A init Int ted Training Syst é Total Training Support — ‘tegrated Training System EY proviaing quality alrera nance training ‘lubé6pro.co.uk question practice aid Module 5 Digital Techniques and Electronic Instrument Systems for 2nd Edition y ence Category ; = B1 and B2 Volume 1 Exclusively from WWW. airtechbooks.comA@) Total Training Support Integrated Training System Cy Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. ‘These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. ‘The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the “Learning Objectives" We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.co.uk membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions, We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contactus' feedback page of the club66pro.co.uk website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.co.uk website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. 7 Module 5 Preface emo TTS integrated Training Syt6m Speen ns Copy 2008~ 9 Integrated Training System fh Intentionally Blank ‘ Module 5 Preface fo TiS Tang Sytem =. Sorat® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Module 5 Chapters Electronic Instrument Systems Numbering Systems Data Conversion Data Buses Logic Circuits Basic Computer Structure Microprocessors Integrated Circuits Multiplexing 10. Fibre Optics 11. Electronic Displays 12. Electrostatic Sensitive Devices 13. Software Management Control 14, Electromagnetic Environment 15. Typical Electronic/Digital Aircraft Systems SPNOgReNo it TTS integrated Telnng System © Copyright 2008 Module 5 PrefaceIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank iv Module 5 Preface (eect etter TIS integrated Training System Spam dncmer © Copyright 2008B®) Total Training Support Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 5 Digital Techniques Electrical Instrument Systems 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems Module 6.1 Electronic Instrument SystemsIntegrated Training System Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: |. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior writen permission of Total Training Support Lid. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B41, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence asic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 ae indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 oF Sr atainst cack applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the catagory 82 basic knowledge levels. ‘The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 + A familarisation with the principal elements of the subject Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. 1 The applicant should be able to give a simple description ofthe whole subject, using common words and ‘examples. + The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 + Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject + Anabilty to apply that knowledge. Objectives: y The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. «The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject, «The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject «+The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in @ practical manner using detalled procedures. LEVEL 3 ‘+ A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject 2A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge ina logical and comprehensive manner, Objectives: +The applicant should know the theory ofthe subject and interrelationships with other subjects. + The applicant should be able to give a detaled description ofthe subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. ‘+The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject ‘The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. '+ The applicant should be able to apply his Knowledge in @ practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. «+The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply ‘cortective action where appropriate. 2 ‘TTS ntegratadTeinng Syston {Copy 2008 Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems LeeBH ore! Training Support Integrated Training System Table of Contents Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems ‘Convention and Development. Electronic Flight Instruments System (EFIS) 7 3 Jule 5.1 Electronic Instrument S) ‘ne deo ‘TTS integrated Training System bie tronic systems sme etn © Copyght 2008Training Sup Integrated Training System ® Module 5.1 Enabling Objectives Objective EASA 66 Reference _| Level Electronic instrument systems 5.1 3 ‘Typical systems arrangements and cockpit layout of electronic instrument systems es Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems ee i: TS itgratad Tring System See ta nen copys 2008Integrated Training System %G) Total Training Support Ly R Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems Convention and Development Before the era of electronic controls, most aircraft cockpit instrument systems were arranged in the “classic T" configuration as shown in figure 1.1 Pele cecum iio Bana Figure 1.1 - The Classic ‘T’ configuration Additions to the classic ‘T’ included a turn coordinator (or a turn and slip indicator, and a Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) at the bottom left and bottom right respectively as shown in figure 1.2 Sane ee eo Figure 1.2. - Additions to the Classic 'T’ 5 ‘Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems. pect opewet TTS Integrate Telning System Sepa sci man © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Larger aircraft, such as the 747 Classic shown in figure 1.2 use the same classic 'T’ configuration, except with the addition of a rad alt, standby instruments, and special features on the standard instruments such as ILS, VOR guidance indicators and a rising runway. In these cases, the additional functionality has resulted in the Artificial Horizon and Directional Gyro being renamed to Attitude Direction Indicator (AD!) and Horizontal Situation Indicator (HS!) respectively. The mechanical moving parts of the ADI and HSI are operated by gyros and sensors placed appropriately around the aircraft, and driven by control synchro receivers in the body of the instrument. Standby instruments and engine instrumentation are conventionally placed in the centre of the panel, one set being easily readable by both pilots. Figure 1.3 - Boeing 747 Classic panel 6 Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Une anr dcoee Sere jule 6.1 Electronic Instrument Systems carat © Copigit 2008S Total Training Support Integrated Training System Electronic Flight Instruments System (EFIS) A full EFIS system (commonly called a ‘glass cockpit’) consists of a PED and ND, one each for each of the captain and 1* officer, and an engine and a 2-screen display system to replace the centrally located conventional engine instrumentation. EADI and EHS! The ability to manufacture Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) in the required size and reliability resulted in the mechanical ADI and HS! being replaced by Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator (EAD!) and Electronic Horizontal Figure 1.4 - A basic EAD! and EHSI id Module 6.1 Electronic Instrument Systems Uren ae TIS integrated Training System lodute : System: tet copy a08Integrated Training System PFD and ND It was not long before manufacturers realised the full potential of electronic instrumentation. The EAD! was integrated with speed (IAS) information (in tape form) with stall and overspeed visual warnings, altitude and vertical speed information (in tape form), and autopilot and other annunciation. All information required to fly the aircraft is supplied on one screen. The name is changed to the more appropriate Primary Flying Display (PFO). The EHS! was integrated with ILS, VOR and flight plan MAP information, colour coded for easier and more instantaneous mode recognition, aircraft speeds (GS and TAS) and heading/track information in digital format, and annunciation of which NAV equipment is supplying the data. All information required to navigate the aircraft is supplied on one screen. Selectable alternative configurations enabled the pilot to view the display in either full rose (figure 1.5) or in sector format (figure 1.6), with variable ranging rings indicated. The name is changed to the more appropriate Navigation Display (ND) Figure 1.6 - An Airbus PFD and ND 8 “TTS Integrated Tralning System 2 Copyright 2008 Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems oesS Total Training Support Integrated Training System The ND can be integrated with terrain information from a Worldwide mesh terrain database, (EGPWS), with weather radar information (including local ground mapping) and traffic information (ACAS/TCAS). In the case of the latter, the PFD and ND provides Resolution Advisories in the event of a collision threat. Figure 1.8 - An EADI and EHS! on an Boeing 737, among conventional instrumentation 2 Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems scene acy TS Intgrated Trang System = © Copyright 2008> Integrated Training System Figure 1.9- A PFD and ND on a Boeing 777 2 Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems oe TTS Integrated Telning System ponte aren, © Copyright 2008Qe Training Support Integrated Training System The Boeing System The Boeing system uses the Engine Indicating and Crew Alert System (EICAS) to provide the latter. The primary and secondary (upper and lower) screens display primary engine data and secondary engine data respectively, and also indicate visual cautions, warnings and memos of aircraft system status. System synoptics are also displayed on these screens, A full description of the EFIS and EICAS is provided in Chapter 5.15. CAPTAIN'S DISPLAY LEFT EFIS CONTROL PANEL EICAS DISPLAY TRANSFER PANEL Enables the Capiaino select ‘SELECT PANEL Switches displays among diferent modes inthe Navigation Contos the two EICAS various screens, Useful Display, a full compass rose for (Engine indication and Crew inthe event of a display ‘approach, a full rose and expanded Aleting System) screens in the faite. VOR aispiay, amap and an expanded center positon. Plt may select plan view, ‘engine perfomance, electrical, ‘maintenance and fuel system displays rise e ; oO FR 'S POSITION INSTRUMENT souRcE he cospot has most of te ‘The Captain may switch various sources between ‘same control panels on the right lef. gn and canter screens, Tis ncudes the Side ofthe instrument pane! Fight Management Computer, Fight Drecor 5 shown by simlar colors, ‘nda data. Figure 1.10 - A Boeing EFIS 4 Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems aan TTS integrated Tring Sym Soe (© Copyright 2008Te Integrated Training System AIRPLANE SYSTEMS INSTRUMENT PANEL AUXILIARY POWER UNIT (APU) AUTOPILOT ‘COMMUNICATIONS ‘BOORS ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL ‘SYSTEM (ECS) ELECTRICAL ENGINES a FIRE PROTECTION oe FLIGHT CONTROLS FUEL HYORAULICS Loe ICEIRAIN INDICATINGIRECOROING FLIGHT RECORDER LANDING GEAR NAVIGATION. PNEUMATICS CENTRAL MAINTENANCE Figure 1.11 - The Boeing EFIS integration with aircraft systems, Flight Recorder and Central Maintenance Computer Sin eae as aces Pras we) Figure 1.12 - The Boeing EICAS Primary and Secondary displays 12 TS integrated Teining System (© Copyright 2008 Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems teen5 Total Training Support Integrated Training System The Airbus System The Airbus system uses the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor System (ECAM) to provide the engine, system and synoptic information. The primary and secondary (upper and lower) screens display primary engine data and secondary engine data respectively, and also indicate visual cautions, warnings and memos of aircraft system status. System synoptics are also displayed on these screens. A full description of the EFIS and ECAM is provided in Chapter 5.15. SIDESTICK CONTROLLER PRIMARY, FUGHT DISPLAY orsPtay CAPTAN FIRST OFFICER (CoPiony Mut. uur Purpose || PURPOSE contro. || conTROL& oispuay |} DISPLAY UNT UNIT Figure 1.14 - The Airbus EFIS layout 13 Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems an ay TTS integrated Training System ‘Sipuoe 2 of document Copy 2008Integrated Training System Figure 1.16 - The Airbus ECAM Fuel System synoptic a Module 5.1 Electronic Instrument Systems ‘TTS ntgrated Training System © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 5 Digital Techniques Electrical Instrument Systems 5.2 Numbering Systems Module 6.2 Numbering SystemsIntegrated Training System Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category 82 basic knowledge levels The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 ‘= A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: ‘+ The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. © The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. ‘+The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 + Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + Anabilty to apply that knowledge. Objectives: ‘© The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. ‘« The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. + The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. © The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 ‘+ A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + Accapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner, Objectives: ‘= The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘© The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. ‘The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject ‘The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. + The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. = The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 2 Module 5.2 ring Systems an dase ‘TTS Integrated Training System Numbering Sys se anes © Copyright 2008Orn Training Support Integrated Training System Table of Contents Module 5.2 Numbering Systems 5 ‘Numbering Systems - General —_—_ a 5 The Decimal Number System, — a 7 ‘The Binary Number System zi is The Octal Number System cata a 29 ‘The Hexadecimal (Hex) Number System — = 35 Conversion of Bases, es — a a3, Decimal Conversion 43 Binary Conversion, a - a 53 Octal Conversion 57 Hex Conversion a Conversion to Decimal 61 Binary-Coded Decimal et 67 3 Module 5.2 Numbering Syst Leaner dna “TTS integrated Training System 5.2 Numbering Systems Samay ator (© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Module 5.2 Enabling Objectives Objective: EASA 66 Reference _| Level Numbering Systems: 5.2 2 Numbering systems: binary, octal and hexadecimal ‘Demonstration of conversions between the decimal and binary, octal and hexadecimal systems and vice versa, 4 ime ei oo Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Saya © Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Numbering Systems - General Mans' earliest number or counting system was probably developed to help determine how many possessions a person had. As daily activities became more complex, numbers became more important in trade, time, distance, and all other phases of human life. You realize that you need more than your fingers and toes to keep track of the numbers in your daily routine, Ever since people discovered that it was necessary to count objects, they have been looking for easier ways to count them. The abacus, developed by the Chinese, is one of the earliest known calculators. Its stil in use in some parts of the world. The first adding machine was invented by Blaise Pascal (French) in 1642. Twenty years later, an Englishman, Sir Samuel Moreland, developed a more compact device that could multiply, add, and subtract. About 1672, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (German) perfected a machine that could perform all the basic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide), as well as extract the square root. Modem electronic digital computers still use von Liebniz's principles. Modern Use Computers are now employed wherever repeated calculations or the processing of huge amounts of data is needed. The greatest applications are found in the military, scientific, and ‘commercial fields. They have applications that range from mail sorting, through engineering design, to the identification and destruction of enemy targets. The advantages of digital computers include speed, accuracy, and man-power savings. Often computers are able to take over routine jobs and release personnel for more important work - work that cannot be handled by a computer. People and computers do not normally speak the same language. Methods of translating information into forms that are understandable and usable to both are necessary. Humans generally speak in words and numbers expressed in the decimal number system, while Computers only understand coded electronic pulses that represent digital information, In this chapter you will learn about number systems in general and about binary, octal, and hexadecimal (which we will refer to as hex) number systems specifically. Methods for converting ‘numbers in the binary, octal, and hex systems to equivalent numbers in the decimal system (and vice versa) will also be described. You will see that these number systems can be easily converted to the electronic signals necessary for digital equipment. Until now, you have probably used only one number system, the decimal system. You may also be familiar with the Roman numeral system, even though you seldom use it. Module 5.2 Numbering SystemsIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank 6 Um nr an ‘TTS integrated Training System ee Sreustle dean © Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System The Decimal Number System In this chapter you will be studying modem number systems. You should realize that these systems have certain things in common. These common terms will be defined using the decimal system as our base. Each term will be related to each number system as that number system is. introduced. Each of the number systems you will study is built around the following components: the unit, number, and base (radix). Unit and Number The terms unit and number when used with the decimal system are almost self-explanatory. By definition the unit is a single object; that is, an apple, a pound, a day. A number is a symbol representing a unit or a quantity. The figures 0, 1, 2, and 3 through 9 are the symbols used in the decimal system. These symbols are called Arabic numerals or figures. Other symbols may be used for different number systems. For example, the symbols used with the Roman numeral ‘system are letters - V is the symbol for 5, X for 10, M for 1,000, and so forth. We will use Arabic numerals and letters in the number system discussions in this chapter. Base (Radix) The base, or radix, of a number system tells you the number of symbols used in that system. The base of any system is always expressed in decimal numbers. The base, or radix, of the decimal system is 10. This means there are 10 symbols - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 - used in the system. A number system using three symbols - 0, 1, and 2 - would be base 3; four symbols would be base 4; and so forth, Remember to count the zero or the symbol used for zero when determining the number of symbols used in a number system. The base of a number system is indicated by a subscript (decimal number) following the value of the number. The following are examples of numerical values in different bases with the subscript to indicate the base: 759249 2145 1234 656, You should notice the highest value symbol used in a number system is always one less than the base of the system. In base 10 the largest value symbol possible is 9; in base 5 it is 4; in base 3 itis 2. 7 TTS integrated Training System (© Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering SystemsIntegrated Training System Positional Notation and Zero You must observe two principles when counting or writing quantities or numerical values. They are the positional notation and the zero principles. Positional notation is a system where the value of a number is defined not only by the symbol but by the symbols position. Let's examine the decimal (base 10) value of 427.5. You know from experience that this value is four hundred twenty-seven and one-half. Now examine the position of each number: = represents 1/2 units This represents 7 units This represents 20 units This represents 400 units 427. If 427.5 is the quantity you wish to express, then each number must be in the position shown. If you exchange the positions of the 2 and the 7, then you change the value. Each position in the positional notation system represents a power of the base, or radix. A POWER is the number of times a base is multiplied by itself. The power is written above and to the right of the base and is called an EXPONENT. Examine the following base 10 line graph Radix Point 10? 10? 108 10° + 10710 10° 10° = 10x 100, of 1000 10° = 10x 10, or 100 10! = 10x 1, or 10 10° = 1 (any number m 101 = 1+10,0r-t 1+ 100, or 01 1+ 1000, or 001 ised to the power of 0 equals 1) = Module 5.2 Numbering Systems ere TTS integrated Trang System Sone © Copyrat 2008& lore! Training Support Integrated Training System Now let's look at the value of the base 10 number 427.5 with the positional notation line graph: Radix Point We 10s We 103 4.2 7-5 10 = 4X100, or 400 to! = 2x10, or 20 WW? = 7x1,0r7 1! = 5x.1or 5 = You can see that the power of the base is multiplied by the number in that position to determine the value for that position. The following graph illustrates the progression of powers of 10: Radix “— i 1 1? ot We io" 10? 0? All numbers to the left of the decimal point are whole numbers, and all numbers to the right of the decimal point are fractional numbers. A whole number is a symbol that represents one, or more, complete objects, such as one apple or £5. A fractional number is a symbol that represents a portion of an object, such as half of an apple (0.5 apples) or a quarter of a pound (£0.25). A mixed number represents one, or more, complete objects, and some portion of an object, such as one and a half apples (1.5 apples). When you use any base other than the decimal system, the division between whole numbers and fractional numbers is referred to as. the RADIX POINT. The decimal point is actually the radix point of the decimal system, but the term radix point is normally not used with the base 10 number system Just as important as positional notation is the use of the zero. The placement of the zero in a number can have quite an effect on the value being represented. Sometimes a position in a number does not have a value between 1 and 9. Consider how this would affect your next paycheck. If you were expecting a check for £605.47, you wouldn't want it to be £65.47. Leaving ‘out the zero in this case means a difference of £540.00. In the number 605.47, the zero indicates that there are no tens. If you place this value on a bar graph, you will see that there are no multiples of 10" 9 ‘TTS Integrated Training System (© Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems YaaTi Integrated Training System oo Point Most Significant Digit and Least Significant Digit (MSD and LSD) icant Other important factors of number systems that you should recognize are the most sig digit (MSD) and the least significant digit (LSD). The MSD in a number is the digit that has the greatest effect on that number. The LSD in a number is the digit that has the /east effect on that number. Look at the following examples: Wie 1876+0 MSD——y y— LD 473-022 Weve 0.03269 You can easily see that a change in the MSD will increase or decrease the value of the number the greatest amount. Changes in the LSD will have the smallest effect on the value. The nonzero digit of a number that is the farthest LEFT is the MSD, and the nonzero digit farthest RIGHT is the LSD, as in the following example: 00401.00200 | MSD LSD In a whole number the LSD will always be the digit immediately to the left of the radix point. 57930.0 | [Lees eon MSD LSD 0 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems ‘TS tegrated Traning Systom © Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Carry and Borrow Principles ‘Soon after you learned how to count, you were taught how to add and subtract. At that time, you learned some concepts that you use almost everyday. Those concepts will be reviewed using the decimal system. They will also be applied to the other number systems you will study. Addition - Addition is a form of counting in which one quantity is added to another. The following definitions identify the basic terms of addition: * augend - The quantity to which an addend is added + addend - A number to be added to a preceding number * sum - The result of an addition (the sum of § and 7 is 12) Carry - A carry is produced when the sum of two or more digits in a vertical column equals or exceeds the base of the number system in use. How do we handle the carry; that is, the two-digit number generated when a carry is produced? The lower order digit becomes the sum of the column being added; the higher order digit (the carry) is added to the next higher order column. For example, let's add 15 and 7 in the decimal system: 1 Cary 15 Augend +7 Addend 22 Sum Starting with the first column, we find the sum of 5 and 7 is 12. The 2 becomes the sum of the lower order column and the 1 (the carry) is added to the upper order column. The sum of the upper order column is 2. The sum of 15 and 7 is, therefore, 22. The rules for addition are basically the same regardless of the number system being used. Each number system, because it has a different number of digits, will have a unique digit addition table. These addition tables will be described during the discussion of the adding process for each number system. A decimal addition table is shown in table 2-1. The numbers in row X and column Y may represent either the addend or the augend. If the numbers in X represent the augend, then the fumbers in Y must represent the addend and vice versa. The sum of X + Y is located at the point in array Z where the selected X row and Y column intersect. " “TTS Integrated Tearing Sytem © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering SystemsIntegrated Training System Table 2-1 - Decimal Addition Table To add 5 and 7 using the table, first locate one number in the X row and the other in the Y column. The point in field Z where the row and column intersect is the sum. In this case the sum is 12. Subtraction - The following definitions identify the basic terms you will need to know to understand subtraction operations: ‘Subtract - To take away, as a part from the whole or one number from another ¢ minuend - The number from which another number is to be subtracted subtrahend - The quantity to be subtracted remainder, or difference - That which is left after subtraction Borrow - To transfer a digit (equal to the base number) from the next higher order column for the purpose of subtraction. Use the rules of subtraction and subtract 8 from 25. The form of this problem is probably familiar to you: 11s Cary 2% Minuend =8 Subtrahend T7 Difference It requires the use of the borrow, that is, you cannot subtract 8 from 5 and have a positive difference. You must borrow a 1, which is really one group of 10. Then, one group of 10 plus five groups of 1 equals 15, and 15 minus 8 leaves a difference of 7. The 2 was reduced by 1 by the borrow; and since nothing is to be subtracted from it, it is brought down to the difference. 12 Module 5.2 Numberin Un at ace “TS Integiated Teanng System ele te eed areas Syne © Copynignt 2008$B) Total Training Support Integrated Training System Since the process of subtraction is the opposite of addition, the addition table in table 2-1 may be used to illustrate subtraction facts for any number system we may discuss. In addition, X+Y In subtraction, the reverse is true; that is, Z-Y=X OR Z-X=¥ Thus, in subtraction the minuend is always found in array Z and the subtrahend in either row X or column Y. If the subtrahend is in row X, then the remainder will be in column Y. Conversely, if the subtrahend is in column Y, then the difference will be in row X. For example, to subtract 8 from 15, find 8 in either the X row or Y column. Find where this row or column intersects with a value of 15 for Z; then move to the remaining row or column to find the difference. i Module 6.2 Numbering Systems emacs aaceatle TTS intogratedTralning System Se © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank “ Module 5.2 Numbering Systems emi secng TTS Integrated Training Systom Eye © Copyright 2008GH Pore! Training Support Integrated Training System The Binary Number System The simplest possible number system is the binary, or base 2, system. You will be able to use the information just covered about the decimal system to easily relate the same terms to the binary system. Unit and Number The base, or radix - you should remember from our decimal section - is the number of symbols used in the number system. Since this is the base 2 system, only two symbols, 0 and 1, are used. The base is indicated by a subscript, as shown in the following example: k When you are working with the decimal system, you normally don't use the subscript. Now that you will be working with number systems other than the decimal system, itis important that you use the subscript so that you are sure of the system being referred to. Consider the following two numbers: 111 With no subscript you would assume both values were the same. If you add subscripts to indicate their base system, as shown below, then their values are quite different: 1tjp 14 The base ten number 11119 is eleven, but the base two number 112s only equal to three in base ten. There will be occasions when more than one number system will be discussed at the same time, so you MUST use the proper subscript. Positional Notation As in the decimal number system, the principle of positional notation applies to the binary number system. You should recall that the decimal system uses powers of 10 to determine the value of a position. The binary system uses powers of 2 to determine the value of a position. A bar graph showing the positions and the powers of the base is shown below: 15 TTS Integrated Teaning System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering SystemsIntegrated Training System 24 23 22 21 20, 21 2223 24 is equal to 2x 2x22, or 169 23 is equal to 2x 2x 2, or 819 22 is equal to 2x 2, or 4p 2 is equal to 2 1, or 29 29 is equal to Lip 27 is equal to 1/2, or .Sy9 2% is equal to 1/4, or 2549 23 is equal to 1/8, or 12549 ‘All numbers or values to the left of the radix point are whole numbers, and all numbers to the right of the radix point are fractional numbers, Let's look at the binary number 101.1 on a bar graph: 22 gh ge, x 101.1 Working from the radix point to the right and left, you can determine the decimal equivalent: Table 2-2 provides a comparison of decimal and binary numbers. Notice that each time the total number of binary symbol positions increases, the binary number indicates the next higher power of 2. By this example, you can also see that more symbol positions are needed in the binary system to represent the equivalent value in the decimal system 16 “TTS integrated Tearing System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems sana ayS Total Training Support Integrated Training System DECIMAL |_BINARY Table 2-2 - Decimal and Binary Comparison MSD and LSD When you're determining the MSD and LSD for binary numbers, use the same guidelines you used with the decimal system. As you read from left to right, the first nonzero digit you encounter is the MSD, and the last nonzero digit is the LSD. 01010011.001% | Tl MSD — Radix Point LSD If the number is a whole number, then the first digit to the left of the radix point is the LSD. 10st 000i | tI MsD LSD Radix Point 10101010.2 [| MSD LSD Radix Point 17 TS intograted Training Systom © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering SystemsIntegrated Training System Here, as in the decimal system, the MSD is the digit that will have the most effect on the number; the LSD is the digit that will have the least effect on the number. The two numerals of the binary system (1 and 0) can easily be represented by many electrical or electronic devices. For example, 12 may be indicated when a device is active (on), and Oz may be indicated when a device is non-active (off) liq Figure 2.1 = LEDs switched ON or OFF to represent the binary numbering system Look at the preceding figure. It illustrates a very simple binary counting device. Notice that 12 is indicated by a lighted lamp and 07 is indicated by an unlighted lamp. The reverse will work equally well. The unlighted state of the lamp can be used to represent a binary 1 condition, and the lighted state can represent the binary 0 condition. Both methods are used in digital computer applications. Many other devices are used to represent binary conditions. They include switches, relays, diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits (ICs). Addition of Binary Numbers Addition of binary numbers is basically the same as addition of decimal numbers. Each system has an augend, an addend, a sum, and carries. The following example will refresh your memory: 1 Cany 15 Augend +7 Addend 22 Sum Since only two symbols, 0 and 1, are used with the binary system, only four combinations of addition are possible. o+0 1+0 O+1 1+ The sum of each of the first three combinations is obvious: 18 Module 5.2 Numbering System: sean cee ‘TTS Integrated Training System 1g Systems Sore: © Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System 0+0=02 Orley 1+0=12 The fourth combination presents a different situation. The sum of 1 and 1 in any other number system is 2, but the numeral 2 does not exist in the binary system. Therefore, the sum of 1) and 12 is 102 (spoken as one zero base two), which is equal to 210. 1 Cany 1, Augend +p Addend “TO, Sum Study the following examples using the four combinations mentioned above: 101, Augend + 010, Addend Til, Sum 1 Canny 101, Augend + 101, Addend 1010, Sum When a carry is produced, it is noted in the column of the next higher value or in the column immediately to the left of the one that produced the carry. Example: Add 10112 and 11012. Solution: Write out the problem as shown: 1011; Augend + 11012 Addend ‘As we noted previously, the sum of 1 and 1 is 2, which cannot be expressed as a single digit in the binary system. Therefore, the sum of 1 and 1 produces a carry: 1 Cany 1011, Augend + 1101, Addend 02 The following steps, with the carry indicated, show the completion of the addition: 19 se aa acne oo Module 5.2 Numbering Systems sees (© Copyright 2008Training Sup Integrated Training System Previous Carry Used ue Cany 10112 Augend + 1101) Addend 0, When the carry is added, it is marked through to prevent adding it twice. Previous Cary Used ww Cany 1011, Augend + 1101, Addend 000; Previous Carry Used ux Cany 1011, Augend + M01, Addend 11000, In the final step the remaining carry is brought down to the sum. In the following example you will see that more than one carry may be produced by a single column. This is something that does not occur in the decimal system. Example: Add 12, 12, 1a, and 12 1, Augend 1) Ast Addend tz 2nd Addend +1 3rd Addend ‘The sum of the augend and the first addend is 0 with a carry. The sum of the second and third addends is also 0 with a carry. At this point the solution resembles the following example: 1 Cany 1 Cany ty Augend 1) AstAddend 4g 2nd Addend +1) 2d Addend 20 Module 6.2 Numbering Systems TTS negates Tring System ce Seneibfecren copy 2008S Total Training Support Integrated Training System The sum of the carries is 0 with a carry, so the sum of the problem is as follows: 1 Cany 11 Cany 1p Augend 1, 1st Addend 4g 2nd Addend + 1 3rd Addend 1002 The same situation occurs in the following example: Add 1002, 1012, and 1112 1002 Augend 101; Addend + 111 Addend 1 Cany 100, Augend 101, Addend + Ul, Addend 02 Sum 1 Cany 1002 Augend 101 Addend + 11ty Addend 00, Sum As in the previous example, the sum of the four 1s is 0 with two caries, and the sum of the two carries is 0 with one carry. The final solution will look like this: | Oany, una Cany 1002 Augend 101, Addend + 111, Addend 10000, Sum In the addition of binary numbers, you should remember the following binary addition rules: a scandy cng a Module 5.2 Numbering Systems =e (© Copyright 2008sy : 5 Integrated Training System Rule 1: 02 + 02 = 02 Rule 2: 12 +0, = 1 Rule 3: 02 + 12= 12 Rule 4: 12 + 1) = 102 ‘Subtraction of Binary Numbers. Now that you are familiar with the addition of binary numbers, subtraction will be easy. The following are the four rules that you must observe when subtracting: Oy le= 1, with a borrow The following example (101102 - 11002) demonstrates the four rules of binary subtraction: 10110, Minuend = 11003 Subtrahend 7010, Difference Rule 1; 02- 02 = 02 Rule 2: 12-02 = 12 Rule 3: 12-12 = 02 Rule 4: (Explained below) Rule 4 presents a different situation because you cannot subtract 1 from 0. Since you cannot subtract 1 from 0 and have a positive difference, you must borrow the 1 from the next higher order column of the minuend. The borrow may be indicated as shown below: ee ‘Module 5.2 Numbering Systems TS Intograted Training Systom en © Copysght 2008© Total Training Support Integrated Training System Deo rT) Borrow 0 After borrow 40110, Minuend = 11002 Subtrahend 10102 Difference Rule 4; (02-12) Now observe the following method of borrowing across more than one column in the example, 1000, - 12: 11 Borrow aww After borrow (base 2) £0002 Minuend a. 1, Subtrahend 0111; Difference 23 : : Module 5.2 Numbering Systems se ge TTS igrated Tring Systm ele che seme © Copyright 2008Total Ti 0 Integrated Training System ‘Complementary Subtraction If you do any work with computers, you will soon find out that most digital systems cannot subtract - they can only add. You are going to need a method of adding that gives the results of subtraction. Does that sound confusing? Really, itis quite simple. A complement is used for our subtractions. A complement is something used to complete something else. In most number systems you will find two types of complements. The first is the amount necessary to complete a number up to the highest number in the number system. In the decimal system, this would be the difference between a given number and all 9s. This is called the nines complement or the radix-1 or R's-1 complement. As an example, the nines complement of 254 is 999 minus 254, or 745. The second type of complement is the difference between a number and the next higher power of the number base. As an example, the next higher power of 10 above 999 is 1,000. The difference between 1,000 and 254 is 746. This is called the tens complement in the decimal number system. It is also called the radix or R's complement. We will use complements to subtract. Let's look at the magic of this process. There are three important points we should mention before we start: (1) Never complement the minuend in a problem, (2) always disregard any carry beyond the number of positions of the largest of the original numbers, and (3) add the R's complement of the original subtrahend to the original minuend. This will have the same effect as subtracting the original number. Let's look at a base ten example in which we subtract 38 from 59: Rs Complement 59 | 100 59 Add the R's = 38-+|- 38 |-++62 complement of 38 21 121 Le ping ay cay Now let's look at the number system that most computers use, the binary system. Just as the decimal system, had the nines (R's-1) and tens (R's) complement, the binary system has two types of complement methods. These two types are the ones (R's-1) complement and the twos (R's) complement. The binary system R's-1 complement is the difference between the binary number and all 1s. The R's complement is the difference between the binary number and the next higher power of 2 Let's look at a quick and easy way to form the R’s-1 complement. To do this, change each 1 in the original number to 0 and each 0 in the original number to 1 as has been done in the example below. 10110112 01001002 R's-1 complement 24 TS Integrated Tealning System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems se a ett (evento tteHore! Training Support Integrated Training System There are two methods of achieving the R's complement. In the first method we perform the R's- 4 complement and then add 1. This is much easier than subtracting the original number from the next higher power of 2. If you had subtracted, you would have had to borrow. Saying it another way, to reach the R's complement of any binary number, change all 1s to Os and all Os to 1s, and then add 1. ‘As an example let's determine the R's complement of 101011012: Step 1~R’s-1complement 01010010 Step 2~ Add 1: + hy 010100112 The second method of obtaining the R's complement will be demonstrated on the binary number 001011011002. Step 1 - Start with the LSD, working to the MSD, writing the digits as they are up to and including the first one. first one 0010110100, 1002 Step 2-Now R's-1 complement the remaining digits: first one } 4101001100, x R’s-1 complement of remaining digits Now let's R's complement the same number using both methods: 25 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Prorat eta “TS integrated Teining Systm Sea Copy 208Integrated Training System Method 1 10011002 01100112 R’s-1 complement + ty Add1 0110100; R's complement answer Method 2 10011002 91101003 R’s-4 complement G1101005 7 Unchanged digits R’s-1 complement of remaining digits Now let's do some subtracting by using the R's complement method. We will go through the subtraction of 310 from 910 (001 12 rom 10012) Mo 1001, Minuend 310 - 0011, Subtrahend Step 1 - Leave the minuend alone: 10012 remains 1001 Step 2 - Using either method, R's complement the subtrahend: 11012 R's complement of subtrahend Step 3 - Add the R's complement found in step 2 to the minuend of the original problem: 10012 Original minuend + 11042 R's complement of subtrahend 101102 Difference of original problem Step 4 - Remember to discard any carry beyond the size of the original number. Our original problem had four digits, so we discard the carry that expanded the difference to five digits. This ‘carry we disregard is significant to the computer. It indicates that the difference is positive. Because we have a carry, we can read the difference directly without any further computations. Let's check our answer: ee Module 5.2 Numbering Systems ana tc TTS integrated Traning System —eeee 1 Copyright 2008© Total Training Support Integrated Training System 1001, = 9y = 00142 1 01102 Discard If we do not have a carry, it indicates the difference is a negative number. In that case, the difference must be R's complemented to produce the correct answer. Let's look at an example that will explain this for you. Subtract 90 from 540 (10012 from 01012): Sip 0101, Minuend 9p =10012 Subtrahend “40 Step 1 - Leave the minuend alone: 01012 remains 01012 Step 2 - R's complement the subtrahend: 01112 R's complement of subtrahend Step 3 - Add the R's complement found in step 2 to the minuend of the original problem: 01012 Original minuend +0111 Twos complement 11002 Difference of original problem ‘Step 4 - We do not have a carry; and this tells us, and any computer, that our difference (answer) is negative. With no carry, we must R's complement the difference in step 3. We will then have arrived at the answer (difference) to our original problem. Let's do this R's complement step and then check our answer: 0100, R's complement of difference in step 3 Remember, we had no carry in step 3. That showed us our answer was going to be negative. Make sure you indicate the difference is negative. Let's check the answer to our problem: 01012 = Sp 10019 = 01002 ae Module 5.2 Numbering System: TTS negated Trang Sytem ae Sere Seen copy 208,> Training Suppo Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 28 TTS intgratd Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems ert© rere! Training Support Integrated Training System The Octal Number System The octal, or base 8, number system is a common system used with computers. Because of its relationship with the binary system, itis useful in programming some types of computers. Look closely at the comparison of binary and octal number systems in table 2-3. You can see that one octal digit is the equivalent value of three binary digits. The following examples of the conversion of octal 2253 to binary and back again further illustrate this comparison: Octal to binary Binary to Octal Table 2-3. - Binary and Octal Comparison Unit and Number ‘The terms that you leamed in the decimal and binary sections are also used with the octal system. The unit remains a single object, and the number is still a symbol used to represent one or more units. 29 jule 5.2 Numbering Systems rds TTS Integrated Training System anes. ing Syster Prorat ae (© Conyriaht 200834 TS integrated Training System © Copyraht 2008 Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank Module 6.2 Numbering SystemsS Total Training Support Integrated Training System The Hexadecimal (Hex) Number System The hex number system is a more complex system in use with computers. The name is derived from the fact the system uses 16 symbols. It is beneficial in computer programming because of its relationship to the binary system. Since 16 in the decimal system is the fourth power of 2 (or 2"); one hex digit has a value equal to four binary digits. Table 2-5 shows the relationship between the two systems. BINARY 1st 10110 101 11000 11001 11010 1011 11100 Table 2-5. - Binary and Hexadecimal Comparison Unit and Number As in each of the previous number systems, a unit stands for a single object. ‘Annumber in the hex system is the symbol used to represent a unit or quantity. The Arabic numerals 0 through 9 are used along with the first six letters of the alphabet. You have probably used letters in math problems to represent unknown quantities, but in the hex system A, B, C, D, E, and F, each have a definite value as shown below: 35 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems TS Integrated Teaning System © Copyright 20087 pe Integrated Training System Aig = 1019 By = 11 Crp = 1219 Dig = 139 Eng = 1410 Fig = 1510 Base (Radix) The base, or radix, of this system is 16, which represents the number of symbols used in the system. A quantity expressed in hex will be annotated by the subscript 16, as shown below: ASEF ic Positional Notation Like the binary, octal, and decimal systems, the hex system is a positional notation system. Powers of 16 are used for the positional values of a number. The following bar graph shows the positions: 163 16? 161169 + 161167 163 Multiplying the base times itself the number of times indicated by the exponent will show the equivalent decimal value: 16? = 16 x 16 x 16, or 409610 16? = 16 x 16, o 256, 16! = 169 16) = Lig 161= z or 06259 162 Tanto’ o 003906210 16 or .0002441 59, ” TExTOx16" You can see from the positional values that usually fewer symbol positions are required to ‘express a number in hex than in decimal. The following example shows this comparison: 36 Module 6.2 Numbering Systems Use anr acer TS intogratod Training Systom sete a, © Copyraht 2008 :& lore! Training Support Integrated Training System 62546 is equal to 157310 MSD and LSD ‘The most significant and least significant digits will be determined in the same manner as the other number systems. The following examples show the MSD and LSD of whole, fractional, and mixed hex numbers: Oy it MSD LSD Radix Point ,182A6 Radix MSD LSD Point 3BC.E 42 Fe | MSD Radix LSD Point Addition of Hex Numbers The addition of hex numbers may seem intimidating at first glance, but it is no different than addition in any other number system. The same rules apply. Certain combinations of symbols produce a carry while others do not. Some numerals combine to produce a sum represented by aletter. After a little practice you will be as confident adding hex numbers as you are adding decimal numbers. Study the hex addition table in table 2-6. Using the table, add 7 and 7. Locate the number 7 in both columns X and Y. The point in area Z where these two columns intersect is the sum; in this case 7 +7 = E. As long as the sum of two numbers is 1510 oF less, only one symbol is used for the sum. A carry will be produced when the sum of two numbers is 1610 or greater, as in the following examples: 815 Aus De aobG tebe ee 1016 17% 16 37 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems seabyt et ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘Soman 2 th nse © Copyright 2008 ”To Integrated Training System Table 2-6. - Hexadecimal Addition Table Use the addition table and follow the solution of the following problems: 4564 Augend + 784i Addend BDAg Sum In this example each column is straight addition with no carry. Now add the addend (78415) and the sum (BDA\s) of the previous problem: i cay, 784 Augend +¥BDAg Addend 135Ej5 Sum Here the sum of 4 and A is E. Adding 8 and D is 1516; write down 5 and carry a 1. Add the first carry to the 7 in the next column and add the sum, 8, to B. The result is 13:6; write down 3 and carry a 1. Since only the last carry is left to add, bring it down to complete the problem. Now observe the procedures for a more complex addition problem. You may find it easier to add the Arabic numerals in each column first: 38 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems sent cs TTS inogratas Tring System Sueea tates © Copyright 2008© Tore! Training Support Integrated Training System 141 Cany Cldjg Augend 19Ey, Addend S71 Addend + _BB3jp Addend 1ED6y¢ Sum The sum of 4, E, 1, and 3 in the first column is 167s. Write down the 6 and the carry. In the Second column, 1, 1, 9, and 7 equals 121s. Write the carry over the next column, Add B and 2 = the sum is D. Write this in the sum line. Now add the final column, 1, 1, 5, and C. The sum is {'316, Write down the carry; then add 3 and B - the sum is E. Write down the E and bring down the final carry to complete the problem. Subtraction of Hex Numbers ‘he subtraction of hex numbers looks more difficult than it rally is. In the preceding sections you leamed all the rules for subtraction. Now you need only to apply those rules to a new number system. The symbols may be different and the amount of the borrow is different, but the rules remain the same. Use the hex addition table (table 2-6) to follow the solution of the following problems: ABCs Minuend 264215 Subtrahend Working from left to right, rst locate the subtrahend (2) in column Y. Follow this line across area Z until you reach C. The difference is located in column X directly above the C - in this case A. Use this same procedure to reach the solution: ABC, Minuend 264216 Subtrahend 47Aqg Difference Now examine the following solutions: ‘TESE yg Minuend > 47146 Subtrahend 3744\5 Difference 1E9C4y Minuend ~_F4Alyg Subtrahend F52315 Difference In the previous example, when F was subtracted from 1, a borrow was used. Since you cannot subtract F from E and have a positive difference, a borrow of 1016 was taken from the noxt = Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Sane cat TTS integrated Training System Stones oer © Copyright 2008T 0 Integrated Training System higher value column, The borrow was added to E, and the higher value column was reduced by A “The following example shows the use of the borrow in a more difficult problem: 105 Brow 2 Minuend reduced by 1 & 7g Minuend ‘4 By Subtrahend Cyp Difference In this first step, B cannot be subtracted from 7, so you take a borrow of 101 from the next higher value column, Add the borrow to the 7 in the minuend: then subtract (17 minus Bre equals C;«). Reduce the number from which the borrow was taken (3) by 1 To subtract 4:6 from 216 also requires a borrow, as shown below: 1041, Bonow 42 Minuend reduced by 1 AZ Tp Minuend C4 By Subtrehend E Cy Difference 4 eae Borrow 10% from the A and reduce the minuend by 1. Add the borrow to the 2 and subtract 40 from 121s. The difference is E. When solved the problem looks like this: 1010 0 Bomrow (Base 16) 3 ¢ 2 Minuend reduced by 1 HAE Tp Minuend - 26 “4 Bye Subtrahend T DE Cy Difference Remember that the borrow is 1016 not 1010. ‘There may be times when you need to borrow from a column that has a 0 in the minuend, In that case, you borrow from the next highest value column, which will provide you with a value in the 0 column that you can borrow from. 40 ‘TS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems reneS Total Training Support Integrated Training System ¥ —_Boow reduced by 1 40 Borrow (Base 16) 1 Minuend reduced by 1 20 Tg Minuend Aig Subtrahend TF Dy Difference To subtract A from 7, you must borrow. To borrow you must first borrow from the 2. The 0 becomes 1016, which can give up a borrow. Reduce the 101s by 1 to provide a borrow for the 7. Reducing 101s by 1 equals F. Subtracting Ayg from 176 gives you Dis. Bring down the 1 and F for a difference of 1FDis. a1 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Unt dea TTS iterated Teining Sytem jodule 6.2 Numbering Sy a {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 42 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems TIS integrated Training System © Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System Conversion of Bases ‘We mentioned in the introduction to this chapter that digital computers operate on electrical pulses. These pulses or the absence of, are easily represented by binary numbers. A pulse can represent a binary 1, and the lack of a pulse can represent a binary 0 or vice versa The sections of this chapter that discussed octal and hex numbers both mentioned that their number systems were beneficial to programmers. You will see later in this section that octal and hex numbers are easily converted to binary numbers and vice versa If you are going to work with computers, there will be many times when it will be necessary to convert decimal numbers to binary, octal, and hex numbers. You will also have to be able to convert binary, octal, and hex numbers to decimal numbers. Converting each number system to each of the others will be explained. This will prepare you for converting from any base to any other base when needed. Decimal Conversion Some computer systems have the capability to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers. They do this by using additional circuitry. Many of these systems require that the decimal numbers be converted to another form before entry. Decimal to Binary Conversion of a decimal number to any other base is accomplished by dividing the decimal number by the radix of the system you are converting to. The following definitions identify the basic terms used in division: © dividend - The number to be divided © divisor - The number by which a dividend is divided quotient - The number resulting from the division of one number by another remainder - The final undivided part after division that is less or of a lower degree than the divisor To convert a base 10 whole number to its binary equivalent, first set up the problem for division: 2)10 Step 1 - Divide the base 10 number by the radix (2) of the binary system and extract the remainder (this becomes the binary number's LSD). 2 Quotient Divisor 2)5;5 4 1 Remainder +1 43 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems rsa acon ecanen amet eee page cs coca © Copyright 2008ral Training Suppo Integrated Training System Step 2 - Continue the division by dividing the quotient of step 1 by the radix (2/2) 1 (Quotient from step 1) 2 2 0 Remainder ——+0 Step 3 - Continue dividing quotients by the radix until the quotient becomes smaller that the divisor; then do one more division. The remainder is our MSD. (Quotient from step 2) oO mn 0 1 Remainder-———+1 The remainder in step 1 is our LSD. Now rewrite the solution, and you will see that 5io equals 1012. Now follow the conversion of 239 to binary: Step 1 - Set up the problem for division: 27239 Step 2 - Divide the number and extract the remainder: In ale 1 Remainder —+1 (LSD) 44 Module 5.2 Numbering System: esa dca {TTS Integrated Trainng System Pa eee inane yt ate © Copyeaht 2008 Siagebdime seem® Total Training Support Integrated Training System 5 2)TT (Quotient from previous step) 10 1 Remsinder ——1 2 2)8 (Quotient from previous step) 4 1 Remainder 1 el 292 (Quotient from previous step) 2 0 Reminder ——9 Oo 2)T (Quotient from previous step) 0 1 Remainder 1 (usp) Step 3 - Rewrite the solution from MSD to LSD: 101112 No matter how large the decimal number may be, we use the same procedure. Let's try the problem below. It has a larger dividend: 2y105 10 05 4 1——1 (LSD) 45 jule 6.2 Numbering Systems. {TTS Integrated Teaning System Module 6.2 Numbering Sys (© Copynght 20089 Integrated Training System | 0 i 0 7 105;pequals 1101001, We can convert fractional decimal numbers by multiplying the fraction by the radix and extracting the portion of the product to the Jeff of the radix point. Continue to multiply the fractional portion of the previous product until the desired degree of accuracy is attained. Let's go through this process and convert 0.2510 to its binary equivalent: 46 (Use andor dione is T13 royate Tang Sytem been eaten teed Sono Senge 2008SH rere! Training Support Integrated Training System 219 2 MsD+—0«——050 x2 LsD+—1+-— 1.00 The first figure to the left of the radix point is the MSD, and the last figure of the computation is the LSD. Rewrite the solution from MSD to LSD preceded by the radix point as shown: 0.012 Now try converting .62510 to binary: MSD+—1-——1.250 2 0+—0.500 2 LsD+—1+——1.000 Meee 0.000 62549 equals .101, ‘As we mentioned before, you should continue the operations until you reach the desired accuracy. For example, convert .42510 to five places in the binary system: 425 car MSD+—0+—— 0850 xe 1+——1.700 oe 1+-——1.400 cde. 0+——0.800 x2 1-——1.600 ie 1-——1.200 2 LsD+—0+—0 400 47 fodule 5.2 tems oe ‘TS integrated Training System biased eel lcaated reeatoy beer TiS etegrated Boeri arnesTote i Suppl Integrated Training System Although the multiplication was carried out for seven places, you would only use what is required. Write out the solution as shown: 0.011012 To convert a mixed number such as 37.62510 to binary, split the number into its whole and fractional components and solve each one separately. In this problem carry the fractional part to four places. When the conversion of each is completed, recombine it with the radix point as shown below: 3749 = 1001012 62549 =.1010 37.625jp = 10010110102 Decimal to Octal The conversion of a decimal number to its base 8 equivalent is done by the repeated division method, You simply divide the base 10 number by 8 and extract the remainders. The first remainder will be the LSD, and the last remainder will be the MSD. Look at the following example. To convert 1510 to octal, set up the problem for division: 8) Since 8 goes into 15 one time with a 7 remainder, 7 then is the LSD. Next divide 8 into the quotient (1). The result is a 0 quotient with a 1 remainder. The 1 is the MSD: 1 8)Ibi & 7— 7(LSD) 0 et 2 1— 1 (Msp) Now write out the number from MSD to LSD as shown: 1Ts The same process is used regardless of the size of the decimal number. Naturally, more divisions are needed for larger numbers, as in the following example: Convert 26449 to octal: 48 TTS Intograted Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering SystemsS Total Training Support Integrated Training System 24 0—+ 0(LSD) © Ico"<3] 3 | sio‘Fle ——+ 4(MsD) By rewriting the solution, you find that the octal equivalent of 26419 is as follows: 4103 To convert a decimal fraction to octal, multiply the fraction by 8. Extract everything that appears to the left of the radix point. The first number extracted will be the MSD and will follow the radix point. The last number extracted will be the LSD. Convert 0.0549 to octal: LspD 4— 6 4— 640 Write the solution from MSD to LSD: 031463 You can carry the conversion out to as many places as needed, but usually four or five places are enough. 49 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Seen TTS ntagate Tain Sytem Reeiaeeee (© Copyright 2008g Integrated Training System To convert a mixed decimal number to its octal equivalent, split the number into whole and fractional portions and solve as shown below: Convert 105.5894 to octal: 13 sfios 8 25 24 1 ———— 1 asp) Msp 44—— 472 Combine the portions into a mixed number: 151.4554, 50 Use anor ecu is 118 itgatedTarng System ee Sumi ‘© Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Decimal to Hex To convert a decimal number to base 16, follow the repeated division procedures you used to. convert to binary and octal, only divide by 16. Let's look at an example: Convert 6310 to hex: 3 16 [63:0 48 1510 ——-® Fis ——® LSD 16| vpeeye ——> 3. ——> MSD Therefore, the hex equivalent of 6319 is 3F te. You have to remember that the remainder is in base 10 and must be converted to hex if it exceeds 9. Let's work through another example: Convert 17410 to hex: 10 alia 16 14 16[10 10; ———-P Are » MsD Write the solution from MSD to LSD: AEs There will probably be very few times when you will have to convert a decimal fraction to a hex fraction. If the occasion should arise, the conversion is done in the same manner as binary or octal. Use the following example as a pattern: Convert 0.69519 to hex: at Module 6.2 Numbering Systems TS integrated Training System © Copyright 2008Tr Supp Integrated Training System MSD <— By. ¢——— lis -— Ens Lsp ¢— Bu 4 The solution: .B1EBis ‘Should you have the need to convert a decimal mixed number to hex, convert the whole number and the fraction separately; then recombine for the solution. a Module 5.2 Numbering Systems a ae cn TTS Intgratod Training System Savas (© Copyright 2008Qe Training Support Integrated Training System Binary Conversion Earlier in this chapter, we mentioned that the octal and hex number systems are useful to ‘computer programmers. It is much easier to provide data to a computer in one or the other of these systems. Likewise, itis important to be able to convert data from the computer into one or the other number systems for ease of understanding the data Binary to Octal Look at the following numbers: 101110010011012 27115 You can easily see that the octal number is much easier to say. Although the two numbers look completely different, they are equal. Since 8 is equal to 2°, then one octal digit can represent three binary digits, as shown below: 05 = 0002 1g = 001 0102 3g = 0112 dg = 1002 5g = 1012 63 = 1102 7g = lily With the use of this principle, the conversion of a binary number is quite simple. As an example, follow the conversion of the binary number at the beginning of this section. Write out the binary number to be converted. Starting at the radix point and moving left, break the binary number into groups of three as shown. This grouping of binary numbers into groups of three is called binary-coded octal (BCO). Add 0s to the left of any MSD that will fill a group of three: 010 111.001 001 101+ 2 Radix Point Next, write down the octal equivalent of each group: 83 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Sora ye srt ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘Srpuge Zot comet © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System 001 |1012 58 To convert a binary fraction to its octal equivalent, starting at the radix point and moving right, expand each digit into a group of three: + 100 001 110 0112 Radix Point ‘Add 0s to the right of the LSD if necessary to form a group of three. Now write the octal digit for each group of three, as shown below: 100 Joo1 |110 Jo11.2 4}1] 6] 3s To convert a mixed binary number, starting at the radix point, form groups of three both right and left: 001] 110.2 1] 6% Radix Point Binary to Hex The table below shows the relationship between binary and hex numbers. You can see that four binary digits may be represented by one hex digit. This is because 16 is equal to 2°. 54 TTS Integrated Tealnng Syston ‘© Gopynght 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems® Total Training Support Integrated Training System HEX BINARY = 0000 = 0001 = 0010 = 0011 = 0100 = 0101 0110 111 1000 1001 = 1010 = 1011 1100 1101 = 1110 = 1111 Using this relationship, you can easily convert binary numbers to hex. Starting at the radix point and moving either right or left, break the number into groups of four. The grouping of binary into four bit groups is called binary-coded hexadecimal (BCH). Convert 1110100112 to hex: 0001] 1101] 0011. 2 SS Radix Point “6 ‘Add Os to the left of the MSD of the whole portion of the number and to the right of the LSD of the fractional part to form a group of four. Convert 1112 to hex: 11102 Exe In this case, if a 0 had not been added, the conversion would have been .7s, which is incorrect. 55 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems rove et TTS inayat Trang Sytem Remiaeeenn © Copyright 2008S\ Total Training Supp Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 56 ‘TS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems ane cngrm Training Support Integrated Training System Octal Conversion The conversion of one number system to another, as we explained earlier, is done to simplify ‘computer programming or interpreting of data Octal to Binary For some computers to accept octal data, the octal digits must be converted to binary. This process is the reverse of binary to octal conversion. To convert a given octal number to binary, write out the octal number in the following format. We will convert octal 5675: 5|6|% Next, below each octal digit write the corresponding three-digit binary-coded octal equivalent: 101} 110 | 1112 Solution: 567s equals 101 110 1112 Remove the conversion from the format: 4011101112 As you gain experience, it may not be necessary to use the block format. An octal fraction (.123g) is converted in the same manner, as shown below: 1f2 ]3 001 Jo10 | 0112 Solution: 0.1235 equals .0010100112 Apply these principles to convert mixed numbers as well. Convert 32.25s to binary: 3 | 2.] 2/5, 011 [010 O10] 102 57 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Une sn cnr TS Integrated Training System terre ere ©Copyright 2008SP Tota Integrated Training System Solution: 32.25 equals 011010.0101012 Octal to Hex You will probably not run into many occasions that call for the conversion of octal numbers to hex. Should the need arise, conversion is a two-step procedure. Convert the octal number to binary; then convert the binary number to hex. The steps to convert 53.75 to hex are shown below: Regroup the binary digits into groups of four and add zeros where needed to complete groups; then convert the binary to hex. Solution: 53.73 equals 2B.E16 58 7S iterated Ting Sytem Module 5.2 Numbering Systems © Gopyngnt 2008Hore! Training Support Integrated Training System Hex Conversion ‘The procedures for converting hex numbers to binary and octal are the reverse of the binary and octal conversions to hex. Hex to Binary To convert a hex number to binary, set up the number in the block format you used in earlier conversions. Below each hex digit, write the four-digit binary equivalent. Observe the following example: Convert ABCis to binary: 1010] 1011 [11002 Solution: ABCs = 1010101111002 Hex to Octal Just like the conversion of octal to hex, conversion of hex to octal is a two-step procedure. First, convert the hex number to binary; and second, convert the binary number to octal. Let's use the ‘same example we used above in the hex to binary conversion and convert it to octal: 59 Ma ering Systems, se te adonge TIS integrated Teining System Ceara oan © Copyright 2008 crning Supp Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank . Module 5.2 Numbering Systems man coat TS integrated Training System aod © Copyight 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System Conversion to Decimal Computer data will have little meaning to you if you are not familiar with the various number systems. It is often necessary to convert those binary, octal, or hex numbers to decimal numbers. The need for understanding is better illustrated by showing you a paycheck printed in binary. A check in the amount of £10,010,101.00, looks impressive but in reality only amounts 10 £149.00%0. Binary to Decimal The computer that calculates your pay probably operates with binary numbers, so a conversion takes place in the computer before the amount is printed on your check. Some computers, however, don't automatically convert from binary to decimal. There may be times when you must convert mathematically. To convert a base 2 number to base 10, you must know the decimal equivalent of each power of 2. The decimal value of a power of 2 is obtained by multiplying 2 by itself the number of times indicated by the exponent for whole numbers; for example, 2° = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 or 1640. For fractional numbers, the decimal value is equal to 1 divided by 2 multiplied by itself the number of times indicated by the exponent. Look at this example: 1 axon 12549 2 The table below shows a portion of the positions and decimal values of the binary system: Radix Point ppp ee fe 7 ee ee Remember, earlier in this chapter you learned that any number to the 0 power is equal to 10. ‘Another method of determining the decimal value of a position is to multiply the preceding value by 2 for whole numbers and to divide the preceding value by 2 for fractional numbers, as shown below: Radix Point Bo wo a pw Yor 22 23 32.168 4 2 1.7 5 .25 125 0625 MULTIPLY BY 2 DIVIDEBY 2 Let's convert a binary number to decimal by using the positional notation method. First, write out the number to be converted; then, write in the decimal equivalent for each position with a 1 61 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems TS negated Tring Sytem = © Copy 2008S\ro 9 Integrated Training System indicated, Add these values to determine the decimal equivalent of the binary number. Look at our example: Problem: 1 Decimal 32 Value: | You may want to write the decimal equivalent for each position as we did in the following ‘example. Add only the values indicated by a 1 25 2 ——p 4 pepenenenas cages a 2250 You should make sure that the decimal values for each position are properly aligned before adding. Octal to Decimal Conversion of octal numbers to decimal is best done by the positional notation method. This process is the one we used to convert binary numbers to decimal First, determine the decimal equivalent for each position by multiplying 8 by itself the number of times indicated by the exponent. Set up a bar graph of the positions and values as shown below: Equivalent: 62 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems Usenet TTS Integrated Teining System oy San {© Gopyignt 2008 mez sooS Total Training Support Integrated Training System To convert an octal number to decimal, write out the number to be converted, placing each digit under the proper position. Example: 4096 $12 64 8 1 743, Next, multiply the decimal equivalent by the corresponding digit of the octal number; then, add this column of figures for the final solution: 96_SI2_ 4 8 1 XT x4 x3 L_, 2 + 48 4830 Solution: 743g is equal to 48310 Now follow the conversion of 26525s to decimal: 4096 512 4 8 x2 x6 x5 x2 x5 5 16 300 3072 See aacecceee O1OD 11605%0 Solution: 1160519 is the decimal equivalent of 26,525. To convert a fraction or a mixed number, simply use the same procedure. Example: Change .5s to decimal: 125 x Bg oo 63 ‘Module 6.2 Numbering Systems oman detour ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘page 2m document Copy 208,a Integrated Training System Example: Convert 24.36 to decimal: 8 N25 015625 x2 x4, x3 XO —> YS 37500 4.00000 + 16.0000 20,4687510 Solution: 24.36, equals 20.4687510 If your prefer or find it easier, you may want to convert the octal number to binary and then to decimal. Hex to Decimal Itis difficult to comprehend the magnitude of a base 16 number until itis presented in base 10; for instance, E0%s is equal to 22410. You must remember that usually fewer digits are necessary to represent a decimal value in base 16. When you convert from base 16 to decimal, you may use the positional notation system for the powers of 16 (a bar graph). You can also convert the base 16 number to binary and then convert to base 10. Note in the bar graph below that each power of 16 results in a tremendous increase in the decimal equivalent. Only one negative power (16"') is shown for demonstration purposes: Positional ‘Nolation; Decitnial Equivalent: Just as you did with octal conversion, write out the hex number, placing each digit under the appropriate decimal value for that position. Multiply the decimal value by the base 16 digit and kal Module 5.2 Numbering Systems ee are ne “TTS Integrated Training System Se © Copyright 2008Tora! Training Support Integrated Training System add the values. (Convert A through F to their decimal equivalent before multiplying). Let's take a look at an example. Convert 2Cig to decimal: 4096 25616 . eee 2 +32. Ho The decimal equivalent of 2C 16 is 44:0. Use the same procedure we used with binary and octal to convert base 16 fractions to decimal. If you choose to convert the hex number to binary and then to decimal, the solution will look like this: 2 Ce 0010 — 4 8 7 Mie 65 TTS IntgratedTelning System (© Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering SystemsT Ti Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 66 ‘TS integratad Training System © Copyraht 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems emt ten4) Total Training Support Integrated Training System vy Binary-Coded Decimal In today's technology, you hear a great deal about microprocessors. A microprocessor is an integrated circuit designed for two purposes: data processing and control Computers and microprocessors both operate on a series of electrical pulses called words. A word can be represented by a binary number such as 101100112. The word length is described by the number of digits or BITS in the series. A series of four digits would be called a 4-bit word and so forth. The most common are 4-, 8-, and 16-bit words. Quite often, these words must use binary-coded decimal inputs. Binary-coded decimal, or BCD, is a method of using binary digits to represent the decimal digits 0 through 9. A decimal digit is represented by four binary digits, as shown below: BCD Decimal 0000 0001 0010 = 0011 = 0100 = o101 = o110 = oill = 1000 = 1001 = WOIKHRWKHHO You should note in the table above that the BCD coding is the binary equivalent of the decimal digit. Since many devices use BCD, knowing how to handle this system is important. You must realize that BCD and binary are not the same. For example, 4919 in binary is 1100012, but 4910 in BCD is 01001001aco. Each decimal digit is converted to its binary equivalent. BCD Conversion You can see by the above table, conversion of decimal to BCD or BCD to decimal is similar to the conversion of hexadecimal to binary and vice versa For example, let's go through the conversion of 26410 to BCD. We'll use the block format that you used in earlier conversions. First, write out the decimal number to be converted; then, below each digit write the BCD equivalent of that digit: ee Module 5.2 Numbering Systems nant coer TS intograted Training System See © Copyright 2000BP) Total Training Suppo Integrated Training System 0010] 0110] 0100gcp The BCD equivalent of 26419 is 001001100100aco. To convert from BCD to decimal, simply reverse the process as shown: 1001} 1000 | 0011p¢p BCD Addition ‘The procedures followed in adding BCD are the same as those used in binary. There is, however, the possibility that addition of BCD values will result in invalid totals. The following example shows this: Add 9 and 6 in BCD: 100s = 9 + 0110p = 6, INVALID BCD ~~~ Put 15. The sum 111112 is the binary equivalent of 15:0; however, 1111 is not a valid BCD number. You cannot exceed 1001 in BCD, so a correction factor must be made. To do this, you add 610 (0110sco) to the sum of the two numbers. The "add 6” correction factor is added to any BCD group larger than 10012. Remember, there is no 10102, 10112, 11002, 11012, 11402, or 11142 in BCD: tl > INVALID BCD + 0110s Add 610 0001 0101 <-—— New BCD The sum plus the add 6 correction factor can then be converted back to decimal to check the answer. Put any carries that were developed in the add 6 process into a new 4-bit word: 0001 _0104gep oi Now observe the addition of 6019 and 5540 in BCD: 68 r tems, ee ander cs TIS integrated Training System Leena aca © Copyright 2008 :® Total Training Support Integrated Training System 6 = 0110000090 55,9 = 0101 010lnco 10110101 INVALID BCD In this case, the higher order group is invalid, but the lower order group is valid. Therefore, the correction factor is added only to the higher order group as shown: 1011 0101 + 0110 0000 Add 610 0001 0001 01018co Convert this total to decimal to check your answer: O01 0001 O10Iaco 1 1 Si Remember that the correction factor is added only to groups that exceed 949 (1001gcp). 69 TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems° Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 70 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 5.2 Numbering Systems§®) Total Training Support Integrated Training System ) TTS Integrated Training System Module 5 Digital Techniques Electrical Instrument Systems 5.3 Data Conversion: i Integrated Training System Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category 81 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. ‘The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 + _ A familarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: ‘© The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. + The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. ‘+ The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 + Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + An abiity to apply that knowledge. Objectives: + The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. + The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. + The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. + The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. * The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 * A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject, * Accapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner, Objectives: * The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. ‘The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject ‘+The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's, instructions. ‘+The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate, 2 ander ect TIS IntegratadTralning System ee event eaten (© Copyright 2008 Sepeoe? ime scene© Total Training Support Integrated Training System Table of Contents Module 5.3 Data Conversion s Digital and Analogue Computers 5 Digital Bus, 6 ‘Typical Digital System Inputs 7 ‘Typical Digital System Outputs, 8 ‘Types of Computers 70 Digital to Analogue / Analogue to Digital Conversion, 415 Digital to Analogue Converters (DACs) ‘Analogue to Digital Converters (ADCs) DACIADC Specifications, 3 ‘Module 5.3 Data Conversion Sowerby serene TTS integrated Training System een © Copyight 2008pp Integrated Training System Module 5.3 Enabling Objectives Objective EASA 66 Reference | Level Data Conversion 53 2 ‘Analogue Data, Digital Data ‘Operation and application of analogue to digital, and digital to analogue converters, inputs and outputs, limitations of various types 4 “TTS integrated Training System (every Sct Module 5.3 Data Conversion sean acne © Copyright 2008 tae one@) Total Training Support Integrated Training System cy Module 5.3 Data Conversion Digital and Analogue Computers With new technological advances in computer development, an ever increasing number of digital computers are being used in the aviation industry. In addition to performing the traditional avionics functions, the digital computers are being used in new areas, such as thrust management and engine controls. With the use of these digital Systems, the flight crew's workload is reduced. Other important considerations in the use of digital computers are the reduction of system weight and size; increase in data handling speed, and improved system reliability. This contributes to an increase in overall aeroplane efficiency. OOVD VQOO 2 e© Ct oe Figure 3.1 - Analogue and Digital instrumentation systems Analogue computers Analogue computers are characterized by the processing of analogue signals. An analogue signal is an electrical signal whose amplitude varies continuously with time. Transducers, such as temperature and fuel sensors, provide voltage and current outputs proportional to the quantity being monitored. An analogue computer operates on a principle of creating a physical or electrical analogy using mathematical formulas. Variables, such as temperature or fuel flow, are represented by the magnitude of a physical phenomenon, such as voltage or current. The ‘computing process is accomplished by designing hardware to perform prescribed functions. To change algorithms most often requires a redesign of the circuit. Hence, analogue computers are not easily used in more than one operating environment. An analogue computer designed for the 727 aeroplane would not be easily converted for use in a 747 aeroplane. . Module 5.3 Data Conversion emir eee TTS hegnte Tanng Son ———— © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System _,| Anatogue Inputs NNN Computer Outputs WN > WW Figure 3.2 - An analogue computer Digital computers Digital is defined as incremental or stepped. A digital computer processes information and outputs an incremented or stepped output. This output can be used to control an on-off type device or to communicate with another digital device. The mathematical formulas used to process information and develop an output are stored in a program in the computer's memory. Should it become necessary to change these formulas, the computer program is simply modified. The ability to change a program, within a digital computer allows one computer to be used in many applications or on many airframe types. J nionn a | digit L, Outputs wmosts NAA) | compute Figure 3.3 - A digital computer Digital Bus Digital devices usually need to communicate with each other. One device will send information to another which will process this data and possibly send it to another device. The path or circuit over which these devices communicate is called a Digital Bus. This Digital Bus may be used to connect several sources to any of several destinations. For example, airspeed information is transmitted from the Air Data Computer to several different destinations over a Digital Bus called an ARINC 428 Bus. 6 ‘TS integrated Training System {© Conyeqht 2008 Module 5.3 Data Conversion mt tacOrn Training Support Integrated Training System EEE Figure 3.4 - Digital bus structure Typical Digital System Inputs One type of input used by digital systems is the discrete input. This is a high/low or on/off input used by the digital computer to indicate certain conditions taking place within the aeroplane. An example of a discrete input would be an input from the air/ground switch indicating whether the aircraft is on the ground or in the air. The digital computer would use this indication within its calculations. A fire detection input would be Digital inputs send digitally encoded data using a rapid series of pulses encoded in one of several forms. For example, the Air Data Computer sends a digital output representing airspeed to the computer on a Digital Bus. This digital input, called ARINC 429 information in this case, is a series of high and low levels or pulses which the computer uses for calculations using airspeed. 424V In Air Digital pa j Computer Ground? jf T Landing = j Sear E strut Figure 3.5 - Air/ground discrete input a Module 5.3 Data Conversion “TS iterated Taining System fone, © Copyign 008Integrated Training System Temperature Sensor Low = OK 10) High = Fire (1) Figure 3.6 - Fire Detection Discrete Input aa: [siannieaninnammicenmane)) oe Computer Computer Figure 3.7 - Airspeed Digital Input Typical Digital System Outputs Digital computers also utilize discretes as outputs and may use these discrete outputs to turn on and off other devices. For example, the computer controlled stall warning light in the cockpit is. illuminated by a high level output from the computer. Other examples may include illuminating the fire light with a high level output and turning on the fire bell circuit with a low level output. Digital outputs are generated from a computer in the form of high and low levels or pulses. The series of pulses can represent, for example, barometric altitude and is sent from the Air Data ‘Computer to the cabin pressurization system on a Digital Bus. This digital information is a type of ARINC information, . Module 5.3 Data Conversion Use co cactnu is Soap ns© lore! Tring Support Integrated Training System Digital Computer +28V Fire Light High = Bell ON Figure 3.8 - Fire warning controllers Air Data Computer System Figure 3.9 - Digital Air Data Computer controlling the Cabin Pressurization System 2 Module 6.3 Data Conversion sorter TTS integrated Training Sytem Sopp ocak © copy 2008ee Integrated Training System Types of Computers Interactive Computers Although computers can be classified as either digital or analogue or a combination of both, they can also be classified by their tasks or applications. One such application is a computer used as an interactive device. This computer displays information and through operator inputs and controls, the computer can either process this information, store it or retrieve different data from its memory. The Flight Management Computer (FMC) is an example of an interactive computer. The flight crew interfaces with the computer by means of the Control Display Unit (CDU) to input performance data, initialization data and route structure. The computer calculates optimum cost profiles for climb, cruise and descent used by the autopilot and autothrottle for automatic flight control. All computed values are also automatically displayed allowing the crew to fly an optimum profile using either the flight director or manual control. Control Display Flight unit Management Flight Management <—| Computer FMCH Figure 3.10 - Flight Management Computer 10 Module 5.3 Data Conversion TTS Intogtated Training Sytem (© Copyright 2008 ErionG Tote! Troinng Support Integrated Training System Reference computers ‘A computer which is used as a primary source of information or data is called a reference ‘computer. Reference signals from this computer are sent to other systems for use. A reference computer is usually self contained and provides only outputs. The Inertial Reference System (IRS) is one example of a reference computer. This system contains laser gyros and accelerometers. The IRS computer will generate such outputs as aeroplane attitude, heading, acceleration and angular information. This information is used as a reference by the Autothrottle Computer, the Flight Control Computers, the Horizontal Situation Indicators, and the Flight Management Computer. Inertial Reference System Laser Gyro Tiratte dea , srizontal | Taganagennent computer Smution, | | Compunore, Figure 3.11 - Inertial Reference System Storage computers Storage computers store information provided by other systems, other computers or by monitoring sections within the storage computers themselves. The stored information may be used by other computing systems, by the flight crew or by the maintenance crew. Examples of the stored information may include flight routes, total fuel on board, amount of overspeed on an engine, and maintenance status. The Electronic Engine Control Monitor (EECM) is a type of storage computer which stores fault data from the Electronic Engine Control (EEC) system. When an abnormality occurs on an engine, the data pertaining to that fault is stored within the EECM. When the EEC systems indicate a failure has occurred, the maintenance personnel can recall the faults from the EECM to determine the maintenance action. say a ent a Module 5.3 Data Conversion TIS nage Tsing Sytem Sony a008Integrated Training System With new technological advances in computer development, an ever increasing number of digital computers are being used in the aviation industry. In addition to performing the traditional avionics functions, the digital computers are being used in new areas, such as thrust. Other important considerations in the use of digital computers are the reduction of system weight and size; increase in data handling speed, and improved system reliability. This contributes to an increase in overall aeroplane efficiency. Also, with the use of these digital Systems, the flight crew's workload is reduced Electronic Engine Right Engine [TY _Lentol Monitor (engine EEC Failue Display EEC Figure 3.12 - Electronic Engine Control Monitor Controlling computers Aeroplanes have many systems, surfaces, and devices needing control. It is impractical to have the flight crew manually control all the necessary systems, so computers are used to lighten the crew's workload by providing automatic control. ‘An example of a controlling computer is the Flap/Slat Electronic Unit (FSEU). The FSEU computer provides a means to monitor the flap lever position and to control the flap position. The FSEU can control the flaps automatically during takeoff and landing by using information from other systems such as the Flap/Slat Position Module, the Proximity Switch Electronics Unit, and Flap Lever. If the flight crew selects to extend the flaps at an unsafe air speed, the FSEU, monitoring the air speed and the flap lever control, will provide flap extension control when airspeed is within allowable parameters. Flap Lever Flap Slat Flap Slat Position Mo. Proximity Switch Electionies Unit > Figure 3.13 - Flap/slat control computer e Module 5.3 Data Conversion ee 1S rogai Trnig Sysom pone Seats