The Application and Installation of Load Cells PDF

ta
HBM
' spectris group
HOTTINGER BALDWIN MESSTECHNIK
The Application
·and Installation of
Load Cells
Gert Gommola
ta
HBM
(spectris group
The Application
and Installation of
Load Cells
Gert Gommola
The Ins and Outs of Weighing Technology
A planning manual for the implementation of weighing

technology systems and equipment.
Publisher: Spectris Messtechnik GmbH

Co-authors
Rudolf Almendinger, Michael Br~ning, G~nter Fuchser, Klaus

Gehrke, Steffen Gross, Helmut Horner, Ursula Host, Bernd
Kn~ll, Gerd Kohler, Bernd Osenberg, Herbert Rehfeld,
Matthias Roess, Dr. Horst Schrogl, Werner Schlachter,
Gunter Strohmaier, Hans Unbehend, Rudolf Vejwancicky,
Heinz Ronald Will
With grateful thanks to all those who have contributed their

expert advice and made this book possible in its present
form.
Die Deutsche Bibliothek -- CIP-Einheitsaufnahme
Gommola, Gert:
The application and installation of load cells : the ins and outs of weighing technology ;
a planning manual for the implementation of weighing technology systems and
equipment/Gert Gommola. Spectris Messtechnik GmbH. -- Frankfurt/Main : Zarbock, 2000
ISBN 3-9805544-4-9
All rights reserved.

Copyright: Spectris Messtechnik GmbH, Langen 2000
Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik, Darmstadt
Publisher: Druck- und Verlagshaus Zarbock GmbH & Co. KG
Printed: Druck- und Verlagshaus Zarbock GmbH& Co. KG
No part of this work may be copied, transmitted or stored in a retrieval
system by any means whatsoever without the express written permission.
iv Installing load cells
4. 7 Container stiffening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 4-39

4.7.1 Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-39
4.7.2 Lift-off preventers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-40
4.7.3 Stay rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
€ Weigh modules ........................

5.1 Opening remarks ..........................
5-45
5-45
5.2 Selected features of various HBM
weigh modules ............................ 5-46
5.3 Configuring weigh modules to the application 5-49
5.4 Fixed bearings as a cost-effective substitute
for modules ............................... 5-49
5.5 Effects caused by unsatisfactory installation .. 5-51
Overload protection . 6-53
@ Design and construction of container

weighing systems . 7-57
7.1 Opening remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-57
7.2 Load distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-58
7.3 The position of the centre of gravity on a
container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 7-59
7.4 Supply connections to containers . . . . . . . . . . . · 7-61
7.5 Pressurised containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-64
7.6 Some typical load cell configurations . . . . . . . . . 7-65
7.6.1 Upright containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 7-65
7.6.1.1 Rigidly installed load cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-66
7.6.1.2 Upright tank on two solid bearings and a
load cell with a levelling piece . . . . . . . . 7-67
7.6.1.3 Upright circular silo
on three or four load cells . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-68
Table of content 111
Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·· 1-1
Strain gauges in weighing technology . . . 2-3
Mechanical structure of weighing equipment

using stain gauge load cells . . . . . . . . . . . · 3-5
3.1 Spring element configuration in load cells . . . . 3-5
3.2 Load cell designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.2.1 Load cells for heavy loads . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.2.2 Load cells for low loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3.2.3 Other designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
3.3 Using structural components for measurement 3-18
3.4 Load introduction to load cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
3.5 The mounting surface for load cells . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
3.6 Properties of load cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3.7 Measuring ranges of load cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27
Mounting accessories for load cells ..... 4-29

4.1 Opening remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29
4.2 Elastomer bearing platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 4-30
4.3 Pendulum load cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31
4.3.1 Self-centring pendulum load cell . . . . . . 4-31
4.3.2 Pendle bearings and pendle supports 4-32
4.4 Multiple ball bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34
4.5 Ancillary structural components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-36
4.5.1 Tapered points and sockets . . . . . . . . . . 4-36
4.5.2 Force feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37
4.5.3 Knuckle eyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 4-37
4.6 Fixed and tilting bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-38
Table of content v
7.6.1.4 Circular silo on three weigh

modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-70
7.6.1.5 Flanged container on weigh
modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-71
7.6.1.6 Rectangular silo on four load cells in
bunkering station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-73
7.6.2 Suspended containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-74
7.6.2.1 Suspension on two or three load cells . 7-75
7.6.2.2 Central suspension on a single load cell 7-76
7.6.3 Horizontal liquid containers . . . . . . . . . . 7-77
Design and construction of

platform balances . 8-79
8.1 Opening remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-79
8.2 Platform balances using one load cell . . . . . . . . 8-80
8.3 Platform balances using more than one
load cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-83
Electrical engineering structure of weighing

equipment using strain gauge load cells 9-85
9.1 Opening remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-85
9.2 The Wheatstone bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-85
9.2.1 The circuit diagram . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 9-85
9.2.2 Method of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-86
9.2.3 Internal wiring in strain gauge load cells 9-87
9.3 Load cell sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 9-89
9.3.1 Opening remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-89
9.3.2 Definition of sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-89
9.3.3 The characteristic curve . . . . . . . . . . . . · 9-89
9.4 Weighing electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-92
9.4.1 Opening remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-92
9.4.2 DC-voltage amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-92
9.4.3 Carrier-frequency amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . 9-94
9.4.4 Comparing the two methods . . . . . . . . · 9-95
v, Installing load cells
9.4.5 Influences on the accuracy of measuring

amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 9-95
9.5 Electrical connection of load cells . 9-97
9.5.1 Opening remarks . 997
9.5.2 Load cells and measuring amplifiers using
four-wire technology . 9-98
9.5.3 Load cells and measuring amplifier using
six-wire technology . 9-99
9.5.4 Load cells with four-wire technology and
measuring am pl ifie rforsix-wiretech nology 9-101
9.5.5 Load cell with six-wire technology and
measuring amplifierforfour-wiretechnology 9-102
9.5.6 Connecting load cells in parallel . 9-102
9.6 Replacing load cells . 9-103
Electrical engineering protection

measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-105
10.1 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) . 10-105
10.1.1 Opening remarks . 10-105
10.1.2 HBM shielding design . 10-106
10.1.3 Grounding and earth connections . 10-108
10.1.4 Summary . 10-109
10.2 Explosion protection . 10-109
10.2.1 General notes on the construction
regulations . 10-109
10.2.2 Division into areas . 10-110
10.2.3 Division of electrical equipment into
groups and temperature classes . 10-111
10.2.4 Intrinsic Safety "i" . 10-113
10.2.5 Pressure-Resistant Encapsulation "d" . 10-114
10.2.6 Enhanced Safety "e" . 10-115
10.2.7 List of references on explosion
protection . 10-115
10.3 Lightning protection . 10-116
10.3.1 Opening remarks . 10-116
10.3.2 Protection measures . · . 10-116
Table of content vi
Calibrating weighing devices . . . . . . . . . . . 11-119

11.1 Some important aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-119
11.2 Balancing . 11-121
11.2.1 Balancing by direct loading . 11-123
11.2.2 Balancing with the aid of a calibration
instrument . 11-126
11.2.3 Balancing with the aid of the calibration
signal built into the instrument . 11-127
11.3 Cable effects during balancing . 11-128
11.3.1 Cable resistance . 11-128
11.3.2 Temperature dependent cable
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-129
11.3.3 Intrinsic resistance when load cells are
connected in parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-130
11.3.4 Cable variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-133
11.4 Balancing digital amplifiers . 11-134
11.5 Summary . 11-135
11.6 Replacing load cells - recalibration . 11-136
Measurement accuracy and signal

resolution . 12-137
12.1 Opening remarks . 12-137
12.2 Selected characteristic quantities . 12-138
12.3 Influence of equipment configuration and
surroundings on accuracy . 12-140
12.4 Ways of determining the accuracy of a
weighing device . 12-142
12.5 Ways of improving the accuracy of a
weighing device . 12-142
12.6 Measurement signal resolution . 12-142
vi Installing load cells
♦ Interference effects on load cells . . . . . . . 13-145

13.1 Opening remarks . 13-145
13.2 Mechanical interference effects . 13-147
13.2.1 Load introduction . 13-147
13.2.2 Defective bearing surface . 13-148
13.2.3 Vibrating load . 13-149
13.2.4 Falling mass . 13-150
13.2.5 Force bypasses . 13-151
13.2.6 Auxiliary motors . 13-152
13.3 Weather effects . 13-153
13.3.1 Temperature . 13-153
13.3.2 Snow and ice . 13-154
13.3.3 Wind forces . 13-155
Terms, expressions and characteristic

quantities related to load cells .. . . . . . . . . 14-161
Installing load cells 1--1
Introduction
Scarcely no other field of engineering has had its procedures and

regulations so precisely refined and specified as measurement
technology.
The European Union/ EC law on measurement and verification methods

(Law on Verification) (=) nowadays regulates legally contracted sales
of goods for which the price is defined by a unit of weight. For centuries,
the accurate weighing of goods and products has represented a challenge
for measurement technology.
Meanwhile the same units are now used internationally for measurement.
The basic unit is the kilogram, abbreviated to kg. The law also permits
the use of the gram (g) and the tonne (t).
Alongside solutions that require official verification, the number of

weighing devices not requiring verification against official
specifications (=) continually increases.
The growing demand for ever higher quality has combined with
increased product responsibility to drive this development forward in
recent years.
Note This brochure is particularly intended as a guide for users of weighing

equipment that does not require verification against official specifications.
1-2 Installing load cells
Certain rules have to be observed when setting up and operating

weighing devices, in order to avoid mechanical and electrical
interference effects when measuring. This brochure does not claim to be
complete; this is because in practice, individual problems usually require
special modifications which can neither be assessed at the outset nor be
adapted using just any method that seems appropriate.
Figure 1-1 Components for weighing technology
HBM (Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik GmbH) has been manufacturing

strain gauges, load cells and amplifiers for over 40 years. The wealth of
experience gained from providing optimum solutions for many and
varied problem definitions is a valuable knowledge base for resolving the
manufacture and application of components used in the field of weighing
technology.
Strain gauges in weighing

technology
Ever since the invention of the strain gauge (=») (S.G.) this application
of a physical effect has also been applied to electromechanical balances.
Strain gauges (a) are predominantly stuck or otherwise fastened to the

areas of mechanical components (b) that are sensitive to strain, Figure
2-1. For weighing purposes, however, only the strains (=») that arise
from changes in mass are required. Since the strain gauge is in close
contact with the surface of the component it follows the surface strain
faithfully; the geometry of the circuit paths in the metal foil varies
accordingly and the ohmic resistance of the strain gauge changes in
proportion.
This change of resistance in proportion to strain means that the mass of

the object being weighed can be changed into a proportional electrical
signal. This electrical signal is just as necessary for a simple digital
indicator as it is for modern, formula-driven balance processors or for
linking a weighing device to a PLC. As a rule, the strain gauge is
electrically connected to a "Wheatstone bridge"(⇒) (c).
The structural elements behave like mechanical spring elements and

generate the required counter force. Spring elements are distorted in
proportion to the applied load (weighing force). The displacement
concerned amounts to no more than a few fractions of a millimetre. The
2-4 S.G. in weighing technique
effect holds good for both positive and negative strain (elongation or
compression). Within defined limits (Hooke's Law (=») in the
stress/strain diagram) the procedures described are close to linear and
easily reproducible.
(b)
(c)
-
€)
(a)
UA bridge output voltage

UB excitation voltage
Figure 2-1 Physical method of applying the effect of a strain gauge

(S.G.)
Installing load cells 3-5
Mechanical structure of
weighing equipment using
strain gauge load cells
3.1 Spring element configuration in load cells

The shape and size of a load cell is determined by the type of spring
element used. The correct choice of spring element and mounting
components depends among other things on the following points:
• The direction of the applied loading (tensile and/or compressive)
• The value of the applied maximum capacity (=») as well as the
service load (=») and breaking load (=»)
The required measurement accuracy
• Configuration requirements (e.g. compact overall height)
• Spurious loading (lateral force (=»), torsion (=»), bending stress
(=»))
3-6 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells
C2A(1 ... 10t) Z6 ( 5...1000kg) RSC (0.05 ... 5t)
._ I LI <hl
RTN (1 .. .470!) Z7/ HLC (0.5 ... 1 0t) PW(3...660kg)
C16 (20 ... 200!) U2A (0.05...201) C1/3 (1...5001)
Figure 3-1 Selected types of HBM load cells and their typical load
capacity ranges
3.2 Load cell designs

During a measurement process, the weighing force acts upon the metal
spring element in the load cell and causes elastic deformation. Attached
to the spring element is a strain gauge, which converts this positive or
negative strain into an electrical signal. A load cell of the most basic kind
might consist of a bending spring element fitted with a strain gauge. The
essential basic components, i.e. a spring element and strain gauge, are
normally accompanied by ancillary items such as an enclosure, sealing
gaskets, etc., designed to protect the strain gauge.
3.2.1 Load cells for heavy loads
Figure 3.2 shows sectional drawings of load cells with column-shaped

spring elements. The variant on the left is ideal for compressive loading,
whilst the one on the right has a threaded connector which can handle
both tensile and compressive loading. The cross-section of the column is
decreased at the point where the S.G. is applied. By this means a strain
that is sufficiently large to give meaningful results arises at the point of
measurement. The entire spring deflection under load is extremely small.
At maximum capacity (=») the spring deflection in this variant
(deflection at maximum load capacity ( ⇒)) amounts to less than 0.5
mm.
Figure 3-2 Load cells with column-shaped spring elements

The upper part of the spring element is connected to the protective

enclosure by two gas-tight, welded diaphragms. These are extremely
rigid in the horizontal direction and thus protect against damage from
lateral forces. At the same time the diaphragms are designed to be
flexible in the measurement direction, in order not to falsify the
measurement result with force bypasses ( ⇒ ). The electrical connections
are led from the enclosure by means of a glass bushing which is also
gas-tight. The result is a fully hermetically-sealed load cell in which the
strain gauge function cannot be adversely affected by gases or liquids.
Another form of spring element, such as a hollow cylinder or tube, is

often chosen for extremely heavy loadings. A short, stumpy cylinder is
not suitable, since it does not produce the uniform strain field which is
most beneficial for strain gauge measurements. Figure 3.3 shows a spring
element in the form of a hollow cylinder. It is relatively easy to produce
and provides extremely high stability against lateral loads. Here again it
is a simple matter to obtain a hermetic seal. However, positioning the
strain gauge requires slightly greater effort.
Il
Figure 3-3 Spring element in the form of a hollow cylinder
In the case of tubular spring elements there can be problems with the
load introduction, and a relatively high hysteresis (=»). For this reason
the design shown in Figure 3.4 is often used. In this case the tube is
divided into segments with the aim of reducing the hysteresis. The load
is introduced through fixed platforms.
-. - - - - - - -
'
ll
- - - - -
-.-
- .-
= (T]
Figure 3-4 Segmented tubular spring element
A common requirement is for a reduction in overall height with an

increase in precision. This task can be handled using spring elements in
accordance with the ring torsion principle (Figure 3.5). The load is
introduced axially to the inner s1eeve. The load cell is supported by the
outer sleeve on the bearing surface. When the inner sleeve moves against
the outer sleeve the ring located between them is distorted in proportion
to the load. Load cells constructed on this principle can withstand quite
high lateral loads.
Figure 3-5 Ring torsion principle

3.2.2 Load cells for low loads
A spring element with direct mechanical loading is unsuitable for

measuring low loads (say below 5t). A more suitable design is a spring
element that protrudes from the measurement frame. Figure 3.6. shows
various bending element modifications which produce strain in sufficient
quantity under the appropriate loading.
Figure 3-6 Bending element modifications
For even lighter loads a beam spring element can be used. However, in
this case the signal is dependent on the bending moment. If the load
introduction point is changed under identical loading, the output signals
are different. For this reason a single-beam spring element is rarely used
in load cells, since special measures are required in order to maintain a
constant load introduction point (the lever arm effect perpendicular
distance of fulcrum from line of action of force).
For loads up to 5 t it is not uncommon to use multiple-beam spring

elements. This type of load cell is usually characterised by a
configuration of two superimposed beam spring elements (dual-beam
spring element) but occasionally there are more than two beams. They
are linked at their attachment end and their load introduction end by rigid
components. The rigid connection forces the downward movement of the
load introduction point to be purely vertical, causing an S-shaped
distortion of both beams.
Figure 3-7 The dual-beam spring element principle
This system is considerably less sensitive to displacement of the load

introduction point than a single-beam spring element. The S-shaped
surface distortion produces compact areas of positive and negative strain,
making it much simpler to fit and connect the strain gauge. For this
reason it is quite common to use strain gauge laminates, which contain
error compensating structures in addition to all the branches of the strain
gauge bridge. Figure 3.8. shows several variants of the dual-beam spring
element concept.
0
D D 0
05 0
Figure 3-8 Variants of the dual-beam spring element
When using hermetically-sealed load cells to measure loads at the lighter

end of the range, fluctuations in air pressure can lead to changes in the
measurement signal under identical loading. To overcome this problem,
compensation is provided for the atmospheric pressure by allowing it to
act uniformly from above and below upon the rigid part of the load
introduction, Figure 3.9.

Figure 3-9 Load cell with pressure compensation
3.2.3 Other designs
The multiple-beam spring element represents a further development of

the dual-beam spring element concept. Figure 3.10 makes the principle
clearer and shows a possible variant. In the main, multiple-beam spring
elements are used for precision transducers. The diagram clearly shows
that more than one strain gauge is used in each arm of the Wheatstone
full bridge. This is absolutely essential for obtaining the highest possible
level of precision. At the present time the most accurate S.G. load cells
are those using a multiple-beam spring element system fitted with up to
32 strain gauges. Their total inaccuracy is less that 20 ppm (ppm= parts
per million). They are used as reference transducers for international
comparative measurements between for instance the Physikalisch
Technische Bundesanstalt Braunschweig (=) (PTB Braunschweig)
and other institutes when comparing the standard forces and masses used
in different countries.
Figure 3-10 Variants of the multiple-beam spring element
The biggest disadvantage of the single-beam spring element is that its

signal is so dependent on the bending moment and load introduction
point. A beam clamped at one end is subject not only to a bending
moment but also to shear forces and their resultant strains.
In contrast to bending strains, shear strains are constant from the load
introduction point to the clamping point. Shear strains of less than ± 45
degrees arise in the unbending web and are not superimposed by bending
strains in this area, Figure 3 .11.
Installing ioad cells 3-15
5%
IA
7
t
Shear
a) Longitudinal view b) Sectional view
Figure 3-11 Stress distribution in a beam spring element
This effect is used by shear-beam load cells, see schematic drawings

Figure 3.12. In order to obtain large enough shear strains, the
cross-section is reduced to a double-T profile in the gauge area. This
shape provides good stability against lateral forces. Some load cells can
receive impacts equivalent to as much as 100 % of maximum capacity as
a permissible lateral load. As the diagram shows, the shear strains do not
alter if the load introduction point changes to another position within a
certain range. The electrical signal proportional to the load is therefore
not dependent on the load introduction point. Of course, this only applies
in a very broad sense, since the bending strains are only absent from the
unbending web. The further the S.G. application from this area, the
greater the influence of the bending strains. However, by very precise
3--16 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells
application they can for the most part be compensated for in the strain
gauge bridge circuitry.
2F
Figure 3-12 Shear-beam spring elements with I-profile measurement

cross-section
Load cells with diaphragm spring elements, Figure 3.13, can have a very
low profile and are often used where space is restricted. Their spring
deflection at maximum capacity is very small, resulting in a very high
natural frequency (=») which in some load cells may even exceed 20
kHz. They are relatively uncomplicated to produce and can be
hermetically sealed with ease. The diaphragm is specially shaped in order
to obtain a strain field favourable to measurement.
Figure 3-13 Diaphragm spring element
Figure 3.14 shows the comparative sizes of a load cell with dual-beam
spring element, maximum capacity 10 kg, and a diaphragm load cell,
maximum capacity 1000 kg.
Figure 3-14 Comparison between a U2A 1t (diaphragm) and a U1/10kg

(with integral dual-beam spring element)
3.3 Using structural components for measurement

For simple weighing and monitoring tasks it is possible to use the strain
gauge principle directly by making use of existing structural components.
Thus for example, depending on the height of fill in a container, a

weighing force always acts upon its walls or supports and sets up
material strain or compression in them. This strain can be measured
directly with a strain gauge (see Figure 3.15) or indirectly by using a
prefabricated strain transducer (see Figure 3.16) as a proportional
indication for the height or weight of the fill.
Apart from the financial aspect, the chief attraction of such solutions is
when existing plant or equipment cannot be rebuilt.
Example: HBM VY11

full-bridge S.G. for capturing
structural loading or strain
in the walls of a container
as a function of container
height of fill.
Figure 3-15 Container using direct strain gauge application
Example: HBM SLB 700

strain transducer for
capturing strain in the
supporting legs of a
container as a function of
container height of fill.
Figure 3-16 HBM SLB 700 strain transducer

3--20 Mechanical structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load ce!ls
When designing new equipment, however, it is advisable to consider

right from the planning stage that the accuracy achievable by such
metrological solutions depends on a series of additional influences which
often cannot be foreseen before the device is implemented.
For instance, in most cases container legs are made of untempered steel.
Temperature changes set up additional material strains. Inadequate
compensation for these effects will give false readings which the
downstream electronics can correct by mathematical means to only a
limited extent.
Error compensation for temperature effects or various mechanical

loading conditions (e.g. unevenly distributed mass in the container) is
often only a realistic possibility if each individual container leg is
provided With multiple measuring points (e.g. 4 measuring points spaced
at 90° intervals). In view of this, the once attractive financial aspects of
such a solution often have to be reassessed.
Container components are generally over-dimensioned, so that the

measured strain is very slight. The signal-to-noise ratio of the sensor
application is therefore often unfavourable. The material properties of the
container components directly affect the accuracy of the measurement
(creep, hysteresis, etc. (=»)).
The required long-term stability (=») of the measuring device and its
protection against environmental influences, where fitted, should
similarly be taken into consideration at the design stage. The conditions
for carrying out the calibration (=) and recalibration ( ⇒) of such
weighing equipment are also an important part of the initial
considerations. Consider for example that if just one measuring point has
to be re-applied due to damage, the entire system has to be recalibrated.
Experience shows that depending on the care with which measuring

points are applied, and also depending on the weighing technology itself
(e.g. whether there is any possibility of periodic taring(⇒)) accuracy
levels of between 3% and 10 % can be achieved.
3.4 Load introduction to load cells

Special attention must be paid to the load introduction points on load
cells, that is to say not only to the points of contact between a load cell
and the load it is intended to weigh, but also those between a load cell
and its bearing surface. Load components acting other than in the
specified measurement direction falsify the result and can even shorten
the service life of the load cell.
Load cells should be used in the prescribed direction of loading only. The
direction of loading is indicated by an arrow on many HBM load cells.
Lateral forces and bending or torsional moments must be avoided as far

as possible. Figure 3 .17 shows the correct loading for a load cell ( a) and
selected examples of incorrect loading, in the form of a diagram.
(a)
F (b)
V X
(c) ()
F
F
X X
(a) Central load introduction
(b) Of--centre load introduction
(c) Non-axial load introduction producing lateral forces
(d) Torque-loading (torsional) load introduction
Figure 3-17 Correct loading and examples of incorrect loading of load

cells
3.5 The mounting surface for load cells

Load cells for compressive loading must stand with their bases on a
strong, solid surface which will not distort under loading. To ensure
uniform transmission of the load from the base of the load cell to the
substructure, the load cell must be attached to a rigid base plate. It is also
absolutely essential that if load cells are mounted on profile section
supports, they should absorb their main supporting forces through
brasing straps. The substructure beneath load cells must be able to
provide supporting forces that are adequate for the loading.
In certain circumstances the substructure can become grossly distorted

under the effects of a load, even though stability is totally unaffected. At
the same time these distortions can cause the supports to subside. If this
happens, all supports should subside by the same amount in order to
avoid tilting, which would lead to changes in the proportional load
distribution and create lateral forces.
This basically means that a rigid construction makes a better substructure

than a yielding one. In the case of a non-rigid construction, uniform
subsidence of all the supports is extremely difficult to obtain and in fact
the entire construction can become deformed.
(a)
F (b)
F
X
(a) Bearing surface too small, mechanical
deformation of the load cell
(b) Uneven bearing surface
Figure 3-18 Incorrect substructures tor load cells

3.6 Properties of load cells

The accuracy of a load cell depends on the intended application.
Cumulative errors are commonly between 2 % and 0.015 % in relation to
the maximum capacity of the load cell. In special cases load cells of even
greater accuracy can be designed. Reference transducers with a
cumulative error of less than 20 ppm have already been manufactured.
The greater the required precision, the greater the manufacturing and
error compensation effort required to produce the load cell.
The spring element in a load cell is elastically deformed under loading.

The displacement is very small in the case of S.G. load cells; the
deflection at maximum load capacity (=») is typically between 0.05 mm
and 0.5 mm, depending on the maximum capacity (=).
A load cell is usually supplied together with an operating manual. This

contains all the relevant technical data and other important information
that must be taken into consideration prior to putting the equipment into
service. Figure 3 .19 explains the specified load increments for load cells.
Maximum
capacity
jl
Service load
Measuring range
The specified error limits are not
di
exceeded.
Breakin g
Operating range Sate load limit
'
lo ad
The specified error limits may be
exceeded. }
Maximum loading range Destructive range
Specified error limits are exceeded without damaging The load cell undergoes
the load cell. permanent changes.
Figure 3-19 Load increments for load cells
The maximum capacity (=») (sometimes called maximum load capacity

or nominal load) refers to the rated loading capacity of a load cell. It
forms the upper limit of the specified measuring range. All the other load
increments are expressed as a percentage of the maximum capacity. No

damage occurs up to the safe load limit ( ⇒ ); if this is exceeded,
permanent changes occur. The size of the safe load limit depends on the
type of spring element; in many cases it can amount to 150 % or even as
much as 2000 % of maximum capacity. The most common types of
damage involve plastic deformation of the spring element. Even a single,
short-duration overload can be enough to damage the load cell
permanently.
Plastic deformation of the spring element creates a permanent change in

the zero signal (=») from the load cell, and this affects its metro logical
properties. So that it will be easy to check whether a load cell is
operating correctly at any time in the future, it is advisable to measure
and record the zero signal from every new load cell.
In the case of load cells designed for both tensile and compressive
loading, two different minimum zero signals can occur as a consequence
of the most recently applied direction of loading.
Figure 3-20 Permissible maintained vibration loading
The permissible sustained vibration amplitude (=») is also expressed as

a percentage of maximum capacity. Figure 3.20 shows an example of a
load cell for tensile and compressive loading with a maximum
maintained vibration bandwidth of 80 % of maximum capacity. It will be
noted that the vibration amplitude can be at any point between positive
and negative maximum capacity. The whole span between positive and
negative maximum capacity amounts to 200 %. For certain load cells the
maximum maintained vibration bandwidth can definitely be said to
exceed 100 %.
The natural frequency (=») of load cells is generally over lkHz.

However, it becomes lower as soon a mass is introduced. To avoid
interference from effects such as resonant modes, the natural frequency
of the whole system (i.e. the load cell and the introduced mass) has to be
taken into consideration.
The cumulative error, Figure 3.21, considers the non-linearity and

hysteresis of a load cell. The cumulative error thus expresses the width of
the tolerance band within which every point on the load cell
characteristic curve (=») lies.
•
Signal S
Characteristic curve
for decreasing
loading
Characteristic curve
for increasing
loading
lo Ly
oadL J
Figure 3-21 Cumulative error. Further notes on the subject of errors

can be found in Chapter 13 -- "Interference effects on load cells".
3.7 Measuring ranges of load cells

The upper limit of the measuring range on a load cell is its rated
maximum capacity (=») and the lower limit is the zero loading. Thus
when choosing a load cell, its maximum capacity will be influenced by
the total gross load acting upon it. This gross load (=)is calculated from
the maximum weight of the weigh goods (net weight (=»)) and the
intrinsic weight of the container together with its ancillary equipment
such as an agitator or other devices (tare weight (=)).
Note Dynamic overloading of equipment due to oscillations and impacts must

also be taken into account. Dynamic loading typically occurs when
containers are filled by allowing weigh goods to tumble into them, or
when an agitator causes uneven dynamic weight distribution.
Loadings which take these matters into account should as far as possible
be less than or equal to the maximum capacity of the load cell. They
must on no account exceed the safe load limit (=») for the load cell
concerned. If it is likely that the safe load limit will be exceeded, suitable
measures to protect the load cell from damage will need to be built in
(see also Chapter 6 -"Overload protection").
Mounting accessories for

load cells
4.1 Opening remarks

When weighing containers or monitoring their fill height, temperature
strains and associated horizontal movements in both the container and
the substructure have to be taken into account. A rigid installation
impedes these movements and in the end causes horizontal forces to
falsify the measurement result when they are big enough, which is often
the case. Load cells are sometimes mechanically damaged or even
broken in such circumstances. The same can happen with load
introduction points, due to superimposed torsional moments and lateral
force components. These may occur because of eccentric loading or
forces introduced at an angle. It is therefore advisable to choose
configurations in which the horizontal forces arising from temperature
strains or other sources are taken into account or better still excluded.
The items described for this purpose each provide a solution to a

particular problem, depending on the form of container.
Mounting accessories encourage compliance with the configuration

guidelines for load cells. The focal points for excluding disturbance
variables are extremely varied and call for measures that are specific to
4-30 Mounting accessories for load cells
each application. However, in the end it is the design engineer with

detailed product knowledge who decides about the weighting of
individual disturbance variables. For different designs of load cells this
results in not only a broad range of options for the load introduction, but
also a very wide choice of mounting accessories and variants.
4.2 Elastomer bearing platform

Typical elastomer bearing platforms consist of several superimposed
steel plates and layers of rubber vulcanised together. Even a slight force
will make the upper and lower load-introduction surfaces move parallel
to one another. This allows the upper bearing plate to move aside in the
event of a lateral force without passing an additional weighing force
effect on to the lower plate of the load cell. By this means, horizontal
displacements of up to 15 mm can be obtained between containers and
load cells. Restoring forces develop simultaneously with the
displacement and return the container to its original position. This force
acts in proportion to the displacement and is independent of the load.
Depending on the type of elastomer bearing platform, the force is
effective up to 800 N. The bearing even equalises containers that are up
to 1.7° out of true.
Particularly in the case of percussive loading and oscillations, as well as

other vibrations of external origin, the damping effect of elastomer
bearing platforms has proved advantageous. Moreover the structure of an
elastomer bearing platform makes it a good heat insulator, since the
layers minimise unwanted heat conduction between the container and the
load cell.
Lateral displacement can be limited simply by providing end stops. This

does away with the need for hinged elements.
Caution If the container has to be continuously connected to a pipe during

weighing, the elastomer bearing platform will be depressed by about 1
mm at maximum capacity. This is a good deal more than the actual
displacement of the load cell itself and can lead to gross measurement
errors if not taken into account.
Although there is no need for conventional stay rod restraint, care should
be taken to ensure the container is held firmly in position, especially if
the centre of gravity is not in a favourable position . In the container
weighing field, elastomer bearing platforms constitute cost-effective and
easily implemented structural elements that are satisfactory for low to
mid-range accuracy requirements.
«.t
0
Figure 4-1 ZEL elastomer bearing element, showing its degree of
freedom to absorb a load
4.3 Pendulum load cell
4.3.1 Self-centring pendulum load cell
This refers to load cells designed and constructed to return to their

starting position of their own accord if the load introduction is laterally
displaced (e.g. tilted). The method is based on the well-known physical
principle of stable equilibrium. The load cell acts as a pendulum since its
height is less than the total radius of curvature of its load-introduction
surfaces. Any displacement leads to an increase in the load, and this
results in self-resetting.
The maximum permissible displacement specified in the data sheet -- for

example in the case of Type C16/40t maximum 13 mm/ 5° must on no
account be exceeded, since overtensioning is likely to damage the load
cells or load introductions. The problem can easily be overcome by

designing appropriate adjustable stops into the configuration.
All it takes for a cost-effective and trouble-free modification is an HBM

support piece above and below. Unwanted rotary motion about its own
axis is prevented by the integral twist-proof fixing.
C16 self centring load cells from HBM are available as pendulum load
cells with maximum capacities from 20 t to 200 t. They are suitable for
medium to high accuracy requirements.
4i
'T
«
Figure 4-2 C16 load cell (diagram) showing its degrees of freedom
4.3.2 Pendle bearings and pendle supports
Using pendle bearings and pendle supports, standard "beam form" and
C-type load cells achieve similar properties to self-centring load cells.
This makes it possible to construct container weighing equipment to high
standards of accuracy. The design of the mounting accessories on the
pendle bearing allows a displacement of some 3° without significant
measurement errors. Horizontal displacement of the points of support can
also be tolerated within limits. Whereas ZPL pendle bearings mostly
consist of two support pieces and one cylindrical support, on the other
hand ZPS pendle supports fulfil the required function with just one
cylindrical support and one EP03 upper support each.
If the pendle bearing is displaced, the load increases slightly in

comparison with the starting position. This gives rise to a restoring force
which restores the system to its original position. Pendle bearings and
pendle supports can therefore be thought of as self-centring.
They prove to be easy to handle and install as mounting accessories. No

lateral stay rods are needed to stiffen the container or platform. However,
it is advisable to limit lateral displacement with the aid of end stops. As
is the case when using elastomer bearing platforms, for reasons of safety
engineering the container must be prevented from lifting off or
overturning.
41}
D
.-.
7
)
1.
I I «fl
Figure 4-3 C2A with ZPS pendle support

Figure 4-4 Z7 with ZPL pendle bearing
4.4 Multiple ball bearings

Multiple ball bearings permit substantial lateral displacement of the
points of support. This displacement must be possible so that the
supports can make way for horizontal deformation of the container,
which can occur due to temperature changes or internal pressure
fluctuations, for instance. Multiple ball bearings are commonly used in
supports with load cells. During installation the load cell is mounted onto
the multiple ball bearing with the aid of centring pins. It stays vertical
even when laterally displaced. When using multiple ball bearings, the
load is introduced onto the load point in the load cell through an EPO
mounting accessory (upper support). The maximum horizontal
displacement allowable with multiple ball bearings depends on the
maximum capacity of the associated load cells, but is between ±lOmm
and ±25mm. The force required for lateral displacement is up to 0.5% of
the load acting on the bearing.
Since a multiple ball bearing has no self-centring properties, high-grade

stay rod restraint is required.
When using a multiple ball bearing, note that before putting the
equipment into service the locking screws on the upper plate of the
multiple ball bearing must be removed. They must be replaced with
shorter fastening screws.
A multiple ball bearing with a locking screw still in place cannot move
laterally and behaves like a solid bearing. The play which the multiple
ball bearing makes possible must not impede the bearing from reaching
as far as its stop when in situ.
Figure 4.5 shows the structure of a movable support fitted with a load
cell. The load cell stands on a multiple ball bearing and the load is
transmitted to it through an upper support (reference EPO).
Figure 4-5 Load cell for compressive loading with multiple ball bearing
and EPO (upper support) mounting accessories
4.5 Ancillary structural components
4.5.1 Tapered points and sockets
Conventionally configured weighing scales have managed to achieve

extremely high levels of precision using mechanical balances. This tried
and tested function can be applied to individual load cells by using
"knife-edge" mounting accessories for hybrid balances, and/or "tapered
points" and "tapered sockets".
These mounting accessories are intended particularly for weighing

technology applications requiring even greater accuracy, including those
for which verification is needed. Conditions which involve dynamic
loading or vibration are quite unsuitable for this application.
\
I
\
I
I
Figure 4-6 Z6 with ZK tapered points and sockets

4.5.2 Force feedback
Force feedbacks are used in combination with load cells in the form of
dual-beam spring elements, and enable moment-free loading with tensile
or compressive forces along their line of effect. Their use tends to be
restricted to applications having only one load cell per platform, or they
can have knuckle eyes attached at both ends for use in situations where
the load is suspended.
Figure 4-7 Z6 with ZRR force feedback
4.5.3 Knuckle eyes
Knuckle eyes are suitable for use in the event of quasi-static tensile
loading (load reversal = lOHz). The onward connection commonly takes
the form of an actuating fork. In the event of high-frequency dynamic
loading, flexible tension bars should be used.
Figure 4-8 RSC with ZGW knuckle eyes
4.6 Fixed and tilting bearings

If a container's feet are not all located on load cells, then either solid or
tilting bearings may be used instead.
When a solid bearing is used it is to some extent possible to fall back on

ready-made structural elements. The diagram shows the solid bearing
supplied by HBM, consisting of a braced double-T supporting element.
The struts include a well-defined flexible area. The solid bearing also
braces the container in the horizontal direction, which does away with
the need for hinged elements. Note that the flexible area of the solid
bearing becomes slightly bent due to displacement of the load cell,
causing the measurement signal to be falsified. However, the effect of
this can be significantly reduced by calibrating with defined masses.
Figure 4-9 HBM solid bearing

With tilting bearings there is practically no falsification of the

measurement signal as just described, since in this case there is no
noticeable bending stress (=») but in fact just a slight rolling friction. On
the other hand the horizontal bracing effect is considerably less in tilting
bearings than in solid bearings, so hinged elements may still be needed
depending on the application.
8
a) and b) Saddle bearings
c) Ball-and-socket joint with concave
spherical shape
+ + d) Ball-and-socket joint with rounded
corners
a) c)
e) Ball-and-socket joint with groove
b)
LEI
Figure 4-10 Examples of tilting bearings
4.7 Container stiffening
4.7.1 Stops
When constructing a balance for weighing containers, the design relies

on load cells which are either fitted with mounting accessories that allow
displacement to take place, or are themselves mobile in their own right.
Depending on the mechanical principle involved, such mounting
accessories have either a self-centring or a resetting action. This would
simply require a mechanical stop at the distance of the maximum
permissible lateral displacement. As an example, angled stops or rubber
buffers have proven reliable in this context.
1 = ZPL pendle bearings

2 = Weigh platform
3 = Adjustable stop (rubber buffer)
4 = Z6 load cell
4 5 = Bearer
6 5 6 = Foundation plate
Figure 4-11 Stops
4. 7.2 Lift-off preventers
If the centre of gravity of the container is above the points of support,

and if no provision is made to exclude the effect of draughts or other
external forces, the container must be protected against tilting or lifting
off.
This can be achieved by using a second level of stops or even a special

lift-off preventer. A lift-off preventer can be made by placing threaded
rods in a vertical position near the points of support. The threaded rod,
which must be contact-free, is fed through a hole in the foot-plate
alongside the container. The maximum distance between the substructure
and the container foot is then adjusted with the aid of a nut on the
threaded rod. The size of the hole in the container foot can also be used
to limit maximum lateral displacement.
Figure 4-12 Lift-off preventer
4.7.3 Stay rods
When using non-resetting multiple ball bearings or similar items, it is

advisable to use stay rods as a means of restraining the container. The
stay rods must be dimensioned and aligned so that they absorb forces
originating externally whilst allowing only minimal forces to oppose the
motion of the container in the measurement direction.
The following forms of stay rod have proven reliable:
Stretched cords:
These transmit no forces in the vertical direction and are therefore very
good at preventing unwanted force bypasses.
<===lrl==lt---�20--===== =====�es
---=---
)
I I
Figure 4-13 Stretched cord
Tubular stay rods:
These produce tensile stress in the longitudinal direction when horizontal

forces are applied. This means that for complete restraint two stay rods
must be used per axis.
Hemispherical washer and Welded spacer for

cup to DIN 6319 length adjustment
.�-.-.-- �-
\ -�� \
Figure 4-14 Tubular stay rods
Flat stay rods:
In flat stay rods, increasing horizontal displacement produces an axial

force. Vertical displacement causes bending and this produces a force
bypass. However, since the flat rod is bent in its flexible direction, the
effects are relatively slight even for torsion of large cross-sections and
for bilateralstress. The force bypasses which occur during calibration
should be noted.
Figure 4-15 Flat stay rods
Bolted stay rods:
Bolted stay rods ensure minimal force bypasses in the vertical direction.
On the other hand any slight tilting already present in the stay rods can
cause tightening and set up frictional forces that give rise to vertical force
bypasses. They must therefore be fitted with great care. The container
must also be restrained in such a way that any displacement which occurs
cannot cause the bolted stay rods to tilt.
Horizontal adjustment Height adjustment
•
Figure 4-16 Bolted stay rods
Tubular stay rods with knuckle eyes:
Tubular stay rods with knuckle eyes behave in much the same way as
bolted stay rods. The main difference is that the omnidirectional jointed
mounting prevents tilting. Apart from the need for horizontal alignment
of the stay rods during fitting, these tubular stay rods with knuckle eyes
are unaffected by the manufacturing and installation tolerances in the

design of the container.
The knuckle eyes should be protected to prevent their joints from seizing
up, especially when used in the open.
Left threaded section Right threaded section
Figure 4-17 Tubular stay rod with knuckle eyes

Weigh modules
5.1 Opening remarks

Depending on the type of load cells used, they can perform a limited
number of additional tasks over and above their actual measuring
functions, such as stiffening or anchoring: for example by making use of
the design configuration of bolted-down load cells. Nevertheless,
depending how the problem is defined, such an additional function often
runs up against its limitations quite quickly. If for example a lateral force
is applied to a load cell in addition to the weighing force, this can lead to
inaccuracies in the measurement results. In an extreme case, overloading
could even bring about the destruction of the load cell. However,
incorrect loading of this kind can be prevented as far as possible by using
suitable mounting accessories. A load cell with its appropriate mounting
accessory together form a functional unit. Such functional units, or
weigh modules, are supplied fully pre-assembled by HBM. A functional
unit can be mounted "on site" and put into operation immediately
without any further preparation.
The individual components of weigh modules are offered as a package,

depending on their type and operating mode:
■ Upper and lower mounting plates for attaching to base or other
supporting element and design configuration
■ Load introduction and pick-off for load cell
■ Self-restoring in the event of a lateral load in conjunction with
pendle bearings
■ Stiffening against lateral force by means of horizontal linking bars
■ Relief element in the event of simultaneous unloading of module
5.2 Selected features of various HBM weigh modules

Equipped with Class D1 load cells in accordance with OIML R60, also
suitable for applications that require verification against official
specifications
■ Maintenance free
■ Space-saving configuration thanks to minimal overall height
■ Easy to fit
■ Supplied as galvanised or stainless steel
■ Load cells available as EEx(i) version on request
■ Equipped with lateral linking bars
■ Z6 with overload stop
i
J
·-
Figure 5-1 Z6 weigh module: 50kg to 500kg (small configuration)
Figure 5-2 C2A weigh module: 1t to 10t

Figure 5-3 C16 weigh module: 20t to 200t
Figure 5-4 HLC weigh module: 550kg to 4.4t

5.3 Configuring weigh modules to the application

Note that with weigh modules, the linking bars accept lateral forces up to
the maximum specified value. To prevent damage, take care to ensure
that this maximum value is on no account exceeded. If this cannot be
guaranteed, additional protective measures need to be taken. Since no
forces can be accepted that are transverse to the direction of movement
of the linking bars, only the restoring force from the pendle bearing
support takes effect.
The most suitable configuration needs to be made clear before any

modules are installed at the intended site. Any special conditions, such as
wind loading, volume expansion of the weigh vessel, the occurrence of
lateral loads, expansion and thermal loading, must be taken into
consideration at the design stage. Whilst on the one hand the linking bars
must, without exception, restrain the incidental forces, at the same time
thermal expansion must not be impeded even though it can exert
considerable force.
The direction of mounting or weigh modules proposed by HBM should

be seen only as a guide. For each individual project the configuration of
the weigh modules must be specifically checked for static, dynamic and
thermal loading and adjusted accordingly.
5.4 Fixed bearings as a cost-effective substitute for modules

Fixed bearings can be used either as a mounting accessory or in place of
a module. By this method, material and installation costs can be
appreciably reduced by using just one or two "measuring modules",
depending on the shape of the weigh vessel. However, it is only possible
to achieve sufficiently accurate measurement results with weigh vessels
in which the position of the centre of gravity in the vertical direction is
independent of the filled contents. This is almost only ever the case with
liquids and certain freely flowing bulk materials.
Even in these cases it is still necessary to consider how the solid bearings
and modules can best be aligned. Solid bearings exhibit maximum
rigidity along the line of the support rod and maximum flexibility
perpendicular to the rod. Wind forces and their effects on the weighing
result must also be considered in this connection.
3x12A
•
1 + ¢
+7 +
2a
$
l a
• d
---+--- *) This weighing point must

not be restrained.
Figure 5-5 Installation examples: weigh modules using linking bar

restraint
5.5 Effects caused by unsatisfactory installation
Uneven working surface

Irregularities in the working surface must be less
than 0.6mm. If the surface is more uneven than this,
it must be levelled by applying a sealant material
such as AFM-30 (available from the Reinz
company).
Angle of inclination of the working surface

The sensitivity of the load cell diminishes by the
fraction 1-cosa. This deviation is adjusted by means
of the electronics in the weighing apparatus during
calibration. Even so, the angle of inclination should
not exceed 3°,
l Plane parallelism
------� 30
f If the bottom plate and head plate are not parallel,
this non-parallelism imposes an additional lateral
0 0 force on the force introduction parts. This lateral
force is absorbed by the linking bar in the
longitudinal direction. The pendle bearing is
deflected in the transverse direction until the
equilibrium of forces is restored. However, in order
to keep the effect of lateral forces to a minimum, the
angle of inclination must never exceed 3°.
Axial misalignment
Axial misalignment between the top plate and the
built-in force introduction gives no cause for
concern, since the plates are screwed together.
Figure 5-6 Notes on fitting C2A weigh modules

Overload protection
Load cells can often be protected from overload by oversizing them. If

overload protection is actually being achieved in this way, no further
action is necessary. The accuracy class (=») of a load cell always refers
to its maximum capacity (=»). Depending on the required weighing
accuracy and the smallest fractional quantities to be weighed, load cells
cannot always be oversized at will, since the absolute measurement error
is directly proportional to the maximum capacity.
Note Some types of HBM load cells are already titted with a built-in
mechanical overload protection.
It is always worth making the effort to incorporate overload protection if

the load cells have to be laden up to their maximum capacity, since the
risk of an overload is then only slight.
Overload protection should typically be provided for load cells in the

following situations:
■ The maximum loadings to be imposed on the load cells are
unknown.
■ There is likely to be heavy dynamic loading, for instance if goods
tumble into the weigh vessel (pulsed loading).
Experience shows that load cells with a rather low maximum capacity
often become overloaded more quickly than load cells in the higher load
6-54 Overload protection
capacity ranges. So for example a load cell with a maximum load

capacity of 20kg can be quite badly damaged simply by a falling wrench.
Design engineers can also set up and use their own preferred overload
protection for a range of load cell configurations. Figure 6.1 shows a
suggested design for an overload protection in the HBM type Z6 load
cell. In this arrangement, any distortion or spring deflection in the load
cell is limited by a mechanical stop.
Spring deflection
limitation (stop)
\!!I
Fine-threaded stop screw
Deflection at maximum load capacity
'7LJ
Mechanical stop
Figure 6-1 Suggested overload protection for the HBM type Z6 load
cell
The data sheet heading Deflection at maximum load capacity (=»)

describes the extent by which the load cell is distorted at its maximum
capacity. Depending on the type and load capacity range of the load cell,
a mechanical stop will limit the possible spring deflection to between
120% and 150% of deflection at maximum capacity in order to prevent
the load cell from overloading.
Feeler gauges are used to adjust the stop. Since the typical displacement
by distortion is very small in practice only a few 1/10mm
finethreaded adjustment screws have proved extremely reliable in this
connection. The gap between the load cell and the stop should also be
protected from dust and dirt, since contamination of this kind is likely to
cause false measurements due to incorrect spring deflection limitation.
If a load cell is installed on a yielding substructure, this can result in a

different displacement from that specified in the data sheet. The overload
protection can quite often be triggered prematurely by sag in the
mounting plate. Consequently the gap between the load cell and the stop
has to be widened. It is therefore preferable to load the weighing device
to its maximum capacity and then adjust the resulting gap to between
0.05mm and 0.1mm from the mechanical stop.
An alternative form of overload protection can be provided by a

pre-tensioned spring device installed axially to the direction of the weigh
force, Figure 6.2. If the maximum load capacity exceeds a given value,
the spring is fully compressed and conducts the force through a
purpose-designed structure to a mechanical stop. With this form of
overload protection the gap is considerably wider. This means that
setting up the permissible loading is simpler and more reliable. The
properties of the spring device also decidedly reduce the risk of damage
to the load cell from pulsed loading. Since such spring devices are much
less sensitive to contamination, the additional effort expended on design
and materials compared with other forms of overload protection can
definitely be justified for a range of applications.
F
Spring device
Mechanical stop
Load cell C2
Figure 6-2 Using a spring device as overload protection for a type C2

load cell
6-56 Overload protection

container weighing systems
7.1 Opening remarks

Note When fitting containers with load cells, there are some important ground
rules to observe.
For instance containers are quite often exposed to the elements or subject
to production-specific influences.
When erecting new containers in the open (e.g. silos, coal bunkers, etc.)
these constitute structures for which the relevant building regulations
have to be observed.
However, even installing weighing equipment at a later date may be

viewed as a "significant change" under the building regulations.
In such cases it is advisable to seek the advice of a structural engineer.

On safety grounds, building regulations usually specify the
"state-of-the-art".
For example, in the case of wind loading this is DIN 1055 Part 4
"Design loads for buildings".
7-58 Design and construction of container weighing systems
Similarly, architects designing container configurations should

familiarise themselves with any special in-house requirements of the
users concerned. For instance even in locations that are roofed over,
containers frequently have to be prevented from lifting off if they contain
dangerous substances and, say, forklift trucks will be operating in the
area.
In view of the significance of the subjects, Section 13.3.3 deals

specifically with the effects of wind forces on overall system safety and
weighing accuracy.
7.2 Load distribution

The optimum load cell configuration for determining the weight of
containers is when the container rests on three points of support with a
load cell on each. This situation is known as statically determinate.
In this case the total loading should be distributed as evenly as possible

over the three load cells. In the case of upright or suspended cylindrical
containers this requirement is best fulfilled if the three load cells are
arranged at the same distance from the vertical axis of the container, and
at the same level but offset by 120° from one another. For horizontal
containers the points of support should be arranged as shown in Figure
7.1.
If the configuration is not fitted with a load cell on every support, it is

recommended that the load distribution should not be uniform across all
supports. Those supports with load cells should have higher loadings
than those without. This measure will help to improve the overall
accuracy of the weighing equipment. When designing plant and choosing
load cells, every effort should be made to ensure that the load cells
concerned will be loaded as uniformly as possible.
Centre of gravity
A s
Figure 7-1 Arrangement of points of support A, Band C for horizontal

containers
If a container is supported on four or more points, this constitutes

statically determinate support. For an application of this kind, all points
of support must be fitted with load cells. Uniform distribution of the
loading must be attended to as the individual transducers are fitted. For
this purpose the loading on each transducer must be individually
measured and in the event of unacceptable differences the height of the
load cells concerned must be adjusted (for instance by means of sheet
metal levelling pieces). As a rule, load cells that are too lightly loaded
are geometrically opposite.
7.3 The position of the centre of gravity on a container

As far as possible the centre of gravity of a full container should not be
higher than its points of support. In practice this requirement often
cannot be met.
I I
]«
B]
I I
Height of fill 1
Centre of gravity 1
Height of fill 2
+------ Centre of gravity 2
Load cells
Figure 7-2 How the centre of gravity in a container with a sloping floor
changes position in relation to the height of fill
For the sake of stability it is best if the centre of gravity is below the
points of support. The position of the centre of gravity as a function of
the height of fill has a decisive influence on the number of load cells to
be used. If the contents are filled symmetrically to the load cell
configuration, it may be possible to construct the weighing device using

just one load cell, since the centre of gravity changes position along a
vertical line. If the centre of gravity shifts sideways when the height of
fill changes, all supports must be fitted with load cells.
Figure 7 .2 is intended to show why load cells need to be used on all

points of support when the position of the centre of gravity can change.
7.4 Supply connections to containers

Containers frequently need connections for services such as filling and
removing contents, as well as for the electrical, hydraulic or compressed
air supply to their auxiliary motors.
These supply connections can cause force bypasses that show up as

inaccuracies in the readings produced by the weighing apparatus.
Supply connections must be elastic in the vertical direction. Figures 7.3

to 7.7 show some examples of acceptable layouts for supply connections.
For reasons of sound business sense it is essential to give these aspects
due consideration at the planning and design stages whatever the
circumstances.
If using rigid pipes without any flexible interconnection, it is advisable to

connect to the container through the maximum possible length of
horizontal pipe, which should be fitted with a strain reliever in the
longitudinal direction (Figure 7.3).
The horizontal pipe is springy in the vertical direction and its effect
diminishes with increasing length. The tensile or compressive
mechanical force which the pipe artificially exerts on the load cells
diminishes accordingly and ceases to threaten the accuracy of
measurements.
----r---
'
Figure 7-3 Long horizontal pipe connection
I
----r---
'
Figure 7-4 Elastic pipe coupling
----r---
'
Figure 7-5 Pipe bend

Figure 7-6 Mechanical compensator
Several flexible couplings can also be used instead of one long pipe
connection (Figure 7.4). Hose connections made of slightly deformable
elastic material are effective in preventing force bypasses. It is essential
to check that the elastic material is compatible with the material used to
fill or clean the container (for instance if foodstuffs or pharmaceuticals
are involved).
Another possible way of keeping unwanted force bypasses to a minimum

by using connecting pipes is to fit a pipe bend (Figure 7.5).
If it is essential for the pipe connection to be vertical, i.e. in the same

direction as the weighing force that has to be measured, or if flexible
hose connections cannot be used, a reliable method is to connect through
a compensator (such as metal bellows - Figure 7.6). Strict tolerances
have to be observed when installing a compensator of this kind. Using
two sets of metal bellows connected together by a length of pipe means
the tolerances to be compensated for are wider.
Note Metal bellows are not allowed in certain areas of the food industry where
scrupulous cleanliness is required.
The open connecting branch shown in Figure 7.7 is the best solution for
keeping force bypasses to a minimum. An open connecting branch
prevents contact between the pipe and the container. This type of
connection cannot be used in closed systems such as pressurised

containers.
---,--- I
I
Figure 7-7 Open connecting branch
Note Care must always be taken to ensure that the proportion of material in
the connecting pipes is weighed as well. The amount of fill in the inlet
and outlet lines directly connected to the container should therefore be
reproducible at the time of weighing. This means that the lines should be
either always full or always empty during data acquisition.
7.5 Pressurised containers

The pressure in a closed system can affect the weighing result. In some
industries, particularly the chemical industry, very high pressure is
needed for parts of the process. In contrast, suction equipment for
extracting powdered weigh goods can create negative pressure of
between 100 and 300 mbar.
If the pipe conduits are coupled to the container vertically as shown in

Figures 7.5. and 7.6., this produces a force that is added directly to the
measurement result. The total effect is the product of the pressure times
the sectional area of the pipe. If pressure ratios are constant during the
weighing procedure, this effect can be taken into account by calculation
in the course of measurenient.
A horizontal line connection has advantages, but a vertical connection is

preferable every time. In this case any spurious forces are absorbed by
the mounting accessories.
7.6 Some typical load cell configurations

This section shows some examples of typical container designs in
diagram form. Essential construction details and notes on problems
relating to individual cases can be looked up in the chapters concerned.
7.6.1 Upright containers
In the case of liquids and loose materials with centrally filled contents,
possible configurations include two fixed supports and one load cell.
This will work for containers that are constructed symmetrically, so that
regardless of the height of the contents the centre of gravity moves in a
line which is close enough to vertical for the degree of accuracy required.
In all other cases, particularly where even higher accuracy is needed, at
least three load cells should be fitted and in some circumstances even
more.
7.6.1.1 Rigidly installed load cell
Figure 7-8 Upright container in a rigid installation with a load cell
This simple design on supporting elements and a rigidly installed load

cell is not recommended. Problematical feedback affects the load cell
merely by virtue of the design. This means it is generally impossible to
protect load cells from the effects of distortion arising when the height of
fill changes, or when there is vibration or a change of temperature. Even
so, individual instances are to be found.
7.6.1.2 Upright tank on two solid bearings and a load

cell with a levelling piece
Load cell C16A
Figure 7-9 Upright tank with two solid bearings and one load cell with a
levelling piece
This design for measuring height of fill uses one load cell in a pendle
configuration and two solid bearings that also restrain the container in
the horizontal direction. This cost-effective design protects load cells
from unacceptable influences.
7--68 Design and construction of container weighing systems
7.6.1.3 Upright circular silo on three or four load cells
---------------�
4
Eek ....==.::::::::� acnes.saw
platform (diagram)
Figure 7-10 Upright circular silo
Height of fill can usually be accurately measured on three load cells;

however, designs involving rectangular symmetry can also be found with
four load cells, even though in principle this configuration is less
favourable due to the static determination and high cost. The same
objectives can be achieved using simpler designs.
Although self-centring elastomer bearings do not require stay rods, they

are commonly combined with fixed stops. In the case of very high
containers, however, additional stay rods are needed in the upper part of
the structure; the example shows tensile tubular stay rods which have
been lightly pre-tensioned and chocked. If fixed stops were used at this
point, they would always be contacted at the slightest unavoidable
misalignment and the contact friction would produce force bypasses.
More rarely, roller stops or rope stays are used.
7.6.1.4 Circular silo on three weigh modules
I
'
-----�-----
e i
'
e
I
I
Weigh Weigh
module module
Weigh module Z6 for Weigh module C2A for Weigh module C16 for
light loads medium loads heavy loads
Figure 7-11 Circular silo on weigh modules
Three weigh modules with integral stay rods attached tangentially to the
circumference of the structure make sure the container remains
horizontally stable without the need for further measures. Each weigh
module also has a built-in lift-off preventer to stop the container

overturning. Other structural details are therefore omitted for use in the
open. Typical weigh modules for light, medium and heavy loads are also
shown here by way of example.
Because these standardised elements simplify design and construction,

they can lead to considerable savings in the costs normally associated
with those activities; however, care must be taken during construction to
ensure that bearing surfaces are parallel, vertical alignment is correct and
so on.
7.6.1.5 Flanged container on weigh modules
Weigh modules
(diagram)
Riog�
Ee,
Figure 7-12 Arrangement of weigh modules tor a flanged container

On the flanged containers most commonly seen in practice, the outer

casing reaches to the ground and ensures the stability of the whole
configuration. Special arrangements are needed to enable such containers
to stand on load cells.
Figure 7.12 shows a structural variant for weighing these containers by

means of load cells. This suggestion is relatively easy to implement, even
on existing plant.
Bracing struts are fitted or welded to the inner wall of the container. The
load is rigidly transmitted to the load cell through a foot . Load cell
weigh modules should preferably be used in this case as well, since for
one thing they already include a lift-off preventer (not shown in Figure
7 .12 for the sake of simplicity).
Even a slight elevation of the structure is enough to transmit the whole of

the weighing force to the load cells.
The system usually needs a sealant, and this is provided by a circular ring
gasket which is flexible enough not to act as a force bypass.
7.6.1.6 Rectangular silo on four load cells in bunkering

station
Load cell C16A
Figure 7-13 Rectangular silo on four load cells

Conditions at bunkering stations are very harsh due to vibration from

transportation facilities, oscillations from filling and discharging
equipment and, if the weigh bunker is part of a mobile plant, acceleration
due to vehicle movement. By no means least, when coarse bulk materials
are dropped into the container and strike against oblique side panels they
can create powerful lateral stresses. In such circumstances, particularly
stable restraint must be provided in the form of rigidly prestressed stay
rods.
Occasionally also the weigh vessel is held firm when not taking part in
the weighing procedure and is only released for weighing.
Its rectangular symmetry is good for stability and is therefore carried

through into the load cell configuration. Load cells commonly used for
this application are those with elastomer bearing platforms and, as in this
example, pendulum load cell.
7.6.2 Suspended containers
Simple, flexible tensile tubular stay rods are often used on suspended
containers to overcome or ease the problems of centring, height
adjustment and so forth. As well as the ever-present need for protection
against toppling, stay rods are needed to prevent swaying and twisting.
7.6.2.1 Suspension on two or three load cells
Load cell U2A

/ with spacer and
long tubular rod
(diagram)
Tubular rod for

protection against
falling
Stay rod
Figure 7-14 Suspended container on two or three load cells
This altogether simple design requires several tangential stay rods; in

cases where the stresses are quite low, they can take on the function of a
lower, lateral outfall pipe.
7.6.2.2 Central suspension on a single load cell
Load cell U2A with

knuckle eyes above
abelow
Lt Tubular rod for

a&ii~ton
falling
as~is
Stay rod
Figure 7-15 Suspended container on a single load cell
In this configuration, special stiffening against swaying and twisting is

essential.
7.6.3 Horizontal liquid containers
In horizontal containers for liquids, the condition that the centre of

gravity of the contents moves vertically as a function of the height of fill
is to all intents and purposes met. It therefore only needs a load cell
under one tank cradle and two solid bearings under the other tank cradle
for a relatively simple way of measuring the height of fill.
An idealised tank supports half its weight on a self-centring pendulum

load cell and the other half on two solid beatings. Further bracing or
stiffening is not required in normal circumstances. In the case of very
long tanks, however, additional protection against the load cell being
overturned by a side impact with the tank can be provided by attaching
fixed stops to both ends of the tank cradle resting on the load cell, in
order to restrict lateral displacement.
Shift in centre
of gravity
•
- -
S1
Figure 7-16 Horizontal liquid container with one C16 load cell
(diagram)
Note In practice, however, the symmetrical distribution of the contents is often

intentionally disturbed by a slight one-sided slope in the floorline towards
the outlet. The optimal solution for greater weighing accuracy is a
self-centring configuration of three load cells, in which case it is best to
provide horizontal stiffening with the aid of fixed stops.

platform balances
8.1 Opening remarks

The term platform balance nowadays covers a wide field of application.
It covers the design and configuration of equipment such as
high-precision laboratory balances, shop-counter scales and personal
weighing machines right through to high-capacity applications for road
vehicles.
Platform balances are characterised by one or more load cells, usually

arranged under a platform (scale pan) on which the goods intended for
weighing are placed.
A particularly notable advantage of platform balances is the fact that the

position of the weight on the platform has no effect on the weighing
result within the specified limits of accuracy. The accuracy of the balance
can be further improved by carrying out additional corner correction.
Corner errors are determined by corner checking (=»).
The physical dimensions of a scale pan or platform are defined by the

size or bearing surface of the goods intended to be weighed and their
average weight.
8-80 Design and construction of platform balances
Using only one load cell limits the options for carrying out compensating
corrections on account of errors caused by off centre weight
introduction.
The configuration of a platform balance is also influenced by aspects of

the design, including the required stiffness of the scale pan or platform,
especially when several load cells are used.
8.2 Platform balances using one load cell

In this form of platform balance, just one load cell is installed beneath a
platform or scale pan on which the goods intended for weighing are
placed. The name single-point load cell has become generally established
for this kind of transducer.
Ideally this load cell is located centrally beneath the platform. However,
the mechanical design of the load cell (in most cases dual-beam spring
elements, see also Section 3.2.2) also permits off-centre configurations
such as a cantilevered platform.
The load cell is designed to compensate as far as possible for

measurement deviations caused by off-centre loading.
The technology used at the manufacturing stage provides additional

measures for minimising corner loading errors, so that as a rule no
further balancing measures are required when the weigh balance is being
completed. This saves both time and expense.
Balances using only one load cell clearly have a price advantage.
Another financial advantage of these designs is that a balance in which

additional mechanical components are few and uncomplicated is ready to
use once assembled.
In the simplest case an accurate weighing device can be produced from a

base plate, a load cell and a suitable load platform (Figure 8.1).
Any load introduction on the platform
f • • • • •
Spacer
Overload
protection
Figure 8-1 Structure of a platform balance using a single-point load cell

(diagram)
Typical applications are shop-counter scales, postal scales, parcel scales

and the whole range of medical and pharmaceutical balances.
Ever more frequently these inexpensive designs are also being applied to
packaging machines and check balances as well as tasks for weighing
technology applications in the industrial sector.
Due to the ratio of maximum capacity to the physical dimensions of the

load cell, there are limits to the use of platform balances with one load
cell only.
High maximum capacities commonly necessitate load cells with a high

profile. Similarly the selected platform size must not exceed the stated
maximum configuration (data sheet specification), otherwise corner
corrections will not work adequately and the load cell will run the risk of
becoming mechanically overloaded.
It is always important to ensure that the platform has sufficient

mechanical stiffness. Platform weight has to be taken into account as a
tare load in relation to the total load acting on the load cell.
In practice, an even more reliable way of protecting the load cell than
placing uncomplicated overload trips directly under the load cell to
restrict spring deflection has been to place stops under each comer of the
platform. These prevent harmful torsional loads from reaching or
damaging the load cell.
8-82 Design and construction of platform balances
Figure 8-2 The HBM range of single-point load cells

8.3 Platform balances using more than one load cell

With this type of platform balance, two to eight load cells may be
arranged beneath the platform. Unlike using a single load cell under the
platform, this design makes the whole structure considerably more
compact for the equivalent maximum capacity. This can be explained by
the fact that the load is distributed over several load cells, with the result
that each can be dimensioned for a lower rated load.
Platform size may be selected virtually at will. It becomes a much

simpler matter to design and construct the platform. For instance, no
costly stiffening ribs are necessary. As a rule the load cells in large weigh
balances receive only part of the load (generally no more than 60% ), so
that overload trips or overload protection can be omitted.
Since the platform rests on several load cells it is almost impossible for
torsion loading to affect them.
Any load introduction on the platform
Self-centring pendulum load cells
Figure 8-3 Structure of a platform balance using several load cells

(diagram)
One disadvantage found in practice is that for many types of load cell,
the weighing configuration requires corner correction. This is done by
moving a calibration weight from place to place on the platform and
8--84 Design and construction of platform balances
adjusting the sensitivity of one or more load cells in the weighing device
accordingly. The aim of comer conection is to obtain the same weight
information regardless of where the object being weighed is placed on
the platform.
The load cells are connected in parallel. This increases the cost of
installation. Also the actual number of load cells incurs more expense
than is the case for single-point solutions.
The applications for such balances are chiefly in the area of

drive-through weighbridges (below ground/ above ground),
high-capacity systems and balances for goods in bulk.
Experience shows that in practice the crossover from single-point

solutions to platforms using several load cells is generally at around a
maximum capacity of 500 kg to 600 kg and a platform size greater than
1m.
Electrical engineering
structure of weighing
equipment using strain
gauge load cells
9.1 Opening remarks

A strain gauge load cell converts a mechanical quantity (mass) into an
electrical signal. On most strain gauge load cells this signal is present in
the form of a voltage and is proportional to the mechanical quantity
within known error limits. Load cells using strain gauges as their
measurement system generally contain a circuit called a Wheatstone
bridge (=).
9.2 The Wheatstone bridge
9.2.1 The circuit diagram
A strain gauge converts strain into proportional changes in resistance.

The relative changes in resistance in a strain gauge are in the order of
9-86 Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells
magnitude from 10 to 10'. In order to convert these very small

changes into measurable voltages, strain gauge technology makes use of
a Wheatstone bridge (named after the English scientist Sir Charles
Wheatstone).
The rhombus shape, Figure 9.1 left, is the usual representation of a

bridge circuit and commonly to be found in the literature. Figure 9.1
right shows the same electrical circuit, but is perhaps a little clearer.
t Us
Us
1 «( t
Figure 9-1 Ways of representing a bridge circuit
The arms of the bridge, also known as branches, are formed from
resistors RI to R4. The widest possible diversity of names for these will
be found in the literature. However, the important thing is always to view
them in conjunction with the associated bridge equations.
9.2.2 Method of operation
The bridge supply is either DC or AC. If a voltage, known as the

excitation voltage Ug, is applied to bridge points 2 and 3, a bridge output
voltage UA is produced between points 1 and 4, the size of this voltage

being related to the misalignment of the bridge.
The bridge is balanced when relative bridge output voltage U, = 0. If

bridge resistances Rl to R4 change by AR, bridge output voltage U A also
changes in line with the bridge misalignment.
9.2.3 Internal wiring in strain gauge load cells
One advantage of the Wheatstone bridge circuit is its capacity to enlarge

the measurement signal. This effect increases with the number of active
strain gauges in the bridge circuit. In the ideal case two strain gauges are
stretched and two are compressed, producing maximum misalignment of
the bridge and a correspondingly large output signal.
Also interference effects such as superimposed flexing of the measuring

element, or material strains arising from temperature effects, are
suppressed within limits.
The balancing and compensation measures briefly described below make

an important contribution to obtaining excellent technical data from load
cells along with their type identity . Figure 9.2 shows the main wiring
connections on a strain gauge together with those of the balancing
elements within the Wheatstone bridge circuit of a load cell.
9--88 Electrical engineering structure of weighing equipment using strain gauge load cells
Zero balance
S.G. Temp. comp.

zero point
Temp. comp.
sensitivity
Linearity correction
Calibration
Resistance balance
Figure 9-2 Circuit diagram of a strain gauge load cell
This form of connection enables the following compensations or

corrections:
■ Compensation for a temperature variation error in the
Wheatstone bridge circuit, including compensation for
temperature variation affecting the zero point (Ta)
■ Correction for misalignment in the Wheatstone bridge circuit,
including bridge balancing or zero point balancing
■ Compensation for the temperature dependency of load cell
sensitivity, including thermal compensation of sensitivity (Tk,)
■ Sensitivity balancing
9.3 Load cell sensitivity
9.3.1 Opening remarks
Most load cells have a standardised output signal of some 2 m V/V at

maximum capacity. This means that at maximum capacity they deliver a
signal of 2 m V per volt of excitation voltage. A standardised output
signal enables load cells to be replaced without any problem and
considerably simplifies calibration of the measurement chain. If it is
intended to connect several load cells in parallel, as is customary for
weighing containers, it is absolutely vital to have the same sensitivity and
the same bridge resistance throughout. For particularly low-budget
applications, load cells without a standardised output signal are also
available. In this case the output signal measured at maximum capacity is
specified on the load cell.
9.3.2 Definition of sensitivity
The sensitivity is the output signal delivered by a load cell when acted
upon by the nominal input quantity (i.e. maximum capacity). The output
signal results from the effect of the input quantity (in this case the
measured quantity is weight). It therefore excludes the zero signal.
The sensitivity and the signal have the same unit, usually mV /V, without
any reference to the measured quantity. Consequently load cells can have
the same sensitivity for different sizes of input quantities and/or loads.
9.3.3 The characteristic curve
Sensitivity C of a load cell is defined according to Figure 9.3 as the

product of nominal load L,(i.e. maximum capacity) and the slope of the
straight line through points P and P of the static characteristic.
C=(S%S,):(%-L,)Ln
where Lp is a dead load and S% the corresponding output signal for that
dead load. S is the output signal at maximum capacity. For IBM
loadcells the lower measuring range limit is determined by the load cell
under no load condition, and the equation can therefore be simplified for
L,=0:
C=S, S,
The sensitivity of HBM load cells is therefore derived from the

difference in the output signals from a load cell at maximum capacity
and at no load. Nominal sensitivity (HBM data sheet specification)
describes load cell sensitivity at maximum capacity.
This expression defines the ratio of output voltage UA to excitation

voltage Up of the Wheatstone bridge circuit at maximum capacity. It is
accordingly expressed in mV/V (typically 2mV/V). This value is entirely
adequate for the calibration of simple weighing equipment, since it
defines the slope of the characteristic curve for a load cell. Virtually
every type of HBM load cell is characterised by this nominal sensitivity.
Sn
} Characteristic curve for increasing loading

-l
Signal S
S,-S,
Sp C = L II -Lp ·L
Lp Load L Ln
Figure 9-3 Characteristic curve

► Example:
A C 16/60t load cell has a nominal sensitivity of 2mV /V, that is to say, the
load cell delivers 2 m V of output signal per volt of excitation voltage at a
loading of 60t. Knowing the excitation voltage makes it possible to
calculate the loading acting upon the load cell.
• Nominal sensitivity: 2 mV/V (at 60t)
• = 5V (10V at 60t)
Bridge excitation: Up
• Measured output voltage: U A = 4m V
• 10mV/V: 60t = AmV/V: L,
p Calculated load: L, = 24t
Maximum
capacity
60t
30t Ua - output voltage

Ub - input voltage
24t
1mV/V 2mVN Ua/Ub
4mV 5mV 10mV Ua at 5V excitation voltage
Figure 9-4 Example of nominal sensitivity - C16/60t -2mVN

9.4 Weighing electronics
Load cells are passive transducers that convert a mechanical quantity into
an electrical signal. To obtain usable signals requires downstream
electronics. The measuring amplifier, as the second link in the
measurement chain, has two main tasks. The first is to generate a highly
stable excitation voltage; the second is to amplify the millivolt-range
output voltage from load cells up to a standardised volt-range level with
as few errors as possible. The amplified measurement signal commonly
undergoes analogue / digital conversion. In the simplest case this is
merely used for a digital display, but frequently it forms the basis for the
widest diversity of weighing processor configurations and formulation
controls. The digitised value can be forwarded over appropriate
interfaces to a PC, a PLC or a control. Analogue electrical unit signals
(0 ... lOV, 0/4 ... 20mA) are also standard output signals from such
electronics.
The extent to which amplification introduces additional errors can be

judged from the specification data for a measuring amplifier. The critical
data includes transmission performance with dynamic signals,
temperature-dependent changes to zero point and amplification, and
sensitivity to external interference.
In the case of resistive load cells, the best-known example of which is

the strain gauge transducer (strain gauge load cell), both a
carrier-frequency amplifier and a DC-voltage amplifier can be used. The
question is simply which is the preferred amplifier principle. Both
methods exhibit a range of characteristic properties which have their
advantages or disadvantages, depending on the problem definition.
9.4.2 DC-voltage amplifier
The basic details of how a DC-voltage amplifier works in conjunction

with an strain gauge load cell is shown in Figure 9.5.
,--------- -----7
1 I
I I
I Power pack I
Mechanical : I
quantity Preamplifier
I
D
I
I
,--y __
I
7
I
I
I
I Signal voltage I I I
I
I I I I
I I I Final stage I
I I
I Excitation voltage I I I
I I
L I
I
L J
R compensation
Figure 9-5 Working method of a DC-voltage amplifier
Since a load cell is a passive element, it can only deliver a measurement

signal if supplied with auxiliary power known as the excitation voltage.
This voltage, which might for example be 5 volts, is produced by a
highly stable DC voltage generator. The generator voltage is used as the
excitation voltage for the full bridge circuit in the load cell. In the no
load condition, only a very low voltage output signal is delivered, and
this is electronically compensated in the measuring amplifier (zero signal
compensation). When the mechanical quantity it is intended to measure
acts upon the load cell, the bridge circuit delivers an output voltage that
is not only proportional to the mechanical quantity, but also changes its
polarity if the mechanical signal changes direction. Such a change of
direction would occur, for instance, if a compressive force acting on an
strain gauge load cell changed to a tensile force. The signal from the load
cell is fed to the input stage of the measuring amplifier.
9.4.3 Carrier-frequency amplifier
Compared to the relatively straightforward working method of the

DC-voltage amplifier, the carrier-frequency method with its multiple
signal conversions appears very complicated at first glance On the other
hand these conversions have a number of advantages at the system level.
,-------- -----7
1 I
I Input stage I
I Power pack I
Mechanical I Demodulator I
quantity I
I
I
I I
I I
I
I I
Si nal volta e
I
Final stage I
I
I
Excitation voltage I
I
L _J
I
J
I
L
Figure 9-6 Working method of a carrier-frequency amplifier
Figure 9.6 shows a block diagram of a carrier-frequency amplifier

connected to a load cell. An AC voltage generator produces an excitation
voltage, which might for example be 5 V; the amplitude and frequency of
this voltage are highly stable. The AC voltage is fed to the bridge circuit
on the load cell. As described in the case of the DC-voltage amplifier,
when a mechanical quantity acts upon the load cell a signal voltage in the
order of magnitude of 10 millivolts and proportional to the mechanical
quantity appears at the load cell output, but in this case it is an AC
voltage. In the input stage of the amplifier connected on load side and in
its following stages, this signal is raised to volt-range level. This has a
number of technical advantages, since it means that only an AC voltage

in a relatively narrow frequency range has to be amplified.
The millivolt-range load cell signals are raised to volt range in a

multistage amplifier. The amplifier frequency range is designed to allow
through only the measurement signal in that bandwidth. All signal noise
outside this range including intrinsic zero point drift is suppressed,
Figure 9.6.
9.4.4 Comparing the two methods
Both DC-voltage amplifiers and carrier-frequency amplifiers are used in

weighing technology. To some extent the less favourable properties of
either system can be improved with the aid of appropriate circuitry, so
that both DC and carrier-frequency amplifiers can be used for the tasks
associated with weighing technology.
Information on the advantages of the two methods can be found in the

HBM pamphlet "Carrier-frequency and DC-voltage amplifiers, a
system-level comparison of application techniques". This brochure can
be ordered direct from HBM.
9.4.5 Influences on the accuracy of measuring

amplifiers
Effect of temperature on zero point and sensitivity
Temperature changes cause parallel shifts in the characteristic curve of

the amplifier, in tum giving rise to zero point shifts.
Figures 9.7. and 9.8. below are diagrammatically enlarged so that the
error fractions normally occurring only as parts per thousand of the
output quantity can be clearly seen.
p Constant misalignment
of measurement data
2
z t1l
2
o
s
5
o
0-1-------+------+--,,<-------
Zero point error
0
Input quantity J
Figure 9-7 Effect of a zero point shift on the amplifier characteristic
Temperature affects the sensitivity. It causes the slope of the

characteristic curve to change, Figure 9.8.
Change in slope = change in amplification
t
2
za
2
c
� 01---------------------1
5
0
0
Input quantity J
Figure 9-8 Effect of a sensitivity change on the amplifier characteristic

Linearity error
Given the current state of the art in measurement amplifiers, linearity

error can be virtually ignored. Typical linearity error is considerably
better than 0.1 % in relation to the output quantity.
9.5 Electrical connection of load cells
Ohmic resistance in the supply leads causes a voltage drop between the
measuring amplifier and the load cell. The load cell therefore receives a
lower voltage than that supplied by the amplifier's internal voltage
generator. On the other hand the voltage drop in the measuring leads is so
small as to be negligible, since the amplifier input is high-impedance.
Consequently it is not always possible to make use of the convincing
advantages of a six-wire circuit (=). The possible ways of combining the
connection between load cells and amplifiers are described below.
t
Rn.
,neause
12. 0,036
350 •
3.5 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 9-9 The influence of load cell leads

four-wire technology
Load cells using four-wire technology are calibrated in the factory so that
when excitation voltage is applied and they are loaded at maximum
capacity, the nominal output signal (nominal sensitivity) is available at
the cable termination. The cable is therefore included in the load cell
calibration, Figure 9.10.
----
f
I
( A 1
I Signal voltage I I D 4
I
I I I
I I I
I I B 2
I
I Excitation voltage
I I
I I C 3
I
L ______ _J
U
Amplifier
Figure 9-10 Load cell and measuring amplifier using fourwire

technology
The cable length must not be changed since it causes changes in

sensitivity. Temperature effects in the cable are not corrected. Error-free
measurement with a four-wire technology type of measuring amplifier is
only guaranteed if the cable connected to it is the original length.

six-wire technology
Note In order to avoid the possible errors outlined in the previous section and
to simplify load cell operation, measuring amplifiers and load cells have
for many years been produced almost exclusively in sixwire circuit form.
A six-wire circuit ensures greatest accuracy. The principle is shown in

Figure 9 .11.
- - - - - - - - - -7
r-------r7-r- - - -
Measuring leads
_j-u11,�
r-----J-t--------------c=J-------t-t-----+-
I
'
I
'
Excitation voltage
Generator
I
'
R, ->0
«. I
I
n- - '
Comparator Reference
I R, -> oo voltage I
''
'
'--- J Sense leads ----1y TTFii/1/er
�----------------
_J
Figure 9-11 Load cell and measuring amplifier using six-wire
technology
In contrast to the basic minimum wiring of a Wheatstone bridge

(four-wire technology), in a six-wire circuit two sense leads take off the
actual value of the excitation voltage at the load cell. Any voltage drop is
fed back via the sense leads to the measurement electronics
(high-impedance inputs) and as a result the excitation voltage at the
amplifier output is adjusted until the desired excitation voltage is again
present on the strain gauge load cell.
This has several advantages:

■ All changes in cable resistance, for example due to temperature
fluctuations or cable lengthening/shortening, are continuously and
automatically corrected even during measurement
■ Excitation voltage losses due to line resistance are corrected

■ When calibrating with the aid of a calibration instrument the cable
no longer needs to be included in the procedure. This means the
calibration instrument can be connected directly to the measuring
amplifier.
9.5.4 Load cells with four-wire technology and

measuring amplifier for six-wire technology
A load cell calibrated in a four-wire circuit can also be connected to a

six-wire technology type of amplifier. The transducer cable should then
be kept as close as possible to the load cell, for instance wound round in
a ring. On no account must it be shortened, since this would falsify the
calibration. Cable resistance must be included in the load cell calibration.
----
"I 0 1
I Signal voltage I I D 4
I
I I I
I I I
I I B 2
I I
I Excitation voltage
I
I I C 3
I
Lt
u F 3
G 2'
Amplifier
-----
Figure 9-12 Connecting four-wire load cells to a six-wire measuring

amplifier
The feedback leads for the six-wire amplifier must be connected without
fail. This can be done directly on the amplifier in the form of a bridge, as
shown in Figure 9 .12, or if cables have to be lengthened using six-wire
cable, then it would be more sensible to do this at the transition from

six-wire circuit to four-wire circuit on the termination point.
9.5.5 Load cell with six-wire technology and

measuring amplifier for four-wire technology
A load cell that has been calibrated in a six-wire circuit cannot be

connected to a measuring amplifier using four-wire technology without
incurring an additional error fraction. In this situation it is advisable to
work with the shortest possible cable.
When connecting to the amplifier, the transducer wires for the excitation
voltage and the associated sense lead (in HBM devices typically
blue-green and black-grey) should be joined together. The load cell then
takes on four-wire characteristics. In the main, the aspects covered under
Point 9.5.2 are also applicable here.
9.5.6 Connecting load cells in parallel
In the explanations concerning the mechanical structure of weighing

equipment it has already become clear that several load cells are often
required. As a rule they are connected and operated in parallel.
Based on the high standard of manufacture and the very narrow

tolerances of the metrological parameters in HBM load cells, the basic
prerequisites for correctly functioning parallel connection are given
below.
Several load cells of the same kind connected in parallel then have a
standardised sensitivity of 2mV/V at total cumulative load.
Caution In the event of uneven load distribution, an individual load cell must not
be loaded above maximum capacity. Overloading of individual load cells
cannot be detected in the output signal.
Load cells are electrically connected in parallel by joining the wires of

the same colour in the connection cable. For connection purposes HBM
has not only a standard connection box (VKK 2) but also a connection
box for the explosion-proof Ex-range (VKE) in its product programme.

The cables between the load cells and the connection box should be the
same length.
Note Further information can be found in the Operating Manual for the VKK 2
and VKE.
9.6 Replacing load cells

Depending on the in-house requirements for measurement accuracy and
tolerances, HBM load cells of the same type can be replaced without any
problem. In certain cases recalibration of the weighing equipment is
unavoidable. For further information see Sections 11.3.3 and 11.6.
Electrical engineering
protection measures
10.1 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
With background electromagnetic loading increasing year by year, it is

more vital than ever to ensure that weighing equipment is immune from
interference. Possible sources of interference include radio sets, mobile
telephones, magnetic valves, contactors, relays, welding equipment,
soldering equipment, power lines, etc.
All these sources of interference cause electromagnetic fields that

inductively or capacitively set up interference voltages in a measuring
circuit via the connector cable and instrument enclosure, possibly
interfering with the functioning of the instrument concerned. On the
other hand the instruments themselves may transmit interference.
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC(⇒)), which refers both to the

requirement for immunity from electromagnetic interference (=») and to
permissible electromagnetic interference (EMI (⇒)), will continue to
grow in importance as time goes on.
10-106 Electrical engineering protection measures
Protection from such interference carries even more weight in view of

continual demands for greater measurement signal resolution.
EMC problems reveal themselves in practice through such errors as

fluctuating data values, unexplained triggering of limit switches,
incorrect measurements --even on occasions resulting in the destruction
of the measuring instrument.
Implementing effective EMC measures means considering the

measurement chain, consisting of load cell, cable, connection box,
measuring amplifier and/or analysis device, as a complete entity.
10.1.2 HBM shielding design
The cable shielding is formed in such a way that the measuring system
itself is completely enclosed in a Faraday cage. The cable shield is fitted
smoothly onto the load cell enclosure and extends over the connector
housing to the amplifier enclosure. These measures reduce the effects of
electromagnetic interference to an absolute minimum.
Load cell Greenline connector Amplifier
GRD GRD
Transducer connection cable Extension cable, 6--wire
GRD = Ground pin
Figure 10-1 Load cell, transducer connection cable, extension cable,

measuring amplifier
The CE mark (=») is used to label new electrical components as

EMC-compliant. Measuring instruments carrying the CE mark are
continually checked in accordance with the applicable guidelines in
HBM's testing laboratory for EMC and safety engineering accredited by
the German institute DAE (Deutsche Akkreditierungsanstalt

Elektrotechnik). Since load cells and connecting elements are passive
components which are not in themselves covered by the EMC guidelines,
all standard products interconnected with analysis devices are subject to
EMC testing in accordance with European standard EN 45501 for weigh
balances. These passive components therefore carry a note about this EN.
In this way
HBM load cells interconnected with connecting elements and measuring

amplifiers or analysis devices are protected against electromagnetic
interference in accordance with Guideline IEC 801 Part 1-6,
Environmental Class 2 (Immunity from Electromagnetic Interference),
and in accordance with Guideline VDE 871, Limit Value Class B,
transmit no electromagnetic interference (EMI) in their own right.
For effective EMC protection, Figure 9.15, the following points are
therefore important:
■ All parts of the measurement chain must be surrounded by a closed,
EMC-compliant shielding
■ All shield transitions must have an extended, closed connection
■ The shield must not at any point go inside a device or instrument
■ Signal ground, earth and shield must be completely separate
■ When there are differences of potential in the measurement system, a
potential equalisation line must be fitted. Standard value: highly
flexible stranded wire, line cross-section 10mm
■ Make sure the neutral conductor for the operating voltage is not
earthed in downstream devices
■ Strong network interference must be reduced with the aid of filters
connected on line side; circuits for measuring instruments and
energised equipment such as contactors, thyristor controls, etc.
should be as widely separated as possible
■ Never lay measurement cables alongside power cables. Minimum
separation should be 50 cm. Even with this gap it is still advisable to
ensure that measurement cables are shielded against magnetic fields,
for instance by laying them in steel conduits
Note By using HBM load cells that comply with the HBM shieiding design,
together with distribution boxes VKK2-6 or VKK1 -4, EMC-compliant
applications can be produced that extend all the way to the measuring
amplifier.
Load cell
Greenline connector
GRD
a
GRD
PE
GRD = Ground pin

PE Potential equalisation line
Figure 10-2 EMC protection on a measurement chain using an

ancillary potential equalisation line
10.1.3 Grounding and earth connections
There are certain exceptional cases of grounding and earth connections

that are not covered by EN 45501. Since in the case of EMC-compliant
wiring the signal ground and shield are separate, the shield can be
connected to earth at more than one point, for instance through the load
cell (metal enclosure) and the amplifier (its enclosure is connected to the
protection circuit).
To prevent adverse effects, the signal ground and earth or shield in HBM
devices are kept separate. If there is still a 50-Hz hum despite this, it is
advisable to ensure that devices or load cells are isolated as far as
possible and that the measurement chain is earthed at one point only.
If necessary it is also possible to create a galvanic connection between

the shield and the measurement ground with the aid of a suitable switch
at the rear of the device. A connection of this kind may alleviate
interference from hum in these rare cases.
It is also essential, contrary to what is often observed, never to make an

earth connection to a heating radiator, water pipe or similar. Quite apart
from the fact that nowadays many plumbing systems are made of plastic
rather than metal, if a metallic conductor is connected in this way it
usually acts as an "antenna" for picking up additional interference. It is
better to use the network protection circuit or a separate earth potential
lead of the kind also used in buildings for potential equalisation.
10.1.4 Summary
Unfortunately there is no general solution for EMC problems. Each case

must be treated according to the individual circumstances. However, an
EMC-compliant system of connection considerably reduces the
likelihood of problems.
10.2 Explosion protection
10.2.1 General notes on the construction regulations
Additional protection measures need to be taken in order to avoid an

explosion when operating electrical devices in areas where explosion is
actually a risk. These are subject to the legal and administrative
requirements of each country. Table 10.1 gives a summary overview of
the construction regulations currently applicable in certain countries.
Country Construction regulations

A OVE 165
B ARAB, AREi (Articles 105 to 113)
CDN CSA Std. C22.1 and C 22.5
CH SEV1015
D DIN VDE 0165
F NFC 12-300/320
GB BS 5345: Part 4: 1997
s SEN 2108 .. ().69}
USA ANSI/ISA-rp 12.6-1987 /NEC 504-11...NEC 504-50
Table 1 Overview of the construction regulations currently
applicable in certain countries.
10.2.2 Division into areas
The measures for avoiding an explosion must be graded in accordance

with the likelihood of an explosive atmosphere occurring. For this
purpose DIN VDE 0165 sets out a number of different areas:
1. In the event of flammable gases, vapours or mists:

• Area O covers locations in which a dangerous, explosive atmosphere
is present on a permanent or long-term basis.
• Area 1 covers locations in which it is likely that a dangerous,
explosive atmosphere will occur occasionally.
■ Area 2 covers locations in which it is likely that a dangerous,
explosive atmosphere will occur only rarely and then only briefly.
2. In the event of flammable dust:

■ Area 10 covers locations in which a dangerous, explosive
atmosphere is present on a long-term or frequent basis.
■ Area 11 covers locations in which it is likely that a dangerous,
explosive atmosphere will occur occasionally but briefly as a result
of stirring up dust deposits.
Which area is applicable has to be judged in each individual case. Help

on this subject can be found in the comprehensive collection of examples
concerning Ex- RL. [1].
10.2.3 Division of electrical equipment into groups

and temperature classes
In the same way that the likely build-up of an explosive atmosphere is

taken into consideration, so the flammability of an explosive material
due to sparks and temperature is used as the basis for grading protection
measures against the risk of fire. For this purpose temperature classes
and explosion classes are defined.
Division into groups:
Group I : electrical equipment for mine workings at risk from fire-damp
Group II: electrical equipment for all areas where there is a risk of
explosion, other than mine workings at risk from fire-damp
A further sub-division of Group II lettered A to C is necessary for

protection types Intrinsic Safety "i" and Pressure-Resistant Encapsulation
"d" in accordance with Minimum Ignition Characteristics or Resistance
to Ignition. Group II C is the group with the most stringent requirements
and covers all gases.
Division by temperature:
If the surface temperature of an item of equipment reaches the ignition

temperature of the surrounding flammable atmosphere, ignition can
occur. For this reason equipment in Group II is divided into temperature

classes.
Temperature classes are applicable to a temperature range from 20°C to

40°C about which no other information is specified.
Temperature class: Maximum surface temperature

T1 450° C
T2 300° C
T3 200° C
T4 135° C
T5 100° C
T6 85°C
Table 2 Division by temperature classes
Temperature class T4 is the most economically significant group and

applies to all gases with one or two exceptions.
Which particular explosion class and temperature class applies to any

given flammable gas or vapour can be found from the tables contained in
the German-language publication "Safety engineering classification
indexes for flammable gases and vapours" by Nabert / Schon [8]. An
extract can be found in Appendix A of DIN VDE 0105 [3].
Most of the standard load cells in the product range available from HBM
W~getechnik GmbI meet the conditions for construction in Area 2 and
Area 11. A manufacturer's certificate to this effect can be requested.
In Area 1 it is only permissible to use devices that have been tested and
certified by a European testing centre. They must be constructed in
accordance with one of the harmonised Ignition Protection Systems
described in standards EN 50015 to EN 50028, which shall be deemed to
be of equal standard.
The following explanations are restricted to the Ignition Protection

Systems used on the HBM product range, namely Intrinsic Safety "i",
Pressure-Resistant Encapsulation "d" and Enhanced Safety "e".
10.2.4 Intrinsic Safety "i"
This Ignition Protection System is the most commonly used degree of

protection in the field of process measurement and control. It uses the
fact that only low-level currents and voltages are used.
Any connection from an area where there is a risk of explosion to a

non-Ex area shall only be carried out using suitable electrical equipment.
Principally this means Zener barriers, but can include amplifiers with an
intrinsically safe output. The Ex-designation of these associated devices
is shown within square brackets [ ] .
Zener barriers limit the voltage present in the circuit with the aid of
redundant Zener diodes. If the Zener voltage is exceeded in the event of a
fault, a safety fuse connected on line side blows and cuts off the circuit.
The current circulating in the circuit is limited by a resistance. This

resistance must be added to the resistance of the connection cable. It
causes a noticeable reduction in sensitivity when one or more load cells
are connected. However, modern amplifiers can compensate for this
voltage drop when load cells are connected in six-wire technology or by
correcting the excitation voltage. Even so, in the case of degree of
protection Intrinsic Safety "i" it should generally be assumed that there
will be reduced sensitivity and therefore some loss of accuracy. It is
important to comply with the manufacturer's specifications regarding the
maximum permissible cable resistance.
In general it is true that in the Ex-range there must be good potential

equalisation present. When Zener barriers are used, these must be
included in the potential equalisation.
10--114 Electrical engineering protection measures
The Intrinsic Safety type of protection relies on limiting the power in an

intrinsically safe circuit. The following conditions must be met:
Associated electrical equipment, Intrinsically safe electrical equipment,

such as Zener barrier: such as load cell and cable:
Maximum possible voltage U < U Maximum permissible voltage
Maximum possible current lo < Ii Maximum permissible current
Maximum possible power P% < P Maximum permissible power
Connectable inductance lo 2> Lr Maximum internal inductance'
Connectable capacitance Co 2 c, Maximum internal capacitance'
1 The capacitance and inductance of the cable must always be taken into account.
Table 3 Conditions for the Intrinsic Safety type of protection
These specifications are on the identification plate or in the Certificate of

Conformity.
Intrinsically safe circuits must be kept separate from non-intrinsically

safe circuits on installation. Intrinsically safe circuits must be identified
by a label or coloured light blue.
10.2.5 Pressure-Resistant Encapsulation "d"
With this Ignition Protection System, the parts that could ignite an
explosive atmosphere are housed in an enclosure. This enclosure is so
solidly constructed that it can even withstand the pressure of an internal
explosion and prevent spreading it to the surrounding atmosphere. If the
enclosure is not gas-tight, any gaps that are present must be dimensioned
to standard EN 50018. They must not be altered, since in the event of an
internal explosion their surfaces are required to cool the hot gas as it
leaves. The gaps must without fail be periodically checked for deposits
or rust at regular intervals.
HBM supplies a wide range of load cells for this degree of protection
also. An advantage compared to Intrinsic Safety "i" is that there is no
reduction in accuracy, which is especially important for verifiable
applications.
10.2.6 Enhanced Safety "e"

Equipment in Ignition Protection System "Pressure-Resistant
Encapsulation" must be interconnected with the aid of connection boxes
in Ignition Protection System "Enhanced Safety". These connection
boxes are distinguished by their large air gaps and leakage paths. Their
terminals are protected from corning undone, enabling the incoming lines
to be fastened securely. Certain minimum cross-sections must be
respected.
10.2.7 List of references on explosion protection
The topic of explosion protection often makes it necessary to consult

more detailed literature. The following list of references contains a
selection of important publications on the subject and is intended to
simplify the search.
[1] Draft standard EN 1127-1
[2] EN 60079-14, 1997 Electrical equipment for areas at risk from gas
explosion Part 14: Electrical equipment in areas where there is a risk
of explosion (except mine workings)
[3] DIN VDE 0165/ 2.91 Electric equipment constructed in areas where
there is a risk of explosion
[4] DIN EN 50014 , VDE 01700/0171 Part 1 Electrical equipment for
areas where there is a risk of explosion, General Provisions
[5] DIN EN 50018, VDE 0170/0171 Part 5 Electrical equipment for
areas where there is a risk of explosion, Pressure-Resistant
Encapsulation "d"
[6] DIN EN 50019, VDE 0170/0171 Part 6 Electrical equipment for
areas where there is a risk of explosion, Enhanced Safety "e"
[7] DIN EN 50020 , VDE 0170/0171 Part 7 Electrical equipment for
areas where there is a risk of explosion, Intrinsic Safety "i"
[8] "Safety engineering classification indexes for flammable gases and
vapours" by Nabert / Schon, 2nd, expanded edition, Berlin 1963 ,
with 5th supplement
[9] Jeiter / Notlichs: Explosion Protection Comment on Ex VO and
Elex V, Erich Schmidt Verlag
10--116 Electrical engineering protection measures
10.3 Lightning protection
Thunder clouds store huge charges which generate electrical fields above
the ground and even one above the other. When this power is suddenly
discharged to ground we call it a lightning stroke. Throughout the world,
lightning strikes the earth about 100 times every second. Lightning is one
of the most powerful sources of interference. Discharges are in the
megavolt range accompanied by currents of over 100 kiloamps.
In the main there are two pathways by which lightning can affect
weighing technology systems:
■ A direct hit on the installation concerned, together with extremely
high currents accompanied by severe overvoltage
■ Strongly fluctuating magnetic fields in the neighbourhood of the
lightning stroke, caused by the great and rapidly changing strength of
the discharge current.
These changing magnetic fields can induce strong currents and voltages
in the conducting loops of any nearby weighing equipment. In
unfavourable conditions severe overvoltage can occur, even despite the
presence of built-in overvoltage protection equipment. Most of the
damage occasioned to weighing technology systems can be traced back
to this form of lightning effect.
The sort of effects that can occur range from one-off disruption to a
particular function up to and including the destruction of weighing
technology components such as strain gauge load cells, balancing
resistors and electronic switching circuits.
10.3.2 Protection measures
"External measures" to ward off a direct lightning strike must be taken in

order to prevent large-scale damage to buildings from fire or mechanical
destruction. DIN VDE 0185 mentions everything that should be fitted on
the outside of a building to intercept lightning and conduct it to earth.
Potential equalisation for protection against lightning
"Internal measures" to protect against the electromagnetic effects of

lightning current inside an installation must be taken in order to render
such effects harmless. Emphasis should be given to potential equalisation
as a protection against lightning, in order to reduce the large potential
differences caused by lightning current.
For effective protection against lightning, all incoming and outgoing

lines on an installation must be included in any such potential
equalisation scheme. This must also include all the lines used for
measurement technology.
HBM shielding design
The HBM shielding design offers a further contribution to effective

lightning protection. The shielding on HBM connection cables is fitted
smoothly to the connections in both directions between the electronics
and the load cell. It largely prevents dangerous potential differences
between individual components due to the effects of induction caused by
an indirect lightning stroke.
Calibrating weighing
devices
11.1 Some important aspects

For the electrical measurement of mechanical quantities, not least of all
mass, a measurement chain is constructed using a load cell, an amplifier
together with a generator, and a display or analysis device. In order to
carry out measurements with this configuration, certain indispensable
procedures must be followed in connection with setting up and balancing
the system.
These include the calibration (=») and recalibration (=») of weighing

equipment, and these procedures are important components in the
successful implementation of a measurement chain. The process begins
with adapting the measuring amplifier and load cell by choosing the
appropriate operating mode, which is usually full bridge circuit;
continues with setting the excitation voltage, zero balancing and/or
taring; and ends with setting up a display indicator with figures in the
appropriate range for the quantity being measured.
11--120 Calibrating weighing devices
For the sake of clarity here is a brief explanation of the terms involved:
Adjustment or balancing (=)
Adjustment includes setting up a measurement chain (i.e. the weighing

device as a whole) in such a way that any measuring deviation is kept to
a minimum. That is, the procedure permanently changes the behaviour
of the measurement chain. In the main, such adjustments are made to the
measuring amplifier or the weighing electronics. This procedure is often
referred to somewhat inaccurately as calibration.
Setting (=)
When balancing a measurement chain the characteristic curve of the

measuring amplifier/ weighing electronics is altered so that the result of
a suitable, whole-number multiple of the physical quantity is displayed.
Example: load cell for 5 Kg maximum capacity -» display 5000 at

maximum capacity.
Calibration or calibrate (=)
Calibration means determining the measuring deviations in an instrument

(weighing device) without changing the settings of the measurement
chain as a whole. Calibration by comparing with "standard devices" that
are known to be more accurate is also sometimes called "Connection".
Verification (=)
Verification includes the official determination and documentation of a

deviation in the measurement result of a weighing device from the true
value. It covers the tests / calibration procedure that have to be carried
out in accordance with verification regulations by a named organisation
(a Weights and Measures Inspectorate or authorised manufacturer). If the
weighing device complies with the regulations, the official procedure
also determines a period within which the device can be expected to

function reliably with the stated accuracy.
11.2 Balancing
In most case, the first step is to carry out a zero balance. Zero balancing
arises from the requirement that when the transducer (i.e. load cell) is not
under load, that is to say when it is static and unladen, the display should
also read zero. This is achieved by adjusting zero balance or using the
"Zero balance" function to bring about a parallel shift in the
characteristic curve of the amplifier.
;
2
ccU
2
U
5
0
5 0
0
Zero point
adjustment
�
Original
characteristic
curve
Input quantity J
Figure 11-1 Parallel shift in characteristic curve during zero balance
The characteristic curve of an amplifier is a graphic representation of the

coherence between the input voltage and the output voltage:
UA = f (UE)
11-122 Calibrating weighing devices
After zero balancing the characteristic curve passes through the zero
point. The display required at maximum capacity can be set up by
changing the slope of this line.
Changing the amplification refers to an actual adjustment of the

amplifier. Both these steps together, zero balance and adjustment, are
known as balancing the measurement chain.
t
Display
5000
Original
characteristic
curve
0 5kg
Input quantity J
Figure 11-2 Changing the slope of the characteristic curve during

adjustment
There are three main ways in which balancing can be carried out for the
various combinations of load cells and devices:
• By simulating a signal on a load cell
• By loading one, several or all load cells with a "real" load
• By making use of special circuits and calibration signals
Not every one of these methods is possible or usable in practice for every
combination of equipment. It is advisable to balance load cells and other
devices with real loads (weights, water, etc.) whenever possible. It is also
advisable to check the balancing once completed, in order be sure of
correctly installed load cells.
11.2.1 Balancing by direct loading
In principle, positioning defined loads is the best method to use for

balancing, but sometimes it is just not practical. In fact one of the
commonest reasons for not using this method is because it is
unnecessarily accurate; the effort involved in preparing high-precision
weights is very cost-intensive. On the other hand, in the case of balances
that require verification against official specifications, this is the
prescribed form of calibration.
During calibration a balance is loaded with reference weights. The total

weight added should amount to the maximum capacity and/or operating
point of the balance.
In the final analysis the accuracy of this calibration method is determined

by the precision of the reference weights. Filled and weighed sandbags,
or water that has been metered through a sufficiently accurate measuring
device, are deemed to be suitable in practice. Adding or removing small
weights of the order of 0.1 % of maximum capacity must be registered
free of hysteresis. If this is not the case, the device must be checked for
friction bypasses.
Sequence:
1. Zero balance
2. Introduction of a known load in/on the weighing device following
zero balance
3. Set up the measuring amplifier/weighing electronics on the
appropriate display
Although this balancing method appears very simple at first glance,

unfortunately it cannot always be used in practice because:
■ A suitable load has to be available, which may be problematical in
the case of a very high-capacity device such as a 100 t load cell
■ Calibration accuracy is dependent on the precision of the reference
weights used. The "high precision" requirement in particular cannot
be met in practice without a correspondingly great effort. For this
reason load cells are calibrated by the manufacturer with the aid of
high-precision test equipment. The test report for the load cell
concerned includes its deviations from the ideal value.
However, if balancing can in fact be carried out using direct loading, this
represents a decisive advantage for the user: all interference effects and
errors due to the force introduction or adjustment of the load cell in
question are ascertained.
Amplifier
5kg
Figure 11-3 Balancing by direct loading
Example: Carry out zero balance, introduce 5 kg load, set display to 5000
Practical tips:
Note This form of "field calibration" in which known loads are introduced not
only offers significant advantages over other methods, but in many cases
is actually the method prescribed.
Available discrete loads can be used to determine the number of

measurement points, and introducing a load will provide a comparison of
target versus actual in numerical or graphical form. If the device exhibits
no characteristic curve compensation, the full-scale value displayed at
100% loading can be set up absolutely before or after the end value
taking into consideration the "best pass" behaviour of the characteristic
curve.
A special case arises when calibrating silos or other containers with high
storage capacity, if insufficient calibration weights are available or the
load-carrying surface is too small for the maximum calibration load. In
cases such as these, staggered loading should be carried out:
1. Load the device with weights of known mass

- record the measurement results
- remove the weight
2. Fill the container with an equivalent mass, usually of fill material,
until the display value noted for point 1. is reached
3. Put back the weights in addition to the fill
- record the measurement result
- remove the weight
4. Fill the container with an equivalent mass until the display value
noted for point 3. is reached
5. Repeat procedures 1. and 2. until maximum capacity is reached
Once the maximum capacity has been determined, the characteristic

curve can be corrected by readjusting the measuring range.
11.2.2 Balancing with the aid of a calibration

instrument
Balancing with the aid of a calibration instrument is the most frequently

used method in practice and also achieves the best results. Calibration
instruments with error rates of less than 0.2% to 0.0005% are currently
state-of-the-art. Combining load cell calibration with the data and/or
report obtained in the course of calibration enables high-grade
measurement chains to be constructed.
A calibration instrument used in place of a load cell can generate and set
up defined signals. These signals simulate the strain gauge
misalignments that occur in a load cell or in several load cell circuits as a
result of a defined loading. The circuitry of a simple calibration
instrument uses the principle of the shunt resistor to generate various
whole-number bridge misalignments.
Since these misalignments occur in a built-in Wheatstone bridge circuit,

the calibration instrument is connected in place of the usual load cell.
On the other hand, since there may be a difference between the zero
signal from the calibration instrument and that produced by the load cell,
the zero point of the calibration instrument must first be balanced. Then a
defined signal/ S.G. bridge misalignment is generated and the measuring
amplifier is adjusted.
At its simplest, balancing can be carried out for load cells with
standardised sensitivity (Example 1), but there are no problems
associated with arbitrary characteristic values either (Example 2). With
all load cells, nominal sensitivity has a tolerance that is dependent on the
quality of the load cell itself. If a higher level of calibration accuracy is
required, the precise sensitivity must be found from the test report for the
load cell concerned.
At HBM, the mature technology for manufacturing load cells enables

load cells of the same type to be manufactured with such a high degree of
repeatability in their metrological properties that a wide range of load
cell types can even be supplied without a test report. In such cases the
sensitivity information can be obtained from the data sheet or operator
instructions.
► Example 1:
Load cell Z6FC3 / 100 kg = 2 m V / V, calibration signal 2 m V / V
-» Adjust indicator to 100.00
► Example 2:
Load cell HLCAC3 / 550 kg= 1.94 mV/V, calibration signal 2 mV/V
- Conversion 550kg:
1.94 mV / V = X kg: 2mV / V ➔ X = 567.01 kg
-» Adjust indicator to 567.01
Using a calibration instrument for balancing:
1. Connect a calibration instrument instead of the usual strain gauge

load cell(s)
2. Carry out zero point balancing
3. Set up a misalignment
4. Adjust the indicator to the appropriate value
5. If possible, use the calibration instrument to run through the
characteristic curve in, say, 10% steps and check the display values
6. Connect the strain gauge load cell and balance the zero point once
more.
11.2.3 Balancing with the aid of the calibration signal

built into the instrument
Many measuring amplifiers provide the option to generate a standardised

internal signal, such as 1 mV /V, at the amplifier input. This may be done
either as an addition to the existing measurement signal or by reference
to zero point, or may even be converted into another defined measuring

range. Two points are important in this connection:
- Cable effects are not taken into account in any way
- Except with processor-driven amplifiers, the accuracy of the
calibration signal is usually not particularly high, at best 0.1 %, and
even up to 1 %.
Two important conclusions follow from this:

-- When the cables are fairly long this method can only be used in
conjunction with a six-wire circuit
- In practice the signal can often only be used for checking the
amplifier. Following calibration, the internal calibration signal is
used to generate a misalignment of the amplifier and a note is made
of its value. Provided this value does not change when the procedure
is repeated, it means the measuring instrument settings are also
unchanged.
Balancing is carried out in the same way as when using a calibration

instrument: generate a misalignment and set up the display accordingly.
Note In the case of load cells connected in parallel in four-wire technology,

cable resistance must be taken into account.
When calibrating with the aid of a calibration instrument or calibration

signal built into the instrument, force bypasses or incorrect loading such
as lateral forces on the load cell are ignored.
11.3 Cable effects during balancing
11.3.1 Cable resistance
The following points are very closely connected with Sections 9.5.2 and
9.5.3, and are restricted mainly to load cells in four-wire technology.
Resistance in the supply lead causes a voltage drop. The extent of the
loss depends on the cable resistance which is itself a product of the
length and cross-section of the cable. Consequently the load cell or

calibration instrument receives a lower voltage than that supplied by the
generator. However, since the measurement signal input of the amplifier
is high-impedance, a voltage drop occurs in the supply lead only,
Figure 9.12.
► Example 3:
Calibration instrument = 350 Q with a calibration signal of 2 mV / V,

- Amplifier balancing with the directly connected calibration
instrument to a display of 1000 at 2 m V / V
-» Using 50-metre long cable 2 x 2 x 0.14mm2 between amplifier and
calibration instrument
-» Display shows only 965 for equivalent misalignment at 2m V / V
11.3.2 Temperature dependent cable resistance
Cable resistance is not a constant quantity, but changes with temperature

a= 0.004/K. This means that the electrical resistance of the cable rises
with increasing temperature.
Interference due to temperature effects are therefore not covered by

simple calibration. However, the effect can be estimated by calculation;
if too great it can be totally eliminated by the use of suitable circuits,
such as a six-wire circuit.
► Example 4:
50-metre cable 2 x 2 x 0.14 mm, bridge resistance 350 Q temperature

range -10 °C ... +40 °C
The change in cable resistance ARk is calculated as

AR, = 12,50·0,004,}· 50
AR, =2,50
This means that the change in temperature-dependent loss exceeds 0.6%.

This interference effect is not at all acceptable when load cells with
cumulative errors of 0.1 % or less are in use. Quite large temperature
fluctuations and cables on the long side make high-precision
measurements impossible with this type of circuitry. Yet again, six-wire
technology is the only remedy.
11.3.3 Intrinsic resistance when load cells are

connected in parallel
Sometime data cannot successfully be captured from equipment for

weighing technology applications by using just one load cell. It is then
quite common to connect several load cells in parallel, perhaps as many
as three or four, and display the combined signal on the amplifier or
weighing electronics.
z
Ql
E
2
%%
u .£
o
c
5
(/)
cU
Ql
E
w ] (rd t
}«i)
· i [) 'lb
•
] ·I :l ! w- l
l.2'.ansducer
cable Connection box
_I
Extension cable _ _J _]
Figure 11-4 Connecting load cells in parallel
By the laws of physics, strain gauge load cells are treated as electrical
resistors (R).
In accordance with Equation 11.1, total resistance Re due to parallel

connection is derived as follows:
R = l Equation 11.1
sos ! ; !4 4!
R, , ... R,
► Example 5:
If 3 load cells are connected in parallel with 350 Q bridge resistance

each, the resulting intrinsic resistance can be derived in accordance with
equation 11.1 as follows:
1
R,=,=116,670
3 . 350
If a calibration instrument with 350 Q is used for calibration instead of

the 3 load cells connected in parallel, then in the case of a 50-metre
connection cable 2 x 2 x 0.14 mm? to the analysis electronics, the
resulting display signal is increased by some 6%.
This is due to the fact that the "high" 350 O resistance according to
I= ub
R,
produces a small current flow and therefore a small loss. If the load cells
connected in parallel are then reconnected following calibration, the
intrinsic resistance is lower. Whereas the current strength and signal loss
increase, the display in fact operates incorrectly. As a result the indicator
is no longer in agreement because the values it displays are too low. In
such cases it is advisable to use a calibration instrument with 120 Q.
11.3.4 Cable variants
The voltage drop in the supply lead gives rise to a loss, the extent of
which is dependent not only on the cable resistance/ length and
cross-section, but also on the size of the current flowing through the
cable. The strength of the current is a function of load resistance and
depends whether just one load cell is used or several.
Extension cables must be the shielded, low-capacitance type. If the load

cell has already been fitted with a fairly long cable in the factory, this
will already have been fully calibrated. When using cable extensions,
ensure that the connection is perfect, with the lowest possible contact
resistance and good insulation. HBM cables and plug connectors comply
with these requirements.
If special damp-proofing is also required, this could be achieved by using

a KVM cable joint sleeve with soldered connections inside a moulded
seal, or a VKK2 cable connection box with screwed connections inside a
diecast enclosure.
Six-wire circuits are used in order to compensate for the effects of

temperature-dependent resistance arising from long cables.
If on the other hand four-wire cable is lengthened, the whole

measurement chain must be recalibrated. In this event, temperature
effects in the extension cable are not corrected.
11.4 Balancing digital amplifiers

These devices have their own "intrinsic intelligence" and offer a number
of advantages for calibration:
■ The usual six-wire circuit con-ects all cable effects, whether for
DC-voltage amplifiers (=») or for carrier-frequency amplifiers (=»)
■ Autocalibration regularly checks for correct functioning and
monitors the balance of the analogue components in the amplifier
• Balancing is considerably simplified in view of the facility to input
the required "characteristic curve", i.e. the zero point and end value
or measuring range
The difference between the end value and the measuring range is
enormously important. Whether balancing can or indeed must be carried
out is dependent on which type of adjustment is possible.
Balancing changes the characteristic curve of an amplifier. The

characteristic curve itself is a straight line unambiguously defined by
either two points or one point and the slope.
If the amplifier expects two points to be input, the zero point must be set
up first followed by the end value or one other value on the characteristic
curve. However, if a measuring range can be set up on the digital display
of the measuring instrument, the set-up sequence is unimportant and
independent of the zero point. For instance the measuring range of 2
m VN can be adjusted first, and the zero point second. In this case,
changing the zero point has no effect on the either the characteristic
curve or the output signal.
Conventional analogue amplifiers do not work this way, unless the zero
signal from the load cell is suppressed for calibration purposes.
11.5 Summary
Depending on the instrument and the load cell, different methods can be
used for balancing a measurement chain.
In general the procedure is either:

1. Select the bridge type and excitation voltage
2. Balance the zero point
3. Generate a misalignment on the load cell without the aid of a
six-wire circuit, or at the point of installation with the aid of a
calibration signal
4. Set up the associated display value
or, if using a six-wire circuit:
1. Select the bridge type and excitation voltage
2. Set up the required display value
3. Set up the zero point and end value or the zero point and measuring
range on the amplifier.
The calibration signal required for a misalignment should be approx.

50% to 100% of the nominal signal or measurement signal. The
following points are intended to answer the question how best to set up
the display with figures in the appropriate range:
• Excitation voltage as high as possible in order to obtain the best
possible signal/noise ratio
Caution Comply with the maximum permissible value for the excitation voltage as
shown on the data sheet; too high an excitation voltage leads to
increased local heating and possibly to measurement errors or damage
to the strain gauge application
• Output voltage from the measuring amplifier as high as possible,

measuring range selector switch on the smallest possible measuring
range enabling the amplifier to be fully controlled
• Finally switch the display adjustment so that for a load cell with say
5 kg, the value 5000 will appear in the display at maximum capacity.
Deviations from this can be helpful if is intended simultaneously to

display the analogue signal from the measuring amplifier on a plotter or
to reprocess the signal in a PLC: in either event it is then advisable to set
the display to 10.000, in order to read off the output voltage in V / 10 V
or percent/ 10.000 = 100% directly.
11.6 Replacing load cells - recalibration

Manufacturer-defined specifications simplify the recalibration of
weighing equipment appreciably. One or more load cells of the same
type can be replaced without any problem if they have identical
metrological properties.
► The following applies to weigh balances not requiring

verification against official specifications:
Replacing a defective load cell does not require the measuring

amplifier/weighing electronics to be rebalanced since the sensitivity of
the replacement will have been balanced in the factory, provided the load
cell used is the same type with identical technical data and the same
maximum capacity, sensitivity, accuracy class, etc.
However, if the measurement chain was balanced by positioning weights,

this type of balancing procedure will have to be repeated when load cells
have been replaced. If corner correction was carried out in the case of
balances with load cells connected in parallel, then similarly this corner
correction procedure will have to be carried out again in full.
► The following applies to weigh balances requiring verifi-

cation against official specifications:
Balances requiring verification must always be recalibrated and

re-accepted when load cells have been replaced.
Measurement accuracy and

signal resolution
12.1 Opening remarks

The measurement accuracy of electrical or electromechanical weighing
devices is a combination of the precision of the load cells used, the
structure of the weighing device itself and the conditions under which the
equipment is used. Conditions of use commonly have particularly
significant effects on accuracy, even though they are often impossible to
define exactly. Not least of all in view of this fact, a feature known as the
"minimum division tick value" (=») for load cells was introduced for
weighing devices that require verification against official specifications.
When strain gauge load cells are used for the purpose of finding the mass
of an object, the determining factor is the weighing force. Since the local
acceleration due to gravity forms an intrinsic part of a measurement, very
high levels of accuracy may even require deviations from standard
gravitational acceleration to be taken into account. Weight can be
measured with very great accuracy using strain gauge load cells, the
uncertainty being expressed not as a percentage but in ppm (parts per
million) in extreme cases. For the majority of applications, though, this is
not necessary. The inaccuracy of a standard load cell is significantly less
than 1%.
12--138 Measurement accuracy and signal resolution
The selection criterion for load cells known as the accuracy class (=») is
nowadays only used for load cells incorporated into applications not
requiring verification against official specifications. On the other hand,
load cells approved for use with applications that require verification
against official specifications are increasingly being used for the most
widely differing reasons, even in equipment that does not require such
verification. Of particular importance is the expression Vmin, which
represents the smallest permissible division tick value (minimum
division tick value (=»)) expressing accuracy as a function of maximum
capacity.
The entire measurement chain, consisting of load cells together with the
technical structure such as the load introduction point and all lines in and
out, is subjected to critical testing under load, at which time any errors
present show up when the characteristic curve is displayed. A specialist
can assess the test specimen on the basis of this characteristic curve
display and take corrective measures in good time.
Load cells complete with cable and analysis equipment normally deliver
linear, reproducible measurement results, and any deviations from these
are determined by the tolerances - see HBM data sheets. If any
calibration characteristic exhibits unacceptable deviations, the causes
must be investigated and corrected. These causes almost always turn out
to be mechanical in nature. Friction, force bypasses, tilting,
self-contained stress, distortion, thermal strain and vibration are initial
disturbance variables which must on no account be regarded as constants.
A characteristic curve correction to the output side of the analysis

equipment should only be undertaken with the utmost caution. This even
includes so-called comer errors, which are the result of tilting. In almost
every case the characteristic curve required is the best pass straight line
by reference to the zero point.
12.2 Selected characteristic quantities

The accuracy of load cells and electronic components can be influenced
by a number of variables, and these are listed in the respective data
sheets or operating manuals. The data are normally expressed in
percentage terms by reference to nominal sensitivity or a particular

temperature difference.
Selected characteristic quantities of load cells:

■ Measurement signal resolution
The resolution of a measurement signal is characterised by a static
display, in other words: "the last digit shown within a digital display
is stationary"
■ Repeatability
Repeatability defines the ability of a measuring instrument to deliver
extremely similar values for an output quantity under the following
conditions:
The same observer
A specified method of measurement
A large number of times at short intervals
The same setting of the load cell
■ Reproducibility or comparability
Reproducibility or comparability defines the ability of a measuring
instrument to deliver extremely similar values for an output quantity
under the following conditions:
Different observer and
different trial conditions, measuring instruments, locations, settings,
laboratories, etc.
■ Calibration deviations from output span
■ Deviation from the characteristic curve (non-linearity and
hysteresis)
This is usually known as non-linearity. It characterises the
relationship between measured quantity and measurement signal
when there is deviation from the linear trend in the absence of any
external influence
Temperature effect on zero balance (TK)
Deviation of the measured value for a load cell in no load condition
(zero point) due to temperature effects
a Temperature effect on sensitivity ( TK,)

Deviation of the measured value when the sensitivity, i.e. Youngs
modulus of the load cell material, is influenced by temperature
effects
Creep error
Creep error occurs when the measured value is read off or
reprocessed before the self-readjusting target value is reached
Hysteresis error (hysteresis)
This characterises the difference in the measured value under
increasing and decreasing load
Selected characteristic quantities of the electronics:

• Non-linearity
• Long-term drift
Dependent on the electronic components, with and without
autocalibration
• Temperature effect on zero point and sensitivity
Depending on the device, a distinction should be drawn between the
following:
The effect on the analogue value
The effect on the digital value
The effect on autocalibration
• Operating voltage fluctuations
Effect on zero point and sensitivity
12.3 Influence of equipment configuration and surroundings on

accuracy
Not only the load cells, being the central items, but practically every part
of the weighing equipment has an influence on the accuracy of the
weighing device, including even the method of weighing (static,
intermittent, batched), the number of load cells used, the mechanical
structure and the surroundings of the weighing device, building

vibrations etc.
It should now be obvious why the "accuracy" of a weighing device is

none too easy to define. Given the large number of influences, it can
often only be estimated or expressed in theoretical terms.
The situation is different in the case of verifiable weighing devices

intended for merchandise.
a) Effects due to the number of load cells used
b) The influence of mounting accessories
c) Effects arising from the type of weighing process
Weighing can be carried out in various ways:

■ Static weighing
No relative movement between the weigh goods and the load
introduction point during weighing, as in container weighing, height
of fill monitoring, etc.
■ Dynamic weighing
Relative movement between the weigh goods and the load
introduction point during weighing
There are two different types of dynamic weighing:

■ Continuous weighing
The weight of a continuous stream of weigh goods is determined
without any systematic sub-division, as in the case of a weigh-feeder
belt
• Intermittent weighing (spasmodic weighing)
Each individual weighing involves a fractional quantity which is
complete in itself and separate from the total quantity, as in the case
of weigh-batchers
d) Effects of the constitution of the weigh goods, e.g. liquids, bulk
materials
e) The influence of the mechanical structure
f) The effects of the surroundings and the conditions of use, such as
weather, building vibrations
12.4 Ways of determining the accuracy of a weighing device

a) On the basis of the existing technical data
b) By carrying out electrical calibration
In the main only "part calibration" of the electrical part of the
weighing device.
This ignores the effects of the mechanical structure and
environmental or usage conditions.
c) With the aid of precise reference weights
12.5 Ways of improving the accuracy of a weighing device

For the most part, improvements depend on the technology used in the
weighing process and on the place of installation. If cyclical taring (=») is
available, zero point shifts due to contamination and / or temperature
drift can be continuously corrected. On the other hand, long duration
measurement procedures such as height of fill monitoring are not
possible. However, an improvement can be obtained by using weighing
electronics with autocalibration.
12.6 Measurement signal resolution

There are physical limits on the maximum possible resolution due to the
effects of thermal noise voltage and electron motion. In static signals it
amounts to about 1,000,000 parts. When considered from the geometrical
point of view, this figure can be demonstrated as follows: when a load
cell is at maximum capacity, a strain gauge changes its length by about
0.1 %. Thus if the load changes by one division tick, a standard strain
gauge with a grid length of 3mm changes its length by just3 10 m.
This represents 2% of the diameter of the smallest atom, helium. Little
wonder, therefore, that the motion of atoms and electrons sets a limit to
higher resolution.
However, the resolutions that can be used in practice are decisively

determined by the ambient conditions of the weighing device. An
example illustrates the limits on usable resolution due to spurious effects:
The object is to weigh a 100kg mass to an accuracy of+/- 0.lg I 100mg,

representing a resolution of 1,000,000 parts. The ideal product used is a
very high quality load cell, free of error-producing influences, in
accuracy class 0,02. Straight away a temperature change of lK means an
uncertainty of around +/- 20 parts. In our example this amounts to a
possible error of +/-2g .
Even larger error-producing influences can never be completely

eliminated. So for reasons of practicality it is usual to work with realistic
resolutions of up to 20,000 parts, and even occasionally up to 50,000
parts.
There is no way of escaping the fact that measurement errors must be

analysed in great detail.
It is also important to include the downstream amplifier configuration in

this analysis, for the interrelation between resolution and accuracy class
is also an important factor. HBM has a wide range of suitable products
that can provide a solution.
In the case of applications requiring verification, rules and regulations

such as the Law on Verification(⇒) limit the maximum ppm usable in a
weighing range as a function of the application concerned. Typical of
those used are 1000 parts, 3000 parts and 6000 parts.
The resolution limits of a load cell are determined by:

■ The physical principle of the sensor
■ The noise emanating from the strain gauge resistors
The resolution limits of a measuring amplifier are determined by:

The bandwidth of the amplifier
■ The noise emanating from the input amplifier
■ The digitisation procedure
The resolution limits due to external influences are determined by:

■ Mechanical oscillations, for example due to superstructures on weigh
balances
■ Mains hum and electromagnetic interference fields
Interference effects on load

cells
13.1 Opening remarks

The effect of disturbance variables needs to be taken into consideration
from the earliest stage in the design of weighing equipment. Protecting
load cells from harmful effects later on typically proves to be much more
expensive than taking these matters into account during the planning
phase. Many different interference effects can occur when measuring
with load cells. A number of examples will be given in this chapter,
together with suggested remedial measures.
The attentive reader will notice that some of the points mentioned here
have also been dealt with in previous chapters. However, in view of the
fundamental importance of the subject they will be unhesitatingly
repeated wherever it is appropriate to do so.
13--146 Interference effects on load cells
Radiation effects Mechanical effects
Temperature at Chemical
effects l effects
Figure 13-1 Potential interference effects
Mechanical effects are the most significant.
Chemical effects can impair load cells or strain gauges, perhaps due to
moisture or an attack by corrosive substances. One possible remedy is to
use hermetically-sealed load cells. Additional measures may be needed
to protect a load cell, such as applying a coat of appropriate paint.
Thermal effects that act unevenly upon a load cell can alter the
measurement result. If uneven ambient temperatures cannot be
prevented, load cells must be protected with an insulating jacket.
Gradual, even temperature changes have little or no effect on the
measurement result, since most load cells include a means of
compensating for this kind of temperature variation. In the case of load
cells calibrated in a four-wire circuit, the original cable for the load cell
must have the same temperature as the load cell itself, otherwise
measurement errors will occur. For load cells in a six-wire circuit, the
cable temperature effect is corrected by the electronics in the measuring
instrument.
13.2 Mechanical interference effects
13.2.1 Load introduction
Incorrect force introduction, such as an off-centre or non-axial

introduction, or superimposed interference forces, can falsify
measurement results. If the applied lateral forces or moments exceed
permissible values, the measuring element itself may also be damaged. A
non-axial force can be analysed into a component in the measurement
direction and a lateral component.
Force introduction Force introduction Force introduction

off-centre non-axial not moment-free
Figure 13-2 Incorrect load introduction
Figure 13.3 shows the components and the formulae for calculating
them. From the specified values it can be seen that for an angle of
5 degrees to the measurement direction, some 99.6 % of the load is still
applied, but lateral force constitutes as much as 8.7 % of this total. A
lateral force of this size applied close to maximum capacity is enough to
destroy certain types of load cell. For instance the static lateral load limit
for load cells with column-shaped spring elements can be as low as 10 %
of maximum capacity. Other types may be much less sensitive. For
example most dual-beam spring elements have a relative, static lateral
load limit of between 50 and 200 %.
F
f4 = F ·cos 0
Fg =F·sin o
Figure 13-3 Angled load acting upon load cells
13.2.2 Defective bearing surface
A defective bearing surface can also lead to measurement errors or

destruction of the load cells. Every load cell must stand with its under
surface entirely on the supporting surface if local overloading is to be
avoided. A bearing surface that sags under loading also falsifies the
measurement result.
F F
+
'
d I d
« JR
Bearing surface Bearing surface Bearing surface

too small uneven sagging
Figure 13-4 Defective bearing surfaces

13.2.3 Vibrating load
In the event of a vibrating load, the maximum maintained vibration

bandwidth must be taken into account. Figure 13.5. shows a maintained
vibration between positive and negative maximum capacity that would as
a rule lead to the destruction of the load cell.
Spurious oscillations introduced by the object or substructure usually

present no risk to the load cell if they are relatively small compared to
the load. However, spurious oscillations of this kind can appreciably
interfere with measurement or even make it quite impossible.
Maximum
capacity
'
} Maximum
'\/+capacity
Alternating load Spurious oscillations from Overloading due to

too great object or substructure pulsed forces
Figure 13-5 Dynamic interference effects

13.2.4 Falling mass
It is very common for the effect of a falling mass on one or more load
cells to be underestimated.
► The experiment in the following example makes the situation

clear:
A steel ball (m = 135 g) falls from height h = 30 cm onto the load button
of a load cell (maximum capacity 1000 kg).
The result can be calculated approximately according the formula:

1
mp·g:h=5F's
Where:
mp =0,135kg
g = 9,81! (Acceleration due to gravity)

s
h = 0.3 m (Height of fall)
s = 0.001m (Stopping distance, assumed spring deflection of load cell
at maximum capacity)
This gives
F = 7946 N.
This force is the same as the weighing force for a mass of 810 kg.
Ball 135g
i Height of fall 30cm
>
Load cell 1t DCamplifier Storage oscilloscope
Figure 13-6 Example of pulsed loading applied to a load cell by a

falling mass
In practice a somewhat lower result would be given, since the elasticity

of the steel ball and the working surface beneath the load cell result in a
higher value for stopping distance s.
The example makes it impressively clear that a load cell can be very
rapidly overloaded and broken by a falling mass. In the wrong conditions
a load cell can be destroyed simply by falling to the floor. Also to avoid
the possibility of damage in transit, load cells must be suitably packed
before dispatch. For normal operation it may be useful to place a
compressible washer between the weigh platform and the load button of
the load cell. This function is carried out for example by the elastomer
bearing platforms described in Section 4.2.
13.2.5 Force bypasses
The whole of the load intended for weighing must be received by defined
supports and no part of the weighing force may be diverted elsewhere by
force bypasses, since this would give rise to measurement errors.
In the case of container weighing balances, however, technological

considerations often make it necessary to add components that set up a
mechanical connection between the container and the rest of the
structure, for example:
• Supply connections in the form of pipe conduits for filling and
emptying the container
• Auxiliary lines for a power supply or compressed air
• Stay rod components for bracing the container in the horizontal
direction
• Connections for heating or cooling the container
The force bypasses created by these mechanical connections should be

kept to an absolute minimum. Unavoidable residual bypasses must be
constant and reproducible in their effect. Contamination, oxidation (rust)
or ice on moving stay rod parts can heighten the effect of the force
bypass.
Force bypasses are not infequently temperature-dependent in behaviour.

If pipes become warm they can give rise to thermal stresses that imitate
weighing forces.
Regarding the importance of this aspect for the accuracy of the weighing
system, it would be beneficial to refer again to the topic of the layout of
supply connections for containers as described in Section 7.3.
As well as component-related force bypasses, friction bypasses are

another possibility. This means that if the gap between the container and
the rest of the structure if too small, a slight tilt due to the height of fill
can cause the container to make contact with the structure. Too much
play in the stay rods can allow the same effect to occur in the event of
wind forces. Once more the result of such friction bypasses would be
measurement inaccuracies.
13.2.6 Auxiliary motors
If motors (e.g. impellers) affect the contents of the container during

measurement, this sort of equipment together with its drive unit must be
attached firmly to the
container. In this way external forces and moments that would otherwise
have an effect on the container are avoided. If it is intended to carry out
weighing whilst this equipment is operating, all points of support must be
fitted with load cells. The resulting summation compensates for the
uneven load distribution on the points of support due to fluctuating fluid
levels. A low-pass filter (=») in the weighing electronics completes the
configuration.
13.3 Weather effects
13.3.1 Temperature
Load cells must be exposed to permissible temperatures only. If the

correct temperature range cannot always be guaranteed, load cells must
be thermally insulated or if necessary provided with cooling or heating
equipment.
The specifications in HBM data sheets for load cells state their nominal
and service temperature ranges (=»). Within the nominal temperature
range the individual and cumulative errors specified in the data sheet are
never exceeded. The service temperature range defines the temperature
limits between which the load cell is in principle capable of operating
without suffering damage. Certain errors may however exceed the data
sheet specification. The storage temperature range (=») is also shown in
the data sheets.
As already described, load cells are compensated for the effect of

temperature variations on the behaviour of their zero point and sensitivity
(typically in the range --10 to +40 °C). This compensation loses its effect
on a load cell in the presence of a sharp temperature gradient (> 5 K/h) or
uneven thermal radiation (spatial temperature gradient). The situation is
caused by material strains due to uneven temperature conditions within
the load cell. It causes a measurement error which in the worst cases can
reach a percentage range in double figures.
It is believed that the Youngs modulus of the spring element material is

temperature-dependent despite sophisticated materials handling, thereby
demonstrating yet another aspect of the often interrelated balancing

procedures for achieving higher levels of load cell accuracy.
Thermal expansion is always to be expected in the open, for example

when a container receives solar radiation on one side. Yet one-sided
thermal radiation can also occur when the equipment is in a building.
Thermal expansion brings about changes in the horizontal dimensions of

a container. Lateral forces of some significance with respect to the load
introduction points on load cells can arise in the supports if the
configuration includes more than one solid bearing. If expansion in the
container gives rise to fairly large deformations in the stay rod
components and supply connections, measurement errors can be
expected. In the worst case, the load cell can be permanently damaged.
In most cases container legs are made of untempered steel. Temperature

changes set up additional material strains. Inadequate compensation for
these effects will give false readings which the downstream electronics
can correct by mathematical means to only a limited extent.
Error compensation for temperature effects or for various mechanical

loading conditions (such as unevenly distributed mass in the container) is
often only a realistic possibility if all the container's legs have load cells
in their supports.
13.3.2 Snow and ice
Most load cells and their associated accessories are either galvanised or
made of stainless-steel alloy, so the transducer resists these particular
weather effects.
Weighing devices constructed in the open should nevertheless be

protected from weather effects such as rain, snow, ice, wind and rapid
temperature changes. A build-up of ice can give rise to significant error
due to force bypasses.
In the case of equipment that does not permit cyclical taring as part of the
weighing process, accumulated snow or water on top of the container
will lead straight to a measurement error. Taring (=») is not possible in
such cases unless the container can be completely emptied or a defined

weight of fill is added.
13.3.3 Wind forces
Wind forces ( ⇒) can also distort the measurement results if vertically

acting forces are added directly into the measurement. Horizontal wind
forces are most likely to influence measurement results if the centre of
gravity of the container windbreak is not at the same height as the points
of support on the load cells. This effect is noticeably stronger when not
every point of support is fitted with a load cell.
When planning to install containers in the open, the provisions of DIN

1055 Part 4 /18914 "Thin-walled circular silos" should be applied.
Estimating wind force loading
The estimated wind force loading on containers fitted with weigh

modules for the purpose of weighing can be calculated as follows.
Lateral forces
With regard to the lateral force acting on the stay rods, the total wind
resistance is a decisive factor. It consists of frictional resistance and drag:
2
F. =c·0 '5·4
c = Drag constant (consult relevant tables)
p =Atmospheric density (kg/m?)
vo = Wind speed (m/s)
A, = Projected area
► Example: Upright cylindrical container:
Container height: 17m

Container diameter: Sm
=»c =0.71
Wind velocity 12: 50m/s
F, =0,71·1,2kg/m' · 50/2m/°· 17· 5m

= 90525 kgm/s
= 90525 N of wind force acting upon the stay rods.
Since the direction of the wind force as well as both the configuration
and number of modules in the application concerned are unknown at this
point, the starting point must be that for the sake of safety a module stay
rod has to be capable of withstanding the full force of the wind.
Lifting forces
This lateral force can also cause a container to lift off from its points of
support.
The weigh modules supplied by HBM already incorporate stay rods and
lift-off preventers that are appropriately dimensioned to accept lateral
and lifting forces. These either consist of one or two threaded rods (Cl6
module) or they are already built in (C2A module).
Additional
loading on h
the load cell Lifting force
t b=h/2
Figure 13-7 Calculating the lifting force

Three-point support a
Four-point support
a = 0.75d,
a1 = 0.707 d,
a2 = d
Figure 13-8 The difference between three-point support and four-point

support
► Example calculation:
W=93kN; h=17m; b=8.5m; d=5m

Three-point support
Fw: Wind force from direction WI
_F~·b _93kN·8,5m 210.SN (worst case)

F = a 3,75m '
Fw: Wind force from direction W2
r _Fib 93kv·8,5m 105, 4N

AZ 2 • a 2 · 3, 75m '
Four-point support
Fw: Wind force from direction WI
F =F,, 'is·b 93kN·8,5m 111,8IN

2 · a1 2 · 3, 535m '
Fw3: Wind force from direction W3
r _Fis:b93kN·8,5m
A2 2 5m
_ 158,1kN
" (simplified, F~alone is
adequate)
As can easily be seen from Figure 13.7 and the calculation, the lateral
force due to wind loading causes not only a lifting force, but also an
additional loading in the measurement direction on the load cell
positioned on the side away from the wind. This additional loading is the
same size as the lifting force.
Note This additional loading is added to the tare and net load of the container.
It is therefore important to check whether the permissible limit load of the
load cell(s) will be exceeded.
Terms, expressions and

characteristic quantities
related to load cells
Opening remarks
The increasing globalisation of markets and the economic relationships

within the European Union make it essential to harmonise not only
terminology but also standards and guidelines.
This chapter explains some of the terms and expressions frequently used
in this brochure.
14--162 Terms, expressions and characteristic quantities related to load cells
■ Accuracy class
The accuracy class specified for HBM load cells means that the
largest individual error in the load cell output signal, expressed as a
percentage, is below the value specified for the accuracy class at
which the characteristic tolerance will not be taken into
consideration. Accuracy classes for load cells are divided into
Classes A, B, C and D with appropriate error limits. (= Figure
14-1)
These accuracy classes are assigned to balance accuracy classes
G GDand (
■ Adjustment
Adjustment means setting up a measurement chain (i.e. the weighing
device as a whole) in such a way that measuring deviation is kept to
a minimum. That is, the procedure permanently changes the
behaviour of the measurement chain. In the main, such adjustments
are made to the measuring amplifier or the weighing electronics.
This procedure is often referred to somewhat inaccurately as
calibration.
■ Amplifier
An amplifier (also called a measuring amplifier) is a component in
which the input quantity and output quantity are physically the same
and the value of the input quantity is increased (i.e. amplified); in
terms of the electronics it is a power amplifier which delivers a
signal corresponding to the measured quantity with higher energy.
■ Balancing
(=») see Adjustment
■ Bending stress
Bending is a change of shape (deflection or sag) in a rod or bar
(spring element) that is stressed on one side or supported at both
ends due to a loading. For a given cross-section, length and force,
the deflection is inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity
of the material and the areal moment of inertia of the cross-section.
Bending exerts a positive strain on one side of the bent rod (spring
element), and a negative strain on the opposite side. In the case of
exactly symmetrical cross-sections the positive and negative strains
have the same value.
• Breaking load (=» Figure 14-2)

The breaking load is the maximum load which can be applied in the
specified measurement direction of the load cell, beyond which
mechanical destruction is inevitable.
• Calibrate
(=») see Calibration
• Calibration
Calibration means determining the measuring deviations in an
instrument (weighing device) without changing the settings of the
measurement chain as a whole. Calibration by comparing with
"standard devices" that are known to be more accurate is also
sometimes called Connection.
• Calibration weight
A calibration weight (sometimes called a gauging weight) is a
weight used for setting up the sensitivity of a balance. Its main
application is on weighing equipment that uses the balance of forces
for adapting to the gravitational field at the place of installation.
• CE mark
The CE mark consists of the letters CE and indicates that the product
which carries the mark complies with all the relevant EU guidelines.
The mark means that the natural or legal person who has affixed it or
caused it to be affixed is satisfied that the product complies with all
EU guidelines on full harmonisation and has undergone all the
conformity checking procedures laid down in the regulations.
• Connections
(=) see Calibration
• Corner checking
By systematically changing the position of the load introduction
(position of the weigh goods) on the weigh platform it is possible to
check whether the display on the balance is completely unaffected
by the distribution of the load on the weigh platform.
Creep
Spring materials develop spontaneous strain in reaction to
incremental loading. Under constant loading the material slowly
continues developing strain in the direction of loading, and begins to
creep. This property is accurately described as an elastic material
after-effect for which the design of the strain gauge geometry can
compensate almost completely, so that any remaining creep error
(=») is very small.
■ Creep error
In load cells, the error resulting from creep is described by the
expression d_, for creep under load, relative to nominal sensitivity in
percentage terms over a period of 30 minutes.
The creep error is the maximum change in the output signal from the
load cell within this specified period, compared with the value that
appears when the loading changes rapidly by an amount equal to
maximum load capacity (rapidly means within 5s max.).
a Dead load D,a(=» Figure 14-2)
The dead load is the partial loading acting on a load cell in the
specified measurement direction ignoring weigh goods. The dead
load is merely the result of the dead weight, mounting accessories,
etc.
■ Dead weight
Dead weight designates the intrinsic weight of the components in a
load cell, excluding mounting accessories and so forth; it acts in the
specified measurement direction upon the measuring element of the
load cell (spring element).
Deflection at maximum load capacity S~
Deflection at maximum load capacity is the spring deflection of the
external load introduction points on load cells in the measurement
direction relative to one other, under the effects of a change of load
by the amount of the maximum capacity.
■ Degree of protection IP
The degree of protection specifies the extent to which a load cell is
protected against penetration by dust and water (tested to DIN VDE
0470-1 or EN 60529).
■ Division tick value v

A division tick value for a load cell is the quotient obtained from
dividing the measuring range by the number of division ticks. This
result is expressed as a unit of mass (e.g. kg).
■ Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
Electromagnetic compatibility is the ability of an electrical or
electronic device to operate satisfactorily in the electronic
environment without at the same time giving rise to electromagnetic
interference that would be unacceptable to other devices co-existing
in that environment. Immunity from interference in load cells and
analysis electronics is regulated by standard DIN EN 45501.
■ Error limits, general (=» Figure 14-1)
Error limits, or maximum permissible errors, are agreed maximum
values for deviations that stay within the relevant measuring range.
Q)
5
6d --------------------�
e 1.5
G
1.0
~
£
2 0
E=
5.g
0.5
0.0
c >
8 -0.5
I
1.0
-1.5 ---------'-------------�
Class A 0 50,000 200,000 500,000 00
Class B 0 5,000 20,000 50,000 100,000

Class C 0 500 2,000 5,000 10,000
Class D 0 50 200 500 1,000
Loading /v
Figure 14-1 Error limits for load cells

Loading in v, maximum permissible deviation in v • error fraction pc (Puc
is information from the manufacture about the fraction of errors allotted
to the load cell from the limits of error in legal metrology (0.3 to 0.8). In
the absence of information 0. 7 should be used.)
■ Excitation voltage, nominal range of Bu

The nominal range of the excitation voltage designates the excitation
voltage range within which the load cell conforms to its error limits.
■ Force bypasses
Force bypasses result from partially required mechanical connections
between the weigh vessel and the supporting frame (pipe conduits,
agitators). These force bypasses can cause part of the weighing force
to be diverted away from the defined support and can result in
measurement errors.
■ Gross load
The gross load or gross weight is the mass of the weigh goods (net
load) plus the weigh vessel, container or packaging (tare weight).
■ Hooke's law
Hooke's law designates the area of the stress-strain diagram within
which material behaves elastically. Any distortion which occurs is
reversible, so that the material returns to its original dimensions
when the distorting load is removed.
■ Hysteresis
(=») Hysteresis error
a Hysteresis error d, (= Figure 14-2)
The hysteresis error (sometimes called the range of inversion) refers
to the difference between the output signals obtained when
increasing and decreasing a loading in equal steps within the
nominal measuring range, by reference to sensitivity C. The
difference is normally expressed in terms of the greatest actual
amount.
■ Immunity from electromagnetic interference
Immunity from electromagnetic interference is the property of an
electrical or electronic device to operate without interference, i.e. in
the intended manner, under the influence of electromagnetic
disturbance variables.
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is the functional impairment of a
device due to electromagnetic disturbance variables.
Electromagnetic interference is the property of an electrical or

electronic device to transmit disturbance variables or
electromagnetic disturbance energy.
■ Impact resistance
Impact resistance refers to the permissible stress that may be
imposed on a load cell under no load conditions by subjecting it to
mechanical impacts, without irreversibly causing error limits to be
exceeded. When testing to DIN IEC 68 Part 2-27 it is normal to state
the degree of severity used (number and duration of impacts, etc.).
Input resistance at reference temperature Re []
The input resistance is the electrical resistance measured at reference
temperature at the input terminals of the transducer including the
standard electricity supply cable.
a Insulation resistance Re
The insulation resistance is the electrical resistance between the
internal wiring of a load cell and the conducting components of its
enclosure when a test voltage is applied
■ Lateral force
Lateral force refers to a force component acting on a load cell in a
direction that is not perpendicular to the specified measurement
direction. Lateral forces can not only cause measurement errors but
can also damage the load cell. Permissible lateral forces are defined
in HBM data sheets as a relative, static lateral load limit (=).
• Lateral load limit E
The static, relative, lateral load limit is a loading relative to
maximum load capacity which is perpendicular to the measurement
direction specified for load cells, and up to which no irreversible
mechanical and electrical changes occur, even when the load cell is
simultaneously loaded at maximum capacity.
■ Law on Verification
In the Federal Republic of Germany, the official abbreviated name
for the law on verification and measurement methods. It regulates
among other things the requirement for measuring instruments to be
verified, as well as pre-packed products, public weighing balances
and the responsibility of the inspectorates.
■ Linking bars
The mobile supports for preventing horizontal forces during
container weighing allow the container (weigh vessel) to move
horizontally; for this reason the container has to be restrained in the
horizontal direction. The basic aim is for the linking bars to transmit
virtually no forces to the weigh vessel in the vertical direction (force
bypasses (=»)), but to be strong enough in the horizontal direction to
absorb peak horizontal forces (such as wind forces, agitation forces).
■ Load cell characteristic curve (=» Figure 14-2)
A load cell characteristic curve is a graphical display of the
functional connection between the input quantity Load E and the
output quantity S (analogue electrical signal) on a load cell.
Meanwhile all other parameters in the system are assumed to remain
constant.
■ Load cells
Load cells are measured quantity converters which convert the load
acting upon them into an analogue or digital electrical signal. This
conversion makes use of a spring element which distorts under the
influence of the load being measured, and this distortion is then
detected and captured with the aid of strain gauges (=).
■ Load E(=» 2)
The loading of a load cell refers to the mass m that acts on this load
cell in its measurement direction as a dependent weighing force
taking into account the local acceleration due to gravity and its
associated impetus.
■ Loading, permissible dynamic
The permissible dynamic loading of a transducer is specified as the
maximum permissible vibration bandwidth of the loading in the
measurement direction. The vibration bandwidth is the difference
between the largest overload and the smallest "underload" occurring
during 107 vibration cycles without adversely affecting the
measurement capability of the load cell (to DIN 50100).
■ Long-term stability
Long-term stability is a characteristic of the long-term behaviour of
a transducer (i.e. load cell), such as ageing or drift, when all other
boundary conditions and operating conditions are constant. Nor is it
possible to influence or correct the long-term stability of transducers
by means of an electronic device connected on load side. Among the
quality criteria for long-term stability are humidity resistance tests
regulated by standards; these tests include both static and dynamic
humid and hot cycles.
■ Low-pass filter
A low-pass filter is an electrical circuit that freely passes alternating
current in a particular (i.e. low) frequency range (pass band) and
blocks current at other frequencies (stop band). A low-pass filter
blocks all current with a frequency greater than the specified cut-off
frequency.
■ Maximum capacity (also known as maximum load capacity)
E, (=» Figure 14-2)
The maximum capacity represents the upper limit of the measuring
range. Depending on the load cell type, the maximum capacity may
be a tensile or compressive loading. The guaranteed error limits are
not exceeded within the measuring range. For purposes of
calibration, maximum capacity is expressed in units of mass (e.g.
kg).
a Maximum load capacity signal S, (=» Figure 14-2)
,~.
The maximum load capacity signal is the output signal which the
load cell delivers when at maximum capacity
■ Measurement direction
The manufacturer defines the measurement direction of the load cell
by specifying the axis of measurement and direction of action
relative to the design and construction of the load cell.
14-170 Terms, expressions and characteristic quantities related to load cells
■ Measuring deviation
The aim of every measurement is to determine the true value of a
measured quantity. However, every measurement result is falsified:
by imperfections in the measuring object or measuring instruments,
by environmental effects and by changes over time in relation to all
such sources of error. Measuring deviations always have to be taken
into account. A distinction is made between systematic deviations
and chance deviations.
Measuring range B(=» Figure 14-2)
The measuring range is the load range for which the measuring
deviations of a load cell are required to stay within the defined error
limits. The measuring range is specified in terms of a starting and
final value. The difference between these two values is the nominal
measuring range expressed as a measuring span B~a=Ema Limn.
Minimum dead load E,~a (=» Figure 14-2)
The minimum dead load means the lowest loading of a load cell in
the specified measurement direction (e.g. with dead load and
mounting accessories) above which the error limits are met.
w Minimum division tick value van
The minimum division tick value is the smallest division tick value
within the load cell at which the defined error limits are met.
Multi-range balance
A multi-range balance is a balance with various weighing ranges,
each starting at zero. Each weighing range has its own division tick
value with defined minimum and maximum load specifications and
in some cases different levels of accuracy.
Natural frequency fa
The natural frequency is the frequency f which characterises the
trend of a periodic natural vibration over time. It is equal to the
reciprocal of the period T of the vibration phenomenon (f = 1/T) and
is usually specified in Hertz (lHz = 1/s = one cycle of vibration per
second). The natural frequency of a load cell refers to the frequency
with which a load cell having no mounting accessories vibrates or
oscillates along the line of its axis of measurement following a short,
sharp excitation.
■ Net load
The net load (in effect the net weight) is the weight of the weigh
goods less the weight of any packaging or container or means of
transportation (tare weight) with which it has been weighed.
■ Nominal range of the excitation voltage
The nominal range of the excitation voltage is the range within
which the load cell can be operated during practical application and
within which all technical specifications and error specifications
continue to be met.
Nominal sensitivity C,
In a load cell, the characteristic nominal value for sensitivity C.
Nominal temperature range B
The nominal temperature range is the range within which load cells
can be operated during practical application and within which they
continue to meet their technical specifications and error
specifications.
Non--linearity du
Non-linearity is the largest deviation of the nominal characteristic
from the specified reference curve with increasing load, by reference
to sensitivity C. The difference is normally expressed in terms of the
greatest actual amount.
• OIML
Abbreviation for Organisation Internationale de M~trologie L~gale.
This international organisation for legal metrology pursues the
standardisation of legal metrology, including verification
regulations, in individual countries. To this end it publishes
international recommendations for individual measuring instruments
(OIML Recommendations).
■ Output resistance at reference temperature []
The output resistance is the electrical resistance measured at
reference temperature at the output terminals of the load cell
including the standard electricity supply cable.
Output signal S (=» Figure 14-2)

The output signal is the non-electrically measured signal quantity S,
delivered by the output of a load cell, into which the loading E is
converted. The physical unit of this signal quantity depends on the
operating principle of the load cell concerned (e.g. mV/V; mV/mA;
mA; Hz; etc.).
PT
Abbreviation for Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt. This
Federal German institute dealing with physical and technical
subjects is located in Braunschweig and Berlin.
Recalibration
Load cells sometimes need to be recalibrated in order to check their
metrological properties and zero point setting, for example so as to
cancel out the influence of long-term effects. Calibration means
determining the coherence between a measured quantity and the
display produced by a measuring instrument.
Reference temperature
The reference temperature is the ambient temperature to which
technical data on load cells refers if temperature ranges are not
specified.
a Resistance to temperature change
Resistance to temperature change refers to the permissible stress that
may be imposed on a load cell by a sudden change in air
temperature, without irreversibly causing error limits to be exceeded.
When testing to DIN IEC 68 Part 2-14 it is normal to state the
degree of severity used (upper and lower temperature, number of
cycles, etc.).
a Safe load limit E (=» Figure 14-2)
The safe load limit is a maximum safe load applied in the
measurement direction specified for the load cell, and represents the
upper limit of the maximum loading range. If the safe load limit is
exceeded, the load cell's ability to measure is permanently damaged.
■ Sensitivity C(=» Figure 14-2)

For HBM load cells, sensitivity C is derived from the difference in
the output signals from a transducer at maximum load capacity an
at no load. For HBM load cells the lower limit of the measuring
range is determined using a transducer with no load. The physical
unit is typically of the type mV /V.
a Sensitivity range B
The sensitivity range is the tolerance specification for the maximum
permissible deviation of the actual sensitivity of a load cell from
nominal sensitivity on delivery. The sensitivity range is specified
relative to nominal sensitivity.
a Service load E~, (=» Figure 14-2)
The service load is a load which is applied in the measurement
direction specified for the transducer and represents the upper limit
of the maximum loading range. The obligatory error limits for the
measuring range may in fact be exceeded within the operating range.
Service temperature range B,
The service temperature range is the ambient temperature range
within which load cells can be operated without causing permanent
changes to their measurement properties. The specified error limits
may in fact be exceeded within the service temperature range.
■ Setting
When (=») balancing a measurement chain (load cell/cable/amplifier)
the characteristic curve of the measuring amplifier / weighing
electronics is altered so that the result of a suitable, whole-number
multiple of the physical quantity is displayed. (Example : load cell
for 5 Kg, maximum-capacity indicator 5000 at maximum load
capacity)
■ Standard mass
A standard mass is the embodiment of a unit of mass that is used to
determine the mass of other bodies.
Storage temperature range Br
The storage temperature range is the ambient temperature range
within which load cells can be stored whilst free of any mechanical
or electrical loading without causing permanent changes to their
measurement properties.
14-174 Terms, expressions and characteristic quantities related to load cells
Strain e [ m/m]
Strain e is defined as the quotient of a change in length Dl and a
reference length la. The technical term strain is used as a generic
term for both the elongation (tensile) and contraction (compressive)
process; elongation is called "positive strain" and contraction
(compression) is known as "negative strain".
■ Strain gauge (S.G.)
A strain gauge is a measuring element, usually in the form of a
looped electrical resistor in the shape of a strip; when incorporated
into a transducer it is mounted on flexible backing material. When a
force (such as a weighing force) is exerted on the flexible backing
material in contact with the S.G., the resulting distortion of the
backing material creates a proportional change in the electrical
resistance of the S.G. Within the range of elasticity, the size of the
mechanical distortion remains proportional to the applied
mechanical quantity, so that here again the change of resistance in
the S.G. is in electrically measurable proportion to the input
quantity.
■ Sustained vibration amplitude
The sustained vibration amplitude is the amplitude at which a
system that is capable of vibrating responds periodically to an
externally originating periodic excitation once the transient
phenomenon has decayed.
■ Tare weight
The tare weight refers to the mass of any packaging, container or
transportation used with the weigh goods.
■ Taring
Taring means compensating for tare weight (=») with or without
adjustment of the tare load. In colloquial language, taring is often
incorrectly used to mean "zeroing".
■ Temperature effect on sensitivity TKe
The temperature effect on sensitivity is the change in actual
sensitivity relative to nominal sensitivity following a temperature
change of 10 K. It is expressed as the maximum temperature effect
per 10 K in the nominal temperature range.
• Temperature effect on zero balance TKso

The temperature effect on zero balance is the change, relative to
nominal sensitivity, in the output signal from a load cell under no
load conditions following a temperature change of 10 K. It is
expressed as the maximum temperature effect per 10 K in the
nominal temperature range.
• Torsion
Torsion means the force applied when a rod that is firmly clamped at
one end is twisted about its own axis. The angle through which a
given cross-section of the rod is turned increases with its distance
from the clamping point. This angle of torsion is directly
proportional to the torque generating the torsion. A limit torque or
maximum torque Mt is often specified for load cells, and is the
maximum torsion loading that may be applied to the load cell about
an axis parallel to the axis of measurement, without irreversibly
causing error limits to be exceeded.
• Verifiability
A measuring instrument or measuring aid (a balance or a weight) is
verifiable if it is generally admitted to national verification or to EU
initial verification and complies with the verification regulations or
its method of construction is admitted to verification by the
responsible inspectorates and its finish complies with the special
conditions of acceptance of such inspectorates.
• Verification
Verification includes the official determination and documentation of
a deviation in the measurement result of a weighing device from the
true value. It includes the tests that have to be carried out by a
named organisation (e.g. a Weights and Measures Inspectorate) in
accordance with verification regulations, together with the
calibration procedure. Even if the weighing device complies with the
regulations, the official procedure determines a period within which
the device can be expected to function reliably with the stated
accuracy.
■ Verification requirement, weighing configurations that require

verification against official specifications
According to the Law on Verification, certain types of equipment
(including balances and weights) are subject to official verification if
they are used or kept in readiness to be used in commercial or
official business or in the field of medicine and the manufacture and
testing of pharmaceutical substances.
■ Vibration resistance
Vibration resistance refers to the permissible stress that may be
imposed on a load cell under no load conditions by subjecting it to
sinusoidal oscillatory movements, without irreversibly causing error
limits to be exceeded. When testing to DIN IEC 68 Part 2-6 it is
normal to state the degree of severity used (frequency range,
vibration amplitude, stress duration).
■ Weighing configuration that does not require verification
against official specifications
Weighing configurations or balances-not requiring verification
against official specifications are those that are not subject to the
verification requirement laid down in the Law on Verification. These
also include weighing configurations used in in-house applications,
process control, quality assurance ( other than check balances in
accordance with the pre-packed products order) or research and
development.
■ Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit enabling relative changes
of resistance induced in a strain gauge (S.G.) mainly in the order of
magnitude 10+ to 10 0/ Q to be measured to a very high degree of
accuracy.
■ Wind forces
Vertical components of wind forces can falsify measurement results
by being included in the measurement in their entirety. Horizontal
wind forces influence measurement results if the centre of gravity of
the container windbreak is not at the same height as the points of
support on the load cells and not all points of support are fitted with
load cells.
■ Zero point stability

Zero point stability is the capability of a balance always to take up
the zero position under no load conditions, including when it has
just been under load. A measure of the quality of zero point stability
is whether it remains constant regardless of temperature changes
under no load conditions.
a Zero signal Sa (=» Figure 14-2)
Zero signal means the output signal from a load cell, by reference to
nominal sensitivity Cn in the specified place of installation, under no
load conditions (not even mounting accessories).
Hysteresis error % Breakage
1
s
Overload protection
cuts in
Sma
C ,A
S%%
B,
s%
B,ma
Fm% 0,% Ena E%
E = Load C = Sensitivity
s = Output signal By Payload
Ek= Minimum dead load S% Zero signal
Ema»= Maximum capacity S%%= Minimum dead load output
E Service load Sma= Maximum load capacity signal
E = Safe load limit B,= Minimum measuring range
E, = Breaking load B,ma= Nominal measuring range
D%= Dead load Dama= Maximum !CG loading
Figure 14-2 Chart 2: Load cell characteristic curve (diagrammatic)

ta
HBM
' spectris group
Nominal charge: 24 OM
©2000
Spectris Messtechnik GmbH, Langen
Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik, Darmstadt
ISBN 3-9805544-4-9

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ta

HOTTINGER BALDWIN MESSTECHNIK

The Ins and Outs of Weighing Technology

A planning manual for the implementation of weighing

Publisher: Spectris Messtechnik GmbH

Rudolf Almendinger, Michael Br~ning, G~nter Fuchser, Klaus

With grateful thanks to all those who have contributed their

Die Deutsche Bibliothek -- CIP-Einheitsaufnahme

All rights reserved.

4. 7 Container stiffening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 4-39

€ Weigh modules ........................

Overload protection . 6-53

@ Design and construction of container

Strain gauges in weighing technology . . . 2-3

Mechanical structure of weighing equipment

Mounting accessories for load cells ..... 4-29

7.6.1.4 Circular silo on three weigh

Design and construction of

Electrical engineering structure of weighing

9.4.5 Influences on the accuracy of measuring

Electrical engineering protection

Calibrating weighing devices . . . . . . . . . . . 11-119

Measurement accuracy and signal

♦ Interference effects on load cells . . . . . . . 13-145

Terms, expressions and characteristic

Scarcely no other field of engineering has had its procedures and

The European Union/ EC law on measurement and verification methods

Alongside solutions that require official verification, the number of

Note This brochure is particularly intended as a guide for users of weighing

Certain rules have to be observed when setting up and operating

Figure 1-1 Components for weighing technology

HBM (Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik GmbH) has been manufacturing

Strain gauges in weighing

Strain gauges (a) are predominantly stuck or otherwise fastened to the

This change of resistance in proportion to strain means that the mass of

The structural elements behave like mechanical spring elements and

UA bridge output voltage

Figure 2-1 Physical method of applying the effect of a strain gauge

3.1 Spring element configuration in load cells

C2A(1 ... 10t) Z6 ( 5...1000kg) RSC (0.05 ... 5t)

C16 (20 ... 200!) U2A (0.05...201) C1/3 (1...5001)

3.2 Load cell designs

3.2.1 Load cells for heavy loads

Figure 3.2 shows sectional drawings of load cells with column-shaped

Figure 3-2 Load cells with column-shaped spring elements

The upper part of the spring element is connected to the protective

Another form of spring element, such as a hollow cylinder or tube, is

Figure 3-3 Spring element in the form of a hollow cylinder

Figure 3-4 Segmented tubular spring element

A common requirement is for a reduction in overall height with an

Figure 3-5 Ring torsion principle

3.2.2 Load cells for low loads

A spring element with direct mechanical loading is unsuitable for

Figure 3-6 Bending element modifications

For loads up to 5 t it is not uncommon to use multiple-beam spring

Figure 3-7 The dual-beam spring element principle

This system is considerably less sensitive to displacement of the load

When using hermetically-sealed load cells to measure loads at the lighter

3.2.3 Other designs

The multiple-beam spring element represents a further development of

Figure 3-10 Variants of the multiple-beam spring element

The biggest disadvantage of the single-beam spring element is that its

a) Longitudinal view b) Sectional view