferent breed are crossed is called cross breeding
example Hisardale

Animal Husbandry
27. Hisardale
Product of cross breeding
Breed of sheep
Developed in Punjab
Crossing between Bikaneri ewes and marino rams.
28. Male and female animals of two different species are mated in interspecific hybridization
29. Mule

 product of interspecific hybridization

 Have combined feature of both parents.

 Produced by crossing
Male Donkey × female horse = Mule
30. MOET multiple ovulation embryo transfer technology
31. In MOET cow is administrated with hormone FSH to induce folliallar maturation and
super ovulation
32. In super ovulation 6-8 eggs are produced per cycle
33. In MOET fertilized egg are recovered non-surgically at 8-32 celled stage and transferred to
surrogate mother
34. MOET used animals
Female 
 high milk yielding
Male 
 high quality meat yielding bull (lean meat with less lipid)
35. Beekeeping/Apiculture is the maintenance of hives of honeybees for the production of

honey.
36. Food of high nutritive value
Honey
Iniquitous use in medicine
37. Honey bee Produce primary product wax and secondary product honey
preparation of cosmetics

Animal Husbandry
Beewax
Polishes
38. Apis indica is common species of honeybee
39. Bee keeping is not labour intensive
40. Bees
pollinations sunflower
Brassica
Apple
Pear
41. Keeping beehives in crop field during flowering period increase
 Pollination efficiency
 Improve yield
42. Fisheries: Fishing is devoted to catching, processing and selling of fish, shellfish, prawns,
carbs, lobster, edible oyster
43. Aquaculture and pisciculture have increased production of aquatic plant and animals.

Animal Husbandry
44. Fish
Fresh water 

 catla, rahu, common carp
Fish
Marine water 

 Hilsa, sardine, macerel, pomfrets
Breeding
In Breeding Out breeding

Mating closely related
individuals within same Out cross Inter specific
breed for 4-6 generation crossing breeding hybridisation
1. Same breed 1. diff. breed 1. diff. species
2. no common 2. same species e.g. mule
ancestor for e.g. Hisardale
4-6 generation
3. overcome
inbreeding
depression
45. Blue revolution increase production of fishes


Biotechnology Principles and Process
Biotechnology Principles
16 and Process
1. Europian federation of biotechnology (EFB) gave a definition of biotechnology

“The integration of natural science and organisms cell, parts thereat molecular analogies for
services and prodcuts.
2. Principle and process
i. Genetic engineering : Alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA) and change
the phenotype of the host organism.
ii. Bioprocess engineering : (Chemical engineering)
Maintaining a sterile (microbial contamination free) ambience in chemical engineering for
making antibiotics, vaccines enzymes etc.
3. First recombinant DNA(rDNA) was made by stanley cohen and Herbert Boyer in the
year 1972 By linking antibiotic gene to plasmid of Bacteria called salmonella typhimurium.
4. DNA can be cut by an enzyme called molecular scissors or restriction enzyme or
restriction endonuclease
5. Process of rDNA technology
a. Isolation of DNA (Plant cell-cellulase)
Spooling with chilled ethanol (Bacteria cell lysozyme)
(Fungus cell chitinase)
b. Fragmentation by restriction endonuclease
c. Separation and isolation of desired DNA fragment (gel ectrophoresis)
d. Amplification of gene of infest (PCR)
e. Ligation of DNA fragment to a vector
f. Transfer – rDNA into host (transformation)

g. Culturing the host cell in large scale(Bioreactors)
h. Extraction of the product (Downstream process)
6. DNA can be obtained from desired cell by treating the cell by particular enzyme
Lysozyme 
 Bacterial cell
Cellulase 
 Plant cell
Chitinase 
 Fungus cell
7. Spooling removal of DNA from suspension after adding chilled ethanol.
DNA that separates out can be removed by spooling

8. Restriction enzymes/Restriction endonuclease in 1963, 2 enzymes were isolated from
e-Coli
a. DNA methylase
b. Restriction endonuclease
Responsible for restricting the growth of Bacteriophase.
9. 1st restriction endonuclease was Hind II
10. 900 restriction enzymes where isolated from 230 strains.
11. Nomenclature
E   First letter  Genus
Co   2 two letter
nd  Species
R   3rd  Strain
I   number  Order of enzyme
12.
Nucleases Enzyme
Exonuclease Endonuclease
(Remove hucleotides (Cuts DNA at specific positions
from the ends of DNA) with in the DNA)

13. Enzyme EcoRI cuts DNA from sticky end
Steps in formation of recombinant DNA by action of restriction endonuclease
enzyme - EcoRI
14. 5’ _________
GAATTC _________
3
3’ _________
CTTAAG _________
5’
15. When we cut vector and alien DNA with the same restriction endonuclease forms same
sticky end and can be joined by another enzyme “DNA ligase”.

Diagrammatic representation of recombinant DNA technology
16. Gel electrophoresis (separation and isolation of DNA)

DNA fragment is negative charged, it moves from cathode(-ve) to Anode (+ve) under electric
field.
A typical agarose gel electrophoresis showing migration of undigested
(lane 1) and digested set of DNA fragments (lane 2 to 4)

17. The matrix used in matrix is A gas or gel which is extracted from seaweeds.
18. DNA fragment move through sieving effect and smaller fragment move farther and larger
fragment move less distance.
19. The separated DNA fragments can be visible after staining the DNA with a compound called
ethium bromide and than exposed UV radiation.
20. Elution the DNA is cut out from agarose gel and extracted from gelpiece.
21. Amplification of gene of infest using PCR used for making many copy of DNA incase of
muder victim, RT PCR etc.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) : Each cycle has three steps: (i) Denaturation;
(ii) Primer annealing; and (iii) Extension of primers
Denaturation 
 94°C 
 DNA strands separate
Annealing 
 50-60°C 
 primer attached to 3’ end of each strand
Extension 
 72°C 
 DNA polymerase extend the free
nucleotides and attach them to strand.
Thermostable taq polymerase is obtained from Thermus aquatics

22. Ligation of alien DNA (Gene of inherit) into a vector (Plasmid/ gene taxi) with help of an
enzyme called Ligase.
23. Transformation Transfer the rDNA into host like E coli
24. Clonning vector
TRICK
Try - Tetracycline
Banana - BamH I
Salad - Sal I
Ideal cloning vector should have some feature

a. Ori Sequence from where replication start or also control the copy number of vector
b. Selectable marker vector has two selectable marker which can tell it the alien DNA is
attached or not attached to the vector
They are AmpR and TetR sites.
25. AmpR or Ampilicllin resistant site has two site pvu I and Pst I and alien DNA or gene of
intrest can attached to either of it. If the alien DNA attaches to the pvu I and pst I than
power to request ampicillin antibiotic is lost.
26. Similarly if the alien DNA is attached to the BamHI or Sal I site than the power for resistance
to tetracycline antibiotic solution is lost
AmpR or terR sites can be used to cross check between transformed and non-transformant.
27. Insertional inactivation If alien DNA is attached to the ZacZ gene which produces b-
galactosidase enzyme is lost which proves insent(Alien DNA/ gene of interest) is
attached to the PUC 8 vector.
If attached than colony 
 No colour.

If not attached than colony 
 blue colours.
28. Vectors used for cloning gene into plant and animal.
In plant 
 use vector (Ti plasmid) extracted from Agrobacterium
tumefaciens.
In animals use 
 (Retro virus )
29. Competent host
As you know DNA is hydrophilic (water loving) and cell membrane is (hydrophobic) (water
hating)
The Bacterial cells must be made “competent” to take up DNA by treatment it with divalent
cation like calcium ions. DNA enter cell via pores of cell wall.
30. Introduce alien DNA into plant and animals (vector less gene transfer)
Plant 
 biolistic or gene gun
Animal 
 Micro injection
31. Obtaining the foreign gene product.
The development of bioreactors where large volume around 100-1000 litre of culture can be
processed.
32. A bio reactor provides the optimal conditions for achieving a desired product by providing
optimal growth condition like pH, temperature etc.
33. The expression of foreign genes in the host represents upstream process.
34. Two types of Bioreactors.
(a) Simple stirred-tank bioreactor;
(b) Sparged stirred-tank bioreactor through whichsterile air bubbles are sparged

35. A simple stirred-tank reactor is usually cylindrical or curved base to facilitate mixing of
reactor content.
36. Sparged tank bioreactor has flat base.
Sparger help in mixing oxygen in the bioreactor.
37. Downstream process separation, purification and preservation of the product is called
down stream process.
38. A strict quality control testing of each product should be done and may differ from product to
product.


Biotechnology and Its Application
Biotechnology and Its

17 Application
1. Biotechnology is a technology which deals with industrial scale production of bio
pharmaceuticals and biologicals using genetically modified microbes funigi, plants and
animals.
2. Biotechnology can be used for the following
a. Therapeutics b. GMO for agriculture
c. Energy production d. Diagnostic
e. waste treatment f. Processed food
3. Critical research aera of Biotechnology
a. Providing best catalyst 
 improved microbes or pure enzyme
b. Creating optimal conditions 
 Through genetic enginnering
c. Down stream process 
 purification of product
4. Biotechnology applied in agriculture and food production can be increased by 3 ways
a. Agro-Chemical based agriculture use of pesticides, insecticides, herbicides
b. Organic agriculture use of biofertilizers and biopesticides.
c. Genetically engineered crop-based use of genetically engineered crops and
Norman-E-Borlaug known as father of green revolution M.S. Swaminathan is father
of green revolution in India.
Green revolution saucerful because of
 Improved crop variety
 Agrochemicals (fertiliser + Pesticides)
 Good management practices
5. GMO : Genetically modified organisms (GMO) organisms including plants, bacteria, fungi
and animals whose genes have been attened by manipulation are called GMO.
6. Daffodil plant rich in vitamin A gene is extracted and introduced into rice so enhanced
nutritive value of food eq. golden rice i.e. vitamin A help in pervention of night blindness.
7. Insect resistant plant
Cry gene obtained from bacillus thuringiensis
Crygene produces cry protein endotoxin which is inactive form
Crygene introduced into plant-cells
Plant cell eaten bollworm (insect)
Endotoxin becomes activated due to alkaline pH in the gut of insect
Death of the insect

8. Insect which after crops
Cotton boll: (a) destroyed by bollworms; (b) a fully mature cotton boll
Lepidopterans 
 (Tobacco budworm, armyworm cotton bollworm)
Coleopterans 
 Beetles
Dipterans 
 Files, mosquitoes
9. Cry IAC and Cry IIAB kill cotton bollworm
CryIAb kilis corn borer.
10. Pest resistant plant

(a) Roots of a typical control plants; (b) transgenic plant roots 5 days after deliberate
infection of nematode but protected through novel mechanism.
 A nematode / helminth / Roundworm causes root knot disease in the tobacco plant.
 Nematoda specific gene is introduced into the tobacco plant (host plant) by using Ti
plasmid having sence and antisence strand. (dsRNA)
 When nematoda eats the tobacco plant dsRNA binds to the mRNA of nematoda
making it protected from nematoda making it protected from nametoda.
11. Biotechnology application in medicine
Maturation of pro-insulin into insulin (simplified)

 3O recombinant the rape tics have been approved in world, 12 are marketed in India.
 Safe effective drugs and do not produce unwanted response of immunology
 Genetically engineered human insulin – from slaughted cattle and pigs could course
allergy.
 Human by Eli lilly American company in 1983.
 Using rDNA tech insulin asserble into mature from it was the main challenge.

Artificially Synthesised
DNA seq. of A DNA seq. of B
Plasmid Plasmid
E. Coli E-coli
chain A Chain B
Separately extract and
combined by
disculphide bond
Human insulin
humulin peptide hormone and can be degraded by proteases.
12. Gene theory (GT)

 Replacing defective mutant allele with functional and targeting gene amplification.
 1st clinical GT – 1990 on 4 years girl to treat adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency
Which is crucial for immune system. Treatment
1. Enzyme replacement not completely curative
2. Bone marrow transplant
3. GT permanent cure if bone marrow transplant done at embryonic stage.
Steps in GT
Lymphocyte of ADA
disease carrier DNA
Retrovirus mediated transformation
Mortal genetically engineered lymphocytes
Used in patient
13. Molecular diagnosis

Molecular dignosis
Conventional early Modern

detection is not early detection is
possible possible
ex. serum and urine analysis ex. RDT, RCR, ELISA
PCR ELISA Autordaiography

Nuclei acid amplification Enzyme linked immuno-sorbent SSDNA, ssRNA, hybridize with
Defection of low conc bacteria, Assy. defection of presence of complementary DNA mutated
virus, HIV, mutation in antigen, antibodies gene will not appear on
cancer genetic disorderrs photogenic film due to lack of
complementarity
Assertion reason - T/F
14. Transgenic animals

 Manipulated DNA and foreign gene
 Rate, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows, fish
 95 % are mice (to replace monkey for safety of pdio)
 To study gene regulation and their effect, diseases like cancer. Cystic fibrosis,
rheumatoid arthritis, alzheimer disease.
 Biological product 1-antitrypsin for emphysema 1st organic cow – Rosie 1997 Protein
rich milk 2.49/l milk contained a-lactalbumin more balanced for babies
More sensitive to toxic to obtain result in less time
has to regulate for genetic engineering

unpredictable
moral and biological approval commitee
results sig GEAC- Validity
E thical issues

Biopiracy – use of resources without proper authorization and concerned without
compensatory payment.
Controvarcy – basmati rice 1997- America got patent rights on basmati through US patent
trademark office in reality – 200000 varieties in India, 27 Documented.
 Turmeric
 Neem
15. 2 Lakh varieties rice in India 27 documented variety of Basmati in India.


Microboes In Human Walfare
Microboes and human

18 walfare
1. Prions are proteinaceous infectious agent.
2. Microbes like bacteria and many fungi can be grown on nutritive media to form colonies.

Bacteria: Viruses:
(a) Rod-shaped,magnified1500X; (a) A bacteriophage;
(b) Sphericalshaped, magnified1500X; (b) Adenovirus which causes
(c) A rod-shaped bacterium showing respiratoryinfections;
flagella,magnified 50,000X (c) Rod-shaped TobaccoMosaic Virus
(TMV). Magnified about1,00,000–
1,50,000X
(a) Colonies of bacteria growing in a petri dish;

(b) Fungal colony growing in a petri dish
3. Lactic acid bacteria grow in milk and convert it to curd.
4. LAB produce acid that coagulate and partially diagest milk protein
5. Inoculum is small amount of curd and added to fresh milk as starter.
6. LAB improves nutritional quality by increasing Vit-B12
7. Dough used for making Idli and dosa is fermented by bacteria
8. Puffed up appearance of dough is due to product of CO2 gas.
9. Dough is used for making breads is fermented by years+ (Bakers yeast)
10. Saccharomyces cerevisae is bakers yeast.
11. Toddy is traditional drink of south India is made by fermenting sap from palm
12. Different varities of cheese are known by their characteristic texture, flavor and taste.
13. Large holes in swiss cheese are due to production of large amount of CO2 by bacterium
Propionibacterium sharmanii.
14. Roquefort cheese ripened by fungi.
15. Adenovirus cause respiratory infections.
16. TMV is rod shaped vitus.
17. Beverages andanitobiotics are produced on industrial scale in large vessels called fermenters.
Fermentors
18. Saccharomyces cerevisiae

 Bread making 
 Bakers yeast

 Beverage making 
 Brewer’s yeast
19. Brewers yeast Ferment

 malted cerals

 fruit juice 
 ethanol
20. Wine beer 

 without distillations
21. Whisky, Brandy rum 

 with distillation
22. Antibiotics are chemicals substance which are produced by some microbes and can kill or
retard growth of disease causing microbes.
23. Penicillium was the first antibiotic to be discovered by alexander fleming on
staphylococcal bacteria and named after the mould penicillium notatum.
24. Full potential of penicillium was established by ernest chain and Howard Horey.
25. Antibiotic used to disease
1. Plague 
 streptomycin
2. Whooping cough 

 Azithromycin
3. Diphtenia 
 Erythromycin

4. Leprosy 
 ritompsin
26. Aspergillus niger 

 fungus 
 citric acid
Acetobacter acetii 

 Bacteria 
 acetic acid
Clostridium butylliaum 

 bacteria 
 Butyric acid
Lactobacillus 
 bacteria 
 lactic acid
27. (Yeast) saccharomyces cerevisiae used for commercial production of ethanol.
28. Enzyme producer microbes
Lipases detergent formation remove oily stain
Proteases and pectinase 
 clarify fruit bottled juice
Streptokinase used as cloth buster to remove clot from blood
(produced from streptococcus) 
 vessel of patient undergoing myocardial
infraction. (heart attack)
29. Cyclosporin – A

 Bioactive molecule

 Used as immunsuppresive agent in organ transplanting patients

 Produced by fungus trichoderma polysporum
30. Statin

 Produced by yeast monoascus purpurus

 Blood cholesterol lowering agent

 Act in competitive inhibition mechanism
31. Chemical source Classification role
streptokinase streptococcus Bacteria clot burster

cyclosporin-A Trichoderma fungi immune suppressive agent
Polysporum
Statin Monoscus perpurus fungi blood cholesterol lowering agent
32. Treatment ofwater water is done by Heterotrophic microbe.

Sewage Treament
o
1o treatment 2 treatment
Biological treatment
Physicsl removal of waste
Filtration (floating debris) Aerobic bacteria, fungi,
Aerobic treatment
Sedimentation (Grit) activated sludge
Secondary treatment
33. Ganga andYamuna action plan were initiated by ministry of environment and forest
34. Microbes produce
35. Types of gas produced by microbes as and product during growth and metabolism
36. Biogas predominantly contain methane

A typical biogas plant
37. Type of gas produced depends on microbe and organic subtrate they utilise
38. During fermentation main gas produced is CO2
39. Bacteria grow in anaerobically on cellulosic material produce large amount of methane
along with CO2 and H2 called methanogens (methanobacterium)

 Anaerobic bacteria

 Found in anaerobic sludge during sewage treatment

 Also present in rumen of cattle
40. Gobar is rich in bacteria called methanobacterium.
41. Dung generate biogas called gober gas.
42. Biogas plants are more of on bulit in rural areas.
43. Biogas produced is used in cooking and lightening.
44. Biogas production technology was developed in india by IARI and KVIC
45. A key belief of organic farmers is that biodiversity further health.
46. Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of soil.
47. Main source of biofertilizers are bacteria fungi, cyanobacteria.
48. Members of genus glomus form mycorrhiza
Cynobacteria

 Also known as BGA

 Are autotrophic microbes

 Distributed in aquatic and terrestrial environment

 Fix atm N2 (Eg. Anabenna, Nostoc, Oscillatoria)

 Paddy field biofertilizer

 Increase soil fertility by adding organic matter.
49. Mycorriza is symbiotic association of fungi with plant.
50. Bio control agent Target
Ladybird 
 aphids
Bacillus transgenesis(bt) 
 butterfly caterpillar
Dragonflies 
 mosquitos
Trichoderma 
 plant pathogen
Baculovirus 
 insect and arthropods
51. Trichoderma

 Free living fungi

 Common in roof Ecosystems

 Effective biocontrol agent in plant pathogen
52. Baculoviruses 
 contain majority of biological control agent are from genus
nucleopolyhedrovirus.
53. the efficient of 2o treatment plant is released into natural water bodies.
54. Greater BOD indicates more polluted water.
55. BOD

 Biochemical oxygen demand

 Amount of oxygen that would be consumed if all organic mater in one litre
of water was oxidised by bacteria

 Measure organic matter present in water and pollution.


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Dr.

01. Digestion & Absorption

02. Breathing and Exchange of Gases

03. Body Fluid and Circulation

04. Excretory Products and Their Elimination

05. Locomotion and Movment

06. Neural control and Co-ordination

07. Chemical Co-ordination and Integration

08. Animal Kingdom

09. Animal tissue

11. Human Reproduction

12. Reproductive Health

14. Human Health and Disease

15. Animal Husbandary

16. Biotechnology Principles and Process

17. Biotechnology and Its Application

18. Microboes and human Walfare

Digestion & Absorption

2. Human teeth are the condont diphyodont heteropdout.

5. Anatomical regions of human stomach lable .

7. A muscular sphincter (Gastroesophageal sphincter) regulate the opening of oesophagus

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 1

The human digestive system

Diagrammatic representation of transverse section of gut

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 2

A section of small intestinal mucosa showing villi

16. 3 digestive glands salivary gland Liver and pancrease

17. 3 salivary gland Duct Saliva

. a. Partoid (cheek) Stenson’s duct 25 %

b. Sub mandibular Warton’s duct 70 %

c. Sub-lingnal Bartholin’s Duct 5%

20. The duct of gall bladder is called “cystic duct”.

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 3

The duct systems of liver, gall bladder and pancreas

23. Bolous 

a. mucus neck cell 

b. peptic cell/ chief cell 

c. Parietal/ oxyntic cell 

[essential for absorption of vit B12]

27. Enzyme of pancreatic juice

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 4

28. Enzymes of intestinal juice / succus entricus

Carbohydrates in the chyme are hydrolysed by pancreatic amylase into disaccharides.

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 5

Nucleic acids 

Di and Monoglycerides 

31. Caloritic value and physiological value

Faciliated Glucose, Fructose Anino acid

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 6

mouth stomach small intestine large intelitine

glucose, Fructose Drugs

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 7

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 8

Lower side 

13. Respiration steps

BIOLOGY PAGE NO. 9

16. Diaphragm 

external intencostal muscle 

T(TV) Tidal volume 

E(ERV) expiratory reserve volume 

R(RV) Residual volume 

I(IRV) Inspiratory reserve volume 

27. Exchange of gases:-