Introduction to Instructional Materials



 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

• Understanding requires matching the materials to the

learners’ abilities and prior knowledge. If student do
not understand the materials, frustration sets in,
making learning more difficult. The teacher/writer
must know whether the materials are suited to the
level of the students and whether they will
understand those. Thus, the teacher/writer must
provide for background lessons and check-up
activities or exercises to assess students’
understanding. This is especially important for
younger and slower students and when introducing
new concepts.



 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

Structuring/Clarifying involves organizing the materials so that

it is clear to the students. It is especially important when new
subject matter is introduced, and when it is being liked to the
previous lessons.
• Directions, objectives, and main ideas are stated clearly.
• Internal and final summaries cover the content.
• Transition between main ideas is smooth and well
integrated.
• Writing is not vague.
• Sufficient examples are provided.
• New defined terms are defined.
• Adequate practice and review assignments reinforce new
learning.

 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

Sequencing refers to the arrangement of the materials

to provide for continuous and cumulative learning
where complex concepts are taken only after pre-
requisite skills and concepts have been mastered. There
are four basic ways of sequencing materials:
• Simple to complex
• Parts to a whole
• Whole to parts
• Chronological arrangement



 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

• Balancing materials require establishing vertical and

horizontal balance or relationships. Vertical
relationships refer to a building of content and
experiences at the lesson, unit and course level.
Fourth grade language concepts build on third grade
concepts built on third grade concepts; the second
unit plan build on the first, etc. Horizontal
relationships establish a multidisciplinary and unified
view of different subjects; the content of social
studies course is related to English and Science.



 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

• Explaining refers to the way headings, terms, illustrations, and

summary exercises are integrated with the content. Do the
examples illustrate major concepts? Are the major ideas
identified in chapter objectives and overview? Do the
headings outline a logical development of content? Do the
materials show relationships among topics, events, or facts to
present an in-depth view of major concepts? The students
should be able to discover important concepts and
information and relate new knowledge on their own through
the materials. In short, the content of the materials should be
explicit, related and cumulative in nature.



 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

• Pacing refers to how much and how quickly the lessons

in the textbook are presented. The volume or length of
the materials should not overwhelm students, but
there must be enough to have an effect. As students
get older, the amount of material can increase, the
presentation can be longer and more complex and the
breadth and depth can be expanded.



 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

• Reviewing refers to the extent to which the material

allows student to link new ideas to old concepts in a
form of review. High-achieving and older student can
tolerate more rapid pacing than low-achieving and
younger students, thus less proficient learners would
need more review or linking than the more proficient
one.



 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

• Elaborating ensures that students learn better though

a variety of ways. The idea is to provide in the textbook
opportunities for students to transform information in
one form to another, and to apply new information to
prior knowledge- by using various techniques such as
comparing and contrasting, drawing inferences,
paraphrases, summarizing and predicting. A series of
elaboration strategies help the students learn new
materials. The author must provide students with a
broad list of questions (of comparing and contrasting,
drawing analogies, etc.).



 Factors to Consider in Writing IMs (Ornstein)

• Transfer of Learning may be done in a number of ways. Transfer of

learning may be concept-related, inquiry-related, learner or utilization-
related. The first two organizers seem to work best with intrinsically
motivated (self-motivated) students and the second two work best with
students who need to be extrinsically motivated. Since most students
need some extrinsic motivation, learner-related and utilization-related
materials will be more effective with the majority of the students.
• Concept-related, drawing heavily on structure of knowledge, the
concepts, principles, or theories of the subject;
• Inquiry-related, derived from critical thinking skills and procedures
employed by learning theorists or scholars in the field;
• Learners- related, related to the needs, interests or experiences of the
students;
• Utilization- related, show how people can use or proceed with them in
real-life situation.

 Framework for Materials and Methods

(McDonough and Shaw, 2000)

Contextual Factors
• Learner factors – age, interests, level of proficiency, aptitude,
academic and educational level, attitudes to learning,
motivation, reasons for learning, preferred learning styles, and
personality.
• Setting –management and administration, resources available,
support personnel, number of pupils, time available for the
program, physical and socio-cultural environment, types of tests
used, and procedures for monitoring and evaluating





 Framework for Materials and Methods
(McDonough and Shaw, 2000)

• McDonough and Shaw (2000) present the following framework

for materials and methods. The framework reveals that
materials and methods cannot be seen in isolation but are
embedded within a broader professional context.




The Materials Preparation Cycle