(LEARN AND EARN – L&E PROGRAMME)

DIPLOMA IN AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY
COURSE BOOK
 LIST OF SUBJECTS

SEMESTER: II NO. OF SUBJECTS: 5

DETAILED
Sl. No. SUBJECT NAME CONTENT PAGE
NO.

1 MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY - II 2

2 MATERIAL HANDLING 48

3 ENGINEERING DRAWING - II 66

4 PAINTING TECHNOLOGY 99

5 ENGINEERING SCIENCE 138

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 Subject Title : MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – II

Subject Code: S2. T1

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Milling
2.0 Grinding
3.0 Casting
4.0 Forging
5.0 Extrusion
6.0 Sheet Metal Processing - Press Tools
7.0 Pressed, Cast, Forged components in Vehicle Aggregates

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 1.0 MILLING
1.1 MILLING CUTTERS
1.1.1 Solid Cutter:
A cutter made of a single piece of material.
1.1.2 Inserted Teeth Cutter:
A milling cutter designed with replaceable cutting tooth inserts to save the expense of a
new cutter whenever the teeth become damaged or worn. Generally, they are made 6 inches or
more in diameter.

1.1.3 Form Milling Cutter:

The form-cutting method uses a cutting tool that has the same form as the space between two
adjacent teeth on a gear. This method is used for cutting gear teeth on a milling machine.

1.1.4 T-Slot Milling Cutter

The ‘T’ slot milling end mills for producing T-slots. The teeth are provided on the periphery as
well as on both sides of the cutter

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 1.1.5 Plain Milling Cutter
The plain milling cutters are cylindrical in shape and have teeth on the circumference surface
only. The cutters are intended for the production of flat surfaces parallel to the axis of rotation of

the spindle. The cutter teeth may be straight or helical according to the size of the cutter.
1.1.6 Side and Face Cutters
These cutters have teeth on its periphery and also on one side or both of
its sides. The side milling cutters are intended for removing metals from
the side of the work. Plain side milling cutters have straight
circumferential teeth and side teeth on both of its sides, two or more
cutters may be mounted on the arbor to mill different faces of work
simultaneously.
1.1.7 Angular Cutters
They are made as single or double angle cutters and are used to machine angles other than 90
degree.

1.1.8 shell mill cutter:

It provides quality surface finishes at higher speeds, while a fly
cutter can create a much finer finish with less horsepower. To that end, a
fly cutter only uses one insert, which, while slower, can provide a more
uniform surface finish.
1.1.9 End Mill
The end mills have cutting teeth on the end as well as on periphery of the cutter. The peripheral
teeth may be straight or helical. The end mills are used for light milling operations like cutting
slots, machining accurate holes, producing narrow flat surfaces and for profile milling operations.

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 1.2 Nomenclature of Milling Cutter:

Body of cutter: It is the main frame of milling cutter, on which the teeth rest.
Periphery: It is defined as the locus of cutting edges of tooth of cutter.
Cutting edge: It is the portion that touches the workpiece during cutting action. It is the
intersection of teeth face and tooth flank.
Fillet: Portion where one teeth joins the face of another tooth. It is a reinforcement to cutting
tooth.
Face of teeth: It is the surface upon the chip is formed while cutting. It may be curved or flat.
Back of tooth: It is the created by fillet and the secondary clearance angle.
Land: It is the narrow surface on the back of cutting edge. Land is the result of providing the
clearance angle.
Bottom Land: The blank space between the consecutive teeth.

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 Root diameter: Diameter passing through centre of cutter and joining two ends of the periphery.
Root diameter: Passing through centre of cutter and joining two bottom fillet.
Lip angle: It is the angle between the face of the teeth and the land of the teeth. Land is a narrow
surface on the back of teeth.
Relief angle: It is the angle between the tangent to the outside diameter of the cutter at cutting
edge and the land of the tooth. The function relief angle is to avoid the interference between the
land of the tooth and the work surface. The relief angle varies with the type of material to be
machined.
Radial rake angle: It is the angle between the face of teeth and the radial line passing through the
cutting edge of the tooth. The radial rake angle may be positive, negative or zero. It is provided
free cutting by allowing chips to flow smoothly on the face of the cutter.
1.3 Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut:
Milling feeds and depth of cut
The two other factors which affect the efficiency of a milling operation are the milling
FEED or the rate at which the work is fed into the milling cutter and the DEPTH of CUT taken at
each pass.
Feed
Feed is the rate at which the work moves into revolving cutter. It is measured in millimetres per
min (mm/min.)
The feed is expressed in milling machines by following three different methods.
Feed Per Tooth:
Feed per tooth is defined by the distance the work advances in the time between engagements by
two successive teeth. It is expressed in mm/tooth.
Feed per Cutter revolution
It is the distance the work advances in the time when the cutter runs through one complete
revolution. It is expressed in mm/revolution.
Feed Per Minute
It is defined by the distance the work advances in one minute. It is expressed in mm/minute.

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 1.4 Calculation of RPM and Feed Rate:

1.5 Work Holding Device:

It is necessary that the work should be put and securely held on the milling machine table for
effective machining operations the following are the usual methods of holding the work on the
table.

1.5.1 T-bolts and clamps: Bulky work pieces of irregular shapes are clamped directly on the
milling machine table by using T-bolts and clamps. Different designs of clamps are used for
different pattern of work.

1.5.2 Vice: Vices are the most common appliances for holding the work on milling machine table
due to its quick loading and unloading arrangement. There are
mainly three types of vices commonly used in milling machines.
They are plain vice, swivel vice, and tool maker’s universal vice.

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 Plain vice: The plain vice bolted directly on the milling machine
table is the most common type of machine vice used for plain
milling operations. The vice may be fastened to the table with 'the
jaws set either parallel or at right angles to the table T-slots. Work
is clamped between the fixed and movable jaw and for holding
work pieces of irregular shape special jaws are sometimes used.
Swivel vice: The swivel vice is used to mill an angular surface in relation to a straight surface
without removing the work from the vice. In construction, it may be considered as a plain vice
which is mounted on a circular base graduated in degrees. The base is clamped on the table by
means of T-bolts.
1.6. TOOL HOLDING DEVICES
1.6.1Arbor
Types of arbors and their uses
An arbor is considered as an extension of the
machine spindle on which milling cutters are
mounted. Arbors are quick-release taper shanks for
proper alignment with the spindle. There are two
types of arbors, normally used for holding the cutters.
They are (1) long arbor and (2) short or stub arbor.
Long arbors are used for holding cutters in both horizontal and universal milling machines. The
milling cutter (a) is driven by a key (b) which fits into the keyway (c) on the arbor and cutter. This
prevents the cutter from turning on the arbor. The spacer (d) and bearing bushings (e) hold the
cutter in position on the arbor after the nut (f) has been tightened.
1.6.2 Collet:
A milling chuck is a small piece of metal that
connects the cutting tool to the machine. Many
industries make use of clamps to hold onto
interchangeable tools or drill bits. ... The most
common clamp used in metalworking is the collet,
or an unusually shaped collar that tapers into a cone
at one end.

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 2.0 GRINDING:
Grinding is a finishing process
used to improve surface finish, abrade
hard materials, and tighten the tolerance
on flat and cylindrical surfaces by
removing a small amount of material.
In grinding, an abrasive material
rubs against the metal part and removes
tiny pieces of material. The abrasive
material is typically on the surface of
a wheel or belt and abrades material in a
way similar to sanding.
2.1 Grinding machines:
Grinding machines are precision machine tools, designed to remove metal from a work
piece to close tolerances (up to 0.0025 mm) and to produce high quality surface finish. It uses an
abrasive wheel for cutting.
The common types of precision grinders are:
➢ Surface grinders.
➢ Cylindrical grinders
➢ Centreless grinders
➢ Portable grinding machine
➢ Bench grinders
➢ Tool and cutter grinders.
2.1.1 Surface Grinder:
Surface grinders are used to grind flat, parallel surfaces or stepped surfaces. The surface produced
by a surface grinder is more economical and more accurate than the surface obtained by filing or
scraping.

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 2.1.2 Cylindrical Grinder:

A cylindrical grinder is used for shaping the outside of a workpiece. These machines accept
workpieces in a variety of shapes as long as they can be rotated through a central axis. In a
cylindrical grinder, both the workpiece and grinding wheel are simultaneously rotated. Outside
diameter grinders, internal diameter grinders, and centerless grinders are all types of cylindrical
grinders.

2.1.3 Centreless Grinding:

Centerless grinding is a machining process that uses abrasive cutting to remove material from a
workpiece. Centerless grinding differs from centered grinding operations in that no spindle or
fixture is used to locate and secure the workpiece; the workpiece is secured between two rotary

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 grinding wheels, and the speed of their rotation relative to each other determines the rate at which
material is removed from the workpiece.

2.1.4 Specification of grinding machine:

➢ The size of a grinding machine is specified according to the size of the largest workpiece
that can be mounted on the machine.

➢ The cylindrical centre type grinding machine is specified by the diameter and length of the
largest workpiece the machine can accommodate between centers.

➢ The internal centre type grinder is specified by the diameter of workpiece that can be
swung and the maximum length of the stroke of the grinding wheel.

➢ The reciprocating table type surface grinders are specified by the table area and the
maximum height of the grinding wheel from the table surface. The rotary table type
surface grinder is specified by the diameter of the chuck or table. A tool and cutter grinder
are specified further by the maximum size of tool that can be sharpened and dressed.

2.2 Grinding Operations:

➢ Horizontal Surface Grinding
➢ Vertical Surface Grinding
➢ Cylindrical Grinding
➢ Internal Cylindrical Grinding
➢ Centreless Grinding

➢ Form Cylindrical Grinding

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 2.3 Work Holding Methods:

In grinding, different work-holding devices are used to keep the work piece in position.

The work-holding devices used in grinding are:

➢ Magnetic chuck

➢ Vice

➢ Angle plates

➢ V blocks

➢ Clamps.

Magnetic chuck:

Magnetic chucks are of two types.

➢ Electromagnetic chuck

➢ Permanent magnetic chuck

The magnetic power of the electromagnetic chuck can be varied

according to the size of the work. But not so in the case of a
permanent magnetic chuck.

Uses:

The magnetic chuck (Fig 1) is the most commonly used work-

holding device. It holds ferrous work pieces.

Vices:

Vices are used to hold jobs with narrow surface or non-ferrous work pieces, which cannot
be conveniently held on magnetic chucks.

A vice may be set on the grinder table directly or on the magnetic chuck.

Types of vices:

➢ Plain vice

➢ Tilting vice

➢ Universal vice

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 ➢ A Plain vice is used to hold work pieces for
plain or step grinding.
➢ A Tilting Type vice is used to hold the work
piece while grinding angular surfaces. If
required, the tilting base can be removed and
can be mounted on the magnetic chuck as a
plain vice
➢ A Universal vice is used to hold the work
Piece while grinding the angular surface in
two different planes. This is small in size. So
it is mainly used in tool grinding.

V- block:

V blocks are used to hold the round work pieces while grinding
a flat on the work piece.

These are used for holding tube or bar work pieces for grinding
flat surfaces on the exterior. Square work pieces may also be supported
in Vee blocks for grinding the external corners of the work.

Vee blocks may be attached to the work table by clamps or be

set on a magnetic chuck.

Magnetic Vee blocks can be used also in combination with other mounting devices, such
as angle plates which themselves can be clamped to the work table or held in position on a
magnetic chuck.

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 2.4 Grinding Wheels:

➢ In order to make the grinding wheel suitable for

different work situations, the features such as abrasive,
grain size, grade, structure and bonding materials can be
varied.

➢ A grinding wheel consists of an abrasive that does the

cutting, and a bond that holds the abrasive particles
together.

2.4.1 Types of Grinding Wheels:

Straight Grinding wheels:

Straight wheel are the most common mode of wheel that is found on pedestal or bench grinders.
This is the one widely used for centreless & cylindrical surface grinding operations. As it
is used only on the periphery, it forms a little concave surface on the piece.
This is used to grind on several tools like chisels. The size of these wheels differs to a
great extent, width & diameter of its face obviously depends on the category of its work, machines
grinding power.
Cylinder or wheel ring: A cylinder wheel has no center mounting support but has a long & wide
surface. Their width is up to 12" and is used purely in horizontal or vertical spindle grinders. This
is used to produce flat surface, here we do grinding with the ending face of the wheel.

Tapered Grinding wheels: Tapered Grinding wheel is a straight wheel that tapers externally
towards the midpoint of the wheel. As this pact is stronger than straight wheels, it accepts
advanced lateral loads. Straight wheel with tapered face is chiefly used for gear teeth, grinding
thread, etc.

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 Straight cup: This Straight cup wheels forms an option for cup wheels in cutter and tool
grinders, having an extra radial surface of grinding is favorable.

Dish cup: In fact this is used primarily in jig grinding and cutter grinding. It is a very thin cup-
style grinding wheel which permits grinding in crevices and slot.

Saucer Grinding Wheels:

Saucer Grinding Wheel is an exceptional grinding profile used for grinding twist drills and milling
cutters. This finds wide usage in non-machining areas, as this saw filers are used by saucer wheels
to maintain saw blades.
Diamond Grinding Wheels:
In diamond wheels industrial diamonds remain bonded to the edge. This is
used to grind hard materials like concrete, gemstones & carbide tips. A
slitting saw is designed for slicing gemstones like hard materials.
2.4.2 Specification Of Grinding Wheel:
A grinding wheel is specified by the:
➢ Standard wheel markings
➢ Diameter of the wheel
➢ Bore diameter of the wheel
➢ Thickness of the wheel
➢ Type (shape) of the wheel
2.4.3 Wheel mounting Procedure:
Great care must be taken in mounting the grinding wheels on the spindle because of high cutting
speeds.

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 ➢ All wheels should be closely inspected just before mounting to make sure that they have
not been damaged in transit, storage, or otherwise.
➢ The wheel must first be subjected to the ringing test. For this purpose, the grinding wheel
is put on an arbor while it is subjected to slight hammer blows.
➢ A clear, ringing, vibrating sound must be heard. If a grinding wheel contains fine cracks,
discordant sound that fail to vibrate will be emitted. This test is applicable to vitrified and
silicate wheels. Shellac, resinoid or rubber loaded wheels will not ring distinctly.
➢ The abrasive wheels should have an easy fit on their spindles or locating spigots. They
should not be forced on.
➢ The hole of grinding wheels mostly is lined with
lead. The lead liner bushes should not project
beyond the side of wheels.
➢ There must be a flange on each side of the
wheel. The mounting flanges must be large
enough to hold the wheel properly, at least the
flange diameter must be equal to the half of the
grinding wheel diameter.
➢ Both the flanges should be of the same diameter,
other-wise the wheel is under a bending stress
which is liable to cause fracture.
2.4.4 Wheel Balancing:
➢ The sides of the wheel and the flanges which
clamp them should be flat and bear evenly all
round. All flanges must be relieved in the center so
that the flanges contact the wheel only with the
annular clamping area.

➢ If they are not properly relieved, the pressure of

the flanges is concentrated on the sides of the wheel near the hole, a condition which
should be avoided.
➢ Washers of compressible materials such as card board, leather, rubber, etc. not over 1.5
mm thick should be fitted between the wheel and its flanges.
➢ In this way any unevenness of the wheel surface is balanced and a tight joint is obtained.
The diameter of washers may be normally equal to the diameter of the flanges.

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 ➢ The inner fixed flange should be keyed or otherwise fastened to the spindle, whereas the
outer flange should have an easy sliding fit on the spindle so that it can adjust itself
slightly to give a uniform bearing on the wheel and the compressible washers.
➢ The nut should be tightened to hold the wheel firmly. Undue tightness is unnecessary and
undesirable as excessive clamping strain is liable to damage the wheel.
➢ The wheel guard should be placed and tightened before the machine is started for work.
2.4.5 Truing:

➢ Trueing the wheel makes the grinding

surface parallel to the grinding table or
other reference plane, so that the entire
grinding wheel is even and produces an
accurate surface.

➢ When the grinding wheel is mounted to

the grinding wheel spindle, the run-out
on wheel operating surface is removed,
the wheel during contour grinding is trued or worn grinding wheel is corrected. Truing,
essential for precision grinding, ensures the contact face of the grinding wheel is formed to
run absolutely true with the work. An out-of-true wheel will produce chatter marks.

➢ Both dressing and truing are done with the diamond wheel dresser.

2.4.6 Dressing:

➢ Dressing the wheel refers to removing the current layer of abrasive, so that a fresh and
sharp surface is exposed to the work surface.

➢ When the sharpness of grinding wheel becomes dull because of glazing and loading,
dulled grains and chips are removed (crushed or fallen) with a proper dressing tool to
make sharp cutting edges and simultaneously, make recesses for chips by properly
extruding to grain cutting edges.

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 3.0 CASTING:

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a

mould, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.

The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mould
to complete the process.

3.1 Sand Casting:

Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by
using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via
the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries.
Over 60% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

3.1.1 Casting Process - Process Description:

Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most of the
products.

In general, we can distinguish between two methods of sand casting; the first one
using green sand and the second being the air set method.

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 Green Sand Casting

Green sand. These castings are made using sand molds formed from "wet" sand which
contains water and organic bonding compounds, typically referred to as clay. The name "Green
Sand" comes from the fact that the sand mold is not "set", it is still in the "green" or uncured state
even when the metal is poured in the mold.

Air Set Method Casting

Air set casting, or no-bake casting, is a sand casting method that involves creating molds
from chemically bonded sand. Unlike shell molds, air set molds do not need to be heated to
solidify.

Process Terminology of Casting

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 Steps involved in Casting:

➢ Making mould cavity

➢ Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
➢ Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity
➢ allowed to solidify
➢ product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape

We should concentrate on the following for successful casting operation:

1. Preparation of moulds of patterns

2. Melting and pouring of the liquefied metal
3. Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
4. Defects and inspection
Advantages:

➢ The size of object doesn’t matter for casting.

➢ The casting objects have high compressive strength.
➢ All structure made by casting has wide range of properties.
➢ This can create an accurate object.
➢ All material can be cast.

Disadvantages:

➢ It gives poor surface finish and mostly requires surface finish operation.
➢ Casting defects involves in this process.
➢ It gives low fatigue strength compare to forging.
➢ It is not economical for mass production.

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 Applications:

➢ Transport: Automobile, aerospace, railways and shipping

➢ Heavy Equipment: Construction, farming and mining
➢ Machine Tools: Machining, casting, plastics molding, forging, extrusion and forming
➢ Plant Machinery: Chemical, petroleum, paper, sugar, textile, steel and thermal plants
➢ Defense: Vehicles, artillery, munitions, storage and supporting equipment
➢ Electrical Equipment Machines: Motors, generators, pumps and compressors
➢ Hardware: Plumbing industry pipes, joints, valves and fittings
➢ Household: Appliances, kitchen and gardening equipment, furniture and fittings
➢ Art Objects: Sculptures, idols, furniture, lamp stands and decorative items

3.1.2 Furnace - Cupola, Electric arc & Induction:

Cupola Furnace:

Construction: Cupola Furnace is a melting device used to melt cast iron, Ni-resist iron, and some
bronzes and it is used in Foundries. The cupola can be made of any size and the size of the cupola
is measured in diameters which range from 1.5 to 13 feet. The shape of the cupola is cylindrical
and the equipment is arranged in the vertical fitted with doors which swings down and out to drop
bottom.

Cupola furnace constructed in the form of a hollow cylindrical vertical steel shell and it is
lined from inside with a refractory material. This furnace is generally supported on four cast iron
lags mounted on a concrete base.

The bottom of the furnace is closed by two cast iron doors hinged to the bed plate of the
furnace. A wind box cast iron encircles to the outside of the furnace bottom. This box is connected
to the furnace blower pipe known as the blast pipe. Air which supplies the oxygen necessary to
burn the fuels forced through the cupola by a blower. The top of the furnace is shielded by a mesh
screen and topped with a cone-shaped spark arrester, which permits the free vent of the waste gas
and deflects spark and dust back into the furnace.

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 Working: Basically, the operation of cupola furnace consists of following steps:

1. After building the cupola make sure it is dried completely before getting it to fire. Any
slag around the tuyeres from previous runs needs to be cleaned properly.

2. Also, a broken part is repaired with the mixture of the silica sand and fire clay. Over the
Brunt area, a layer of refractory material is applied to about thickness 6 inches or more is
rammed on the bottom sloping toward the tap hole to ensure better flow of molten metal.

3. A hole opening of about 30 mm diameter and a tap hole of about 25 mm diameter is being
provided there.

4. A fire of wood is ignited. When the wood burns well coke is dumped on the bed well from
the top. Make sure that the coke gets burned too. A bed of coke about 40 inches is placed
next to the sand.

5. Firstly, the air blast is turned on at a lower blowing rate than as normal for provoking the
coke. A measuring rod is also used which indicates the height of the coke bed. For about 3
hours firing is done before the molten metal required.

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 6. Now the charge is fed into the cupola. Many factors like charge composition, affect the
final structure of the gray cast iron obtained. It composed of 10% steel, 50% grey cast iron
scrap, and 3% limestone as a flux.

7. Alternate layers are formed by these constituents. Besides limestone, fluorspar and soda
ash are also used as flux material. The main function of flux is to remove the impurities in
the iron and protect the iron from oxidation.

8. After the fully charged furnace, it is allowed to remain as such for about 1 hour. As this
process goes in charge slowly gets heated up as the air blast is kept shut this time and
because of this, the iron gets soaked up.

9. At the end of the soaking period, the air blast is opened. The topmost opening is kept
closed till the metal melts. The sufficient amount of metal is collected. The contents of the
charge move downwards as the melting proceeds.

10. The rate of charging is equal to the rate of melting. The furnace is kept full throughout the
heat.

11. Closing feeding of charge and air blast is stopped when no more melting is required. The
bottom plate swings to open when the prop is removed. The deposited slag is being
removed. The cupola runs continuously and the melting period does not exceed 4 hours in
most of the time. But can be operated for more than 10 hours.

Electric Arc Furnace:

Construction: The main parts of electric furnace are the roof, hearth (lower part of a furnace,
from where molten metal is collected), electrodes, and side walls. The roof consists of three holes
through which the electrodes are inserted. The roof is made up of alumina and magnesite-chromite
bricks. The hearth includes metal and slag. The tilting mechanism is used to pour the metal that is
molten to the cradle by shifting the furnace. For the electrode removal and furnace charging
(topping up scrap metals), roof retraction mechanism is incorporated. The provision for fume
extraction is also given around the furnace considering the health of operators. In AC electric
furnace, electrodes are three in number. These are round in section. Graphite is used as electrodes
because of high electric conductivity. Carbon electrodes are also used. The electrodes positioning
system helps to raise and lower the electrodes automatically. The electrodes get highly oxidized
when the current density is high.

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 Working: The working of electric furnace includes charging the electrode, meltdown period
(melting the metal) and refining. The heavy and light scrap in the large basket is preheated with
the help of exhaust gas. For speeding up the slag formation, burnt lime and spar are added to it.
The charging of furnace takes place by swinging the roof of the furnace. As per requirement, the
hot metal charging also takes place.

Next is the meltdown period. The electrodes are moved down onto the scrap in this period.
Then the arc is produced between the electrode and metal. By considering the protection aspect,
low voltage is selected for this. After the arc is shielded by electrodes, the voltage is increased for
speeding up the melting process. In this process, carbon, silicon, and manganese get oxidized. The
lower current is required for large arc production. The heat loss is also less in this. Melting down
process can be fastening by deep bathing of electrodes.

Refining process starts during melting. The removal of sulfur is not essential for single
oxidizing slag practice. Only phosphorous removal is required in this. But in double slag practice,
both (S and P) are to be removed. After the deoxidizing; in double slag practice, the removal of
oxidizing slag is performed. Next, with the help of aluminum or ferromanganese or ferrosilicon, it
gets deoxidized. When the bathing chemistry and required temperature is reached, the heat will
get deoxidized. Then, the molten metal is ready for tapping. For the cooling of the furnace, tubular
pressure panels or hollow annulus spraying can be used.

Induction Furnace:

Construction: The electrical coil is placed around or inside of the crucible, which holds the metal
to be melted. Often this crucible is divided into two different parts. The lower section holds the
melt in its purest form, the metal as the manufacturers desires it, while the higher section is used
to remove the slag or the contaminants that rise to the surface of the melt.

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 Crucibles may also be equipped with strong lids to lessen how much air has access to the
melting metal until it is poured out, making a purer melt.

Working: When the charge material is molten, the interaction of the magnetic field and the
electrical currents flowing in the induction coil produce a stirring action within the molten metal.
This stirring action forces the molten metal to rise upwards in the centre causing the characteristic
meniscus on the surface of the metal. The degree of stirring action is influenced by the power and
frequency applied as well as the size and shape of the coil and the density and viscosity of the
molten metal. The stirring action within the bath is important as it helps with mixing of alloys and
melting of turnings as well as homogenising of temerature throughout the furnace. Excessive
stirring can increase gas pick up, lining wear and oxidation of alloys.

The coreless induction furnace has largely replaced the crucible furnace, especially for melting
of high melting point alloys. The coreless induction furnace is commonly used to melt all grades
of steels and irons as well as many non-ferrous alloys. The furnace is ideal for remelting and
alloying because of the high degree of control over temperature and chemistry while the induction
current provides good circulation of the melt.

3.1.3 Sand Mould - Mould Making:

Sand casting, also known as sand moulded casting, is a metal casting process characterized
by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced
via the sand-casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries.

Sand casting mainly includes hand molding and machine molding method. The operation
of hand molding is simpler and more flexible, but the production rate is low, so it is suitable for
small batch production.

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 There are six steps in this process:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.

2. Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mold cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

3.1.4 Defects in Casting:

Casting defects can be categorized into 5 types

1. Gas Porosity: Blowholes, open holes, pinholes.

2. Shrinkage defects: shrinkage cavity.
3. Mold material defects: Cut and washes, swell, drops, metal penetration, rat tail.
4. Pouring metal defects: Cold shut, misrun, slag inclusion.
5. Metallurgical defects: Hot tears, hot spot.

1.Shift or Mismatch: The defect caused due to misalignment of upper and lower part of the
casting and misplacement of the core at parting line.

NOTES:

26
 2.Swell: It is the enlargement of the mold cavity because of the molten metal pressure, which
results in localized or overall enlargement of the casting.

3.Blowholes: When gases entrapped on the surface of the casting due to solidifying metal, a
rounded or oval cavity is formed called as blowholes. These defects are always present in the cope
part of the mold.

4.Drop: Drop defect occurs when there is cracking on the upper surface of the sand and sand
pieces fall into the molten metal.

5. Metal Penetration: These casting defects appear as an uneven and rough surface of the
casting. When the size of sand grains is large, the molten fuses into the sand and solidifies giving
us metal penetration defect.

NOTES:

27
 6.Pinholes: They are very small holes of about 2 mm in size which appears on the surface of the
casting. This defect happens because of the dissolution of the hydrogen gases in the molten metal.

7.Shrinkage Cavity: The formation of cavity in the casting due to volumetric contraction is
called as shrinkage cavity.

8.Cold Shut: It is a type of surface defects and a line on the surface can be seen. When the molten
metal enters into the mold from two gates and when these two streams of molten metal meet at a
junction with low temperatures than they do not fuse with each other and solidifies creating a cold
shut (appear as line on the casting). It looks like a crack with round edge.

9.Misrun: When the molten metal solidifies before completely filling the mold cavity and leaves
a space in the mold called as misrun.

NOTES:

28
 10.Slag Inclusion: This defect is caused when the molten metal containing slag particles is
poured in the mold cavity and it gets solidifies.

11.Hot Tears or Hot Cracks: when the metal is hot it is weak and the residual stress (tensile) in
the material cause the casting fails as the molten metal cools down. The failure of casting in this
case is looks like cracks and called as hot tears or hot cracking.

3.2 Investment Casting:

Investment casting is a manufacturing process in which a wax pattern is coated with a

refractory ceramic material. Once the ceramic material is hardened its internal geometry takes the
shape of the casting. The wax is melted out and molten metal is poured into the cavity where the
wax pattern was. The metal solidifies within the ceramic mould and then the metal casting is
broken out. This manufacturing technique is also known as the lost wax process.

Applications:

➢ Aerospace
➢ Defence
➢ Medical
➢ Electronics
➢ Automotive
➢ Oil and Gas
➢ Agriculture
➢ Commercial

NOTES:

29
 3.3 Die Casting:

Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high
pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which
have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during the process.

Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium,
magnesium, lead, pewter, and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot-
or cold-chamber machine is used.

There are two basic types of die casting machines:

NOTES:

30
 1.Hot-chamber Die casting machine

Also known as goose-neck machines, hot-chamber casting machines feature a built-in furnace in
which metal is heated to achieve a molten state. They use a hydraulic-powered piston that forces
molten metal out of the furnace and into the die.

2.Cold-chamber Die casting machine

With cold-chamber die casting, metal is first heated to achieve a molten state in a separate
furnace. The molten metal is then transported to the casting machine where it's fed into
the machine's chamber. The machine uses a pressurized plunger to force the molten metal into the
cavity of the mold.

NOTES:

31
 3.3.1 Basics of Pressure Die Casting:

Pressure die casting is a quick, reliable and cost-effective manufacturing process for
production of high volume; metal components that are net-shaped have tight tolerances. Basically,
the pressure die casting process consists of injecting under high pressure a molten metal alloy into
a steel mould (or tool). This gets solidified rapidly (from milliseconds to a few seconds) to form a
net shaped component. It is then automatically extracted.

Types of Pressure Die Casting:

(i) High Pressure Die Casting

(ii) Low Pressure Die Casting

NOTES:

32
 High-pressure Die Casting, HPDC High-pressure die casting is a process in which molten
metal is forced under pressure into a securely locked metal die cavity, where it is held by a
powerful press until the metal solidifies.

Low pressure die casting, LPDC, is a process in which a ceramic tube is connected to a
steel die above and extends into a furnace of molten metal below. ... Once the casting has
solidified the air pressure is reduced allowing the rest of the metal still in liquid form in the tube
to recede back into the furnace.

3.3.2 Defects in Die Cast Components:

1. Surface defects
2. Laminations
3. Gas porosity
4. Blisters
5. Shrink porosity
6. Sinks
7. Leakers
8. Cracks
9. Inclusions
10. Erosion/cavitation

4.0 FORGING:

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized

compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer or a die. Forging is often classified
according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold forging, warm forging or hot forging.

NOTES:

33
 4.1 Difference between Hot forging and Cold forging:

S.No Hot Forging Cold Forging

Working above recrystallization Working below recrystallization

1
Temperature Temperature

2 Formation of New Crystals No Crystal Formation

3 Surface Finish is not Good Good Surface Finish

4 No Stress Formation Internal Stress Formation

5 No Size Limit Limited Size

4.2 FORGING:

Forging is a metal shaping technique using compressive, localized forces has been a staple
metal fabrication technique since the time of the ancient Mesopotamians. Since its origins in the
Fertile Crescent, forging has experienced significant changes, resulting in a more efficient, faster
and more durable process. This is because today, forging is most commonly performed with the
use of forging presses or hammering tools that are powered by electricity, hydraulics or
compressed air.

4.2.1 Process Description:

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of a metal through hammering,

pressing, or rolling. These compressive forces are delivered with a hammer or die.
... Forging involves the shaping of metal through compressive forces such as hammering,
pressing, or rolling.

Classification:

Drop Forging or Hammer Forging

Open - Die Forging
Closed - Die forging
Press Forging
Roll Forging

NOTES:

34
 Drop Forging

Drop forging is a metal forming process. A work piece is inserted into a die and then hammered
until it has assumed the shape of the die. The lower die is a stationary part, while the upper part is
a moving hammer dropped onto the work piece in order to deform it.

Open Die Forging

Open die forging is the process of deforming a piece of metal between multiple dies that do not
completely enclose the material. The metal is altered as the dies “hammer” or “stamp” the
material through a series of movements until the desired shape is achieved.

Closed Die Forging

Closed Die Forging is a forging process in which dies (called tooling) that contain a precut profile
of the desired part move towards each other and covers the workpiece in whole or in part. The
heated raw material, which is approximately the shape or size of the final forged part, is placed in
the bottom die.

NOTES:

35
 Press Forging

Press forging may be defined as the process of shaping a metal that is placed between two dies by
applying mechanical or hydraulic pressure. Press forging is usually done on a forge press - a
machine that applies gradual pressure on the forging dies.

4.2.2 Properties of Forged components:

Strength and toughness: Finished forged materials have better and uninterrupted grain growth.
Hence, they have greater toughness and strength.

Defects: Unlike forging is free from defects like porosity, cracks and blowholes.

Ductility: Forging doesn't have cracks and holes inherently and hence the elasticity is improved
over casting materials.

Compressive strength: Forging doesn't have these voids and hence weak in compression.

Anisotropy/Isotropy: Forged materials are anisotropic and hence they have different properties
in transverse and axial direction due to different grain structure in different directions.

4.2.3 Defects in Forging:

1. Exterior/ Interior Cracking: Cracking is caused by excessive stress or improper stress

distribution during forging. Cracking of a forged material can be a result of poorly designed
forging die or excess material in the job piece. They can also be caused by high thermal gradients
during the manufacturing operation.

2. Laps/ Folds: This forging defect occurs in a metal forging due to buckling of the part, or too
little material in the work piece.

NOTES:

36
 3. Cold shuts: When metal flows of different temperatures meet, they do not weld completely,
i.e., they do not combine smoothly, a boundary layer known as cold shut, forms at their
intersection. It can also occur due to sharp corners or high friction. It indicates that there is a
problem with the metal flow in the mould.

4. Improper Grain Flow: Crack propagation highly depends on grain flow and thereby
properties like fatigue strength, ductility and impact toughness. This forging defect is due to
improper die design. Here, the flow-lines are not close end type and are non-uniform.

5. Warping: This type of forging defect occurs when thinner sections cool faster than the rest of
the forging. The forged material is distorted when warpage occurs.

4.3 Defects in Forged components:

1. Unfilled Section: As the name implies in this type of defect some of the forging section remain
unfilled. This is due to poor design of die or poor forging technic. This is also due to less raw
material or poor heating. This defect can be removed by proper die design, proper availability of
raw material and proper heating.

2. Scale Pits: Scale pits are due to improper cleaning of forged surface. This defect generally
associated with forging in open environment. It is irregular deputations on the surface of forging.
It can be removed by proper cleaning of forged surface.

3. Die Shift: Die shift is caused by misalignment of upper die and lower die. When both these
dies are not properly aligned the forged product does not get proper dimensions.

This defect can be removed by proper alignment. It can be done by providing half notch on upper
die and half on lower die so at the time of alignment, both these notches will be matched.

4. Flakes: These are internal cracks occur due to improper cooling of forge product. When the
forge product cooled quickly, these cracks generally occur which can reduce the strength of forge
product. This defect can be removed by proper cooling.

5. Improper Grain Growth: This defect occurs due to improper flow of metal in casting which
changes predefine grain structure of product. It can be removed by proper die design

6. Incomplete Forging Penetration: This defect arises due to incomplete forging. It is due to
light or rapid hammer blow. This defect can be removed by proper control on forging press.

7. Surface Cracking: Surface cracking occurs due to exercise working on surfaces at low
temperature. In this defect, so many cracks arise on work piece. This defect can be removed by
proper control on working temperature.

NOTES:

37
 8. Residual Stresses in Forging: This defect occurs due to improper cooling of forged part. Too
much rapid cooling is main causes of this type of defects. This can be removed by slow cooling of
forged part.

5.0 Extrusion:

Extrusion is a metal forming process in which metal or work piece is forced to flow
through a die to reduce its cross section or convert it into desire shape. This process is extensively
used in pipes and steel rods manufacturing. The force used to extrude the work piece is
compressive in nature. The most common material extruded are plastic and aluminium.

5.1 Direct extrusion:

Direct extrusion is also called forward extrusion and it is the most general extrusion
process. Its work operation includes the placement of the billet in a container, which is heavily
walled. Ram or screw is used to push the billet through the die. In between the billet and ram,
there is a dummy block, which is reusable and is used for keeping them separated.

5.2 Indirect extrusion:

Indirect extrusion is also called backwards extrusion and, in this process the die is constant
whereas the billet & container move together. To keep the die stationary, a “stem” is used which
must be longer than the length of container. The final and maximum extrusion length is decided
by the stem's column strength. As the billet movement is along with the container, all the
frictional forces are easily eliminated.

NOTES:

38
 5.3 Impact extrusion:

In this process, unlike conventional extrusion, which can only be operated at high
temperatures to soften the material, impact extrusion uses cold metal billets that are extruded
under high pressure. A metal slug can be forced into any shape with a single stroke.

A well lubricated slug is placed inside a die cavity and struck once through a punch. As a
result of this high force, the material flows back around the punch, through an opening between
the die and the punch. This process is best suited for soft materials such as lead, aluminium or tin.

5.4 Extrusion components used in Auto Industry:

1. Bumper Beam
2. Bumper Stay
3. Door Beam
4. Vehicle Body Frame Member
5. Seat Back Bar
6. Side Step
7. Back Step

NOTES:

39
 6.0 SHEET METAL PROCESSING - PRESS TOOLS:

6.1 Introduction to Press tools:

Press tools are used to produce a particular component in large quantity, out of sheet metals
where particular component achieved depends upon press tool construction and its configuration.

The different types of press tool constructions lead to different operations namely blanking,
bending, piercing, forming, drawing, cutting off, parting off, embossing, coining, notching,
shaving, lancing, dinking, perforating, trimming, curling etc.

6.2 Types of Press Tools:

6.2.1 Blanking tool:

When a component is produced with one single punch and die where the entire outer
profile is cut in a single stroke the tool is called a blanking tool. The outer area of metal remaining
after a blanking operation is generally discarded as waste. It is a metal cutting operation. In
blanking metal obtained after cutting is not a scrap or it is usable. The size of the blank depends
on the size of the die.
6.2.2 Piercing tool:

Piercing involves cutting of clean holes with a resulting scrap slug. The operation is called
die cutting and can also produce flat components where the die, the shaped tool, is pressed into a

NOTES:

40
 sheet material employing a shearing action to cut holes. This method can be used to cut parts of
different sizes and shapes in sheet metal, leather and many other materials.

6.2.3 Progressive tool:

A progressive tool differs from a stage tool in the following respect: in a progressive tool
the final component is obtained by progressing the sheet metal or strip in more than one stage. At
each stage the tool will progressively shape the component towards its final shape, with the final
stage normally being cutting-off.

6.2.4 Compound tool:

The compound tool differs from progressive

and stage tools by the arrangement of the
punch and die. It is an inverted tool where
blanking and piercing takes place in a single
stage and also the blanking punch will act as
the piercing die.

In most cases this operation

perforates a hole or holes down, while the
part blanks up. This allows slugs from those
holes to fall through the die. This method
leaves the part in the die, requiring some
means of part removal.

NOTES:

41
 6.2.5 Bending tool:

Bending is a method of producing shapes by stressing metal beyond its yield strength, but
not past its ultimate tensile strength. The forces applied during bending are in opposite directions,
just as in the cutting of sheet metal. The two types of bending process are Air Bending and
Bottom Bending.

The bend allowance (BA) is the length of the arc of the neutral line between the tangent
points of a bend in any material. Adding the length of each flange taken between the center of the
radius to the BA gives the Flat Pattern length.

6.2.6 Forming tool:

NOTES:

42
 Forming tools are parts that act as dies that bend, stretch, or otherwise form sheet metal to
create form features such as louvers, lances, flanges, and ribs.

Forming is the operation of deforming a part in curved profile. Forming tools apply more
complex forms to work pieces. The line of bend is curved instead of straight and the metal is
subjected to plastic flow or deformation.

6.2.7 Embossing tool:

Embossing is the shallow forming operation in

which the work piece material is stretched over a male
die and made to conform to a male die surface by a
mating female die surface. The finished product will
have depressed detail on the other.

Pressure pads or ejector pins are to be provided

to remove the embossed part from die depending on the
size and shape of the embossed form. When embossing
non-ferrous metals like aluminum, copper etc a rubber
cushion can be used instead of the punch made of steel.

NOTES:

43
 6.2.8 Coining tool:

Coining is a form of precision stamping in which a workpiece is subjected to a sufficiently

high stress to induce plastic flow on the surface of the material. A beneficial feature is that in
some metals, the plastic flow reduces surface grain size, and work hardens the surface, while the
material deeper in the part retains its toughness and ductility. The term comes from the initial use
of the process: manufacturing of coins.

Coining is a cold working process similar in other respects to forging, which takes place at
elevated temperature; it uses a great deal of force to plastically deform a workpiece, so that it
conforms to a die. Coining can be done using a gear driven press, a mechanical press, or more
commonly, a hydraulically actuated press.

6.2.9 Trimming tool:

"Trimming" is the operation

of cutting off the parts that have
deviated from the shape as described
above thereby making the shape
correct.

The trimming is done by the

top die, and the product enters inside
the top die. The product inside the
die rises above the top die and is
knocked out near the top dead point,
and is thus ejected from the die. The
knock out touches the bottom of the drawn product. In the case of a product with a large flange,
there is the possibility that the flange is warped at the time of ejecting. In the case of a product
with a large flange, the knock out is made to escape according to the diameter of drawing, and the
ejecting is done at the flange part.

NOTES:

44
 6.2.10 Cut off tool:

Cutting off work is a method of blanking work in which the material is cut by shearing
into two parts without generating any scrap. If this method is used, the rate of utilization of the
material (yield) can be increased to the maximum possible extent.

The cutting is done in the condition in which the material is passed through the tunnel part
of a fixed stripper and has butted against a block.

7.0 PRESSED, CAST, FORGED COMPONENTS IN VEHICLE AGGREGATES:

The most common sheet metal used in automotive to make bodies is steel. It is reasonably cheap
and easy to press into shape to make body parts.

NOTES:

45
 The next best is aluminum. It is lighter but harder to bend into tight shapes without cracking.

The Sheet Metal Components used in Auto industries are

➢ Arm rear brake lever for motorcycles

➢ Flange plate assembly of fuel indicator of scooter / motorcycles,

➢ Backrest recliner-bracket of truck seat

➢ Throttle switch base plate

➢ Side Bracket for Sliding Backrest of Scooters

➢ Seat hinge Assembly

➢ Head lamp Rim & Reflector

➢ Bicycle Seat Support Frame and fittings

➢ Front brake lever

➢ Fuel Gauge Assembly

➢ Head Light Reflector

Casting: The idea behind die casting was originally created for automobiles. Since vehicles
require complex shapes and sizes for different parts of the vehicle, it is almost mandatory to use
zinc die casting. Due to the precise accuracy of this process, the need for further machining is
practically non-existent. This alone saves an exuberant amount of time and money for the

NOTES:

46
 manufacturing of automobile parts. One can typically use zinc for retractor gears, seat belt
pulleys, and camshafts, as well as a multitude of other parts on most vehicles. This amazing metal
provides strength, flexibility, and malleability that you cannot match with other materials. Zinc
has a lowering melting point, allowing for less energy during production.

Forged components are commonly found at points of shock and stress such as wheel spindles,
kingpins, axle beams and shafts, torsion bars, ball studs, idler arms, pitman arms and steering
arms. To develop all the required views simultaneously

NOTES:

47
 Subject Title : MATERIAL HANDLING

Subject Code: S2 T2
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════

1.0) Conveyors

2.0) Industrial Vehicles

3.0) Automated Vehicles

4.0) Positioning Equipments

5.0) Rack

6.0) Hoist and Cranes

7.0) Automatic Identification and Communication Equipment

8.0) Criteria for selection of Material handling equipment

9.0) Study of Material handling equipments at Plant

NOTES:

48
 1.0 CONVEYORS

Industrial conveyors have many different designs and uses. Common conveyor types are
belt conveyors, roller conveyors, motorized roller conveyors and overhead conveyors. They can
be categorized as floor conveyors (mounted on the floor) or overhead conveyors. They are used to
move products, create buffers and deliver products in sequence in a production process.

TYPES OF CONVEYORS

1.1 BELT CONVEYOR

Sometimes called “Conveyor belt” by our customers (which is actually just the belting material), a
belt conveyor is one of the simplest conveyor types. It moves parts from one end to the other.
Speed can be variable with a variable speed drive.

Belt conveyors can’t be used as a working surface, they can’t be used to present parts to a robot,
and they can’t buffer or sequence parts. But their simplicity makes them one of the most common
conveyor types available. They belong to the floor conveyor group.

APPLICATIONS

(a) The distance covered for a belt conveyor system be as small as 50 m (for indoor for supplying
raw material from mine area. Used for conveying various bulk and unit loads along horizontal or
slightly inclined paths.

(b) Used in foundry shop.

(c) Used for supplying coal.

NOTES:

49
 (d) Transferring building materials, fossil minerals, grains store.

(e) Used in wheel excavators.

1.2 CHAIN CONVEYOR

Floor mounted chain conveyors are great for heavy items and especially for items that have an
uneven lower surface. The chains provide two or three contact points on the bottom of the load,
and as the chain moves it carries the product forward.

They’re used to carry pallets and large industrial containers. If necessary, products can be
mounted on a fixture, or “skid” and the fixture can be carried along the chains. This is a common
application in auto plants. They are heavy duty, and generally move at slow speeds.

APPLICATIONS

a) Transport and linkage system.

b) Transport and storage systems.

c) Floor flat-top chain conveyors.

d) Single chain conveyors.

e) Multi-conveyor.

1.3 ROLLER CONVEYOR

A series of rollers supported in a frame over which objects

are advanced manually, by gravity or by power. These are
easy-to-install, low maintenance rollers are built to help
workers load and unload truckloads efficiently.

NOTES:

50
 APPLICATIONS

a) Friction rollers allow for accumulated operation.

b) For transporting piece goods such as solid boxes or pallets with rigid, flat bases.
c) Rollers mounted on ball bearings for high loads with low drive power.
d) Compact design for easy integration into complex machines.

1.4 SLAT CONVEYOR

A slat conveyor is basically a two-strand chain conveyor with slats connected to the chain and a
guiding system for the slats.

This creates a smooth surface to which tooling details or fixtures can be mounted to hold parts in
the desired position.

Sometimes the fixtures can also allow the part to rotate 90 degrees or 180 degrees as required in
several planes. Therefore, you can use slat conveyors as a working surface for assembly
operations.

APPLICATIONS
a) Unit being transported retains its position (like a belt conveyor).

b) Orientation and placement of the load is controlled .

c) Used for heavy loads or loads that might damage a belt .

d) Bottling and canning plants use flat chain or slat conveyors because of wet conditions,
temperature, and cleanliness requirements .

e) Tilt slat conveyor used for sortation.

NOTES:

51
 1.5 CHUTE CONVEYOR

Chute or Trough Conveyors are material handling systems that use

gravity to convey product along smooth surfaces from one level to
another.

Key specifications include the chute material and the physical

dimensions such as length and chute width. Chute conveyors are
used for scrap handling, packaging, postal service package or mail
handling, etc.

APPLICATIONS

a) Used to link two handling devices .

b) Used to provide accumulation in shipping areas .

c) Used to convey items between floors .

d) Difficult to control position of the items.

e) Main method of transport is gravity, making a chute conveyor very inexpensive.

1.6 TROLLEY CONVEYOR

Trolley Conveyor is a series of trolleys with loads suspended from them, supported by an
overhead track and connected by an endless propelling medium such as chain or cable.

Trolley conveyor chain is used to carry goods hung under ceiling. As being used three
dimensionally, chain can run winding horizontally and vertically. Multi driving points will allow
chain system extended to long distance.

NOTES:

52
 APPLICATIONS

a) Trolleys are equally spaced in a closed loop path and are suspended from a chain.

b) Carriers are used to carry multiple units of product.

c) Does not provide for accumulation.

d) Commonly used in processing, assembly, packaging, and storage operations.

1.7 POWER AND FREE CONVEYOR

Power and free conveyors are the workhorse of the overhead conveyor product family. Power
and free conveyors are typically used to transport parts along an assembly line from one process
to another.

Power and Free conveyors also enable product to buffer

along the conveyor path. Because they allow parts to stop
and start automatically as required power and free conveyor
systems are extremely versatile.

APPLICATIONS

a) Paint lines where products need to be routed to multiple

spray booths or where accumulation in an oven or
elsewhere is advantageous.
b) “Live” overhead storage of products, where high
density is key.
c) Assembly lines where non-synchronous movement is required.

1.8 PIPE CONVEYOR

The Pipe Conveyor is an enclosed curve going transportation system for all kinds of bulk
materials. At the loading and discharging points, the conveyor system is identical with open
troughed conveyors.

Due to its tubular shape, the conveyor is able to manage horizontal and vertical curves as well as
high inclinations.

NOTES:

53
 APPLICATIONS

a) Metallurgical lndustry
b) Cement Industry
c) Fertilizer Industry
d) Paper and Pulp Industry
e) Mining
f) Food Industry

1.9 ELEVATING CONVEYOR

When elevating the production flow, you reclaim valuable floor space, which enables you to add
more production capacity or increase accessibility for your operators.

Choose the right elevation solution based on factors such as

throughput, the processes involved and the features of the products
as they appear in the line. Refined design and standardized interfaces
to the up- and downstream equipment make the solutions not only
efficient but also accommodating to various products.

APPLICATIONS

a) A stainless steel wedge conveyor uses two conveyor tracks

facing each other to provide fast and gentle transport.
b) The incline conveyor in stainless steel is designed for single or multiple lane elevation.

2.0 INDUSTRIAL VEHICLES

2.1 HAND TRUCK

A hand truck, also known as a two wheeler, stack truck, trundler,

box cart, sack barrow, is an L-shaped box-moving handcart with
handles at one end, wheels at the base, with a small ledge to set objects
on, flat against the floor when the hand-truck is upright.

The objects to be moved are tilted forward, the ledge is inserted

underneath them, and the objects allowed to tilt back and rest on the

NOTES:

54
 ledge. The truck and object are then tilted backward until the weight is balanced over the large
wheels, making otherwise bulky and heavy objects easier to move.

2.2 PALLET JACK

A pallet jack, also known as a pallet truck, pallet pump, and

pump truck, is a tool used to lift and move pallets. Pallet
jacks are the most basic form of a forklift and are intended to
move pallets within a warehouse.

2.3 WALKIE STACKER

A walkie stacker or pedestrian walk-behind stacker is a walk

behind pallet truck with a mast for lifting pallets to heights.
There are many different types of walkie stackers that are
suited to different applications.

2.4 PALLET TRUCK

A pallet truck (also known as a pump truck or pallet jack) is a

wheeled trolley designed to lift and transport pallets. The
truck's tapered forks slot underneath the pallet and the pump handle can then be used to raise and
lower the load.

2.5 PLATFORM TRUCK

A platform truck is a hand truck that has a large, low deck with
four wheels and no sides. A platform truck is not motorized
and these trucks normally include a handle at one end for easy
steering. Platform trucks also typically have at least one end
with swivel casters for easy maneuverability.

NOTES:

55
 2.6 TRACTOR TRAILER
A large truck in two parts, one in the front for the
driver and one behind where goods are carried.
The connection between the two parts can bend in
order to help the vehicle turn corners.
powerful vehicle for moving heavy loads, esp.
over long distances, consisting of a separate part
at the front for the driver attached to a large
rectangular container on wheels.

2.7 FORKLIFT TRUCK

Forklift is a small industrial vehicle,
having a power operated forked
platform attached at the front that can be
raised and lowered for insertion under a
cargo to lift or move it. Forklifts serve
the needs of various industries including
warehouses and other large storage
facilities.

Forklifts are powered by electric battery

or combustion engines. Some Forklifts
allow the operators to sit while driving
and operating the machine while others require the operator to stand. It is being extensively used
throughout the industry for transporting materials and goods.

3.0 AUTOMATED VEHICLES

3.0 AGV (Automated guided vehicles )

Computer-controlled and wheel-based, automatic guided vehicles (AGV) are load carriers
that travel along the floor of a facility without an onboard operator or driver. Their movement is
directed by a combination of software and sensor-based guidance systems. Because they move on
a predictable path with precisely controlled acceleration and deceleration, and include automatic
obstacle detection bumpers, AGVs provide safe movement of loads.

Typical AGV applications include transportation of raw materials, work-in-process, and finished
goods in support of manufacturing production lines, and storage/retrieval or other movements in
support of picking in warehousing and distribution applications.

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 3.1 TOW AGV

Towing, or tugger, AGVs are widely

used in the Automotive industry. Towing
AGVs tugger several trolleys (or wheeled
carts) composing a convoy. Compared
with AGCs, tugger AGVs have greater
throughput while they can transport
many carts in the same mission.

Main disadvantage of tugger AGVs is

that they cannot hook automatically (or is
quite complex) so they need operator to
perform hooking/unhooking activities

3.2 UNIT LOAD

Unit Load AGVs' are battery powered dive units

that are autonomous. They are used to retrieve
and deliver pallets, containers, or large rolls of
product. In most cases, Unit Load AGVs' are
used in place of fork trucks that require a person
to operate. Most of these actions are highly
repetitive, happening either continuously
throughout the day or at scheduled intervals.

3.3 ASSEMBLY AGV

Automatic Guided Vehicles are commonly used for assembly lines or can also replace traditional
in-floor tow lines. These Automated Guided Vehicles are most commonly ordered as tape guided
configurations but are also available in Laser, Spot and Wire guidance for maximum layout
flexibility.

4.0 POSITIONING EQUIPMENTS

Material handling equipment (MHE) is mechanical equipment used for the movement, storage,
control and protection of materials, goods and products throughout the process of manufacturing,
distribution, consumption and disposal.

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 The different types of handling equipment can be classified into four major categories: transport
equipment, positioning equipment, unit load formation equipment, and storage equipment.

4.1 PICK AND PLACE MANIPULATOR

A pick and place robot is the one which is used to

pick up an object and place it in the desired location.
It can be a cylindrical robot providing movement in
horizontal, vertical and rotational axes, a spherical
robot providing two rotational and one linear
movement, an articulate robot or a scara robot (fixed
robots with 3 vertical axes rotary arms).

4.2 TURN TABLE

It is used when positioning involves the lifting,

tilting, or turning of a load.
Also, it is used to reduce or limit a worker’s lifting
and reaching motions.

Turntables provide a method of rotating unit loads

when material lines intersect or change directions.
Unlike Chain Transfer Devices, they maintain
product orientation through an intersection.

4.3 TURN OVER TABLE

Turntables provide a method of rotating unit loads when material

lines intersect or change directions. Unlike Chain Transfer Devices,
they maintain product orientation through an intersection. They can
also be used to reverse the orientation of a product or allow a pass
through depending on application requirements.

Application:

• Convey loads of Cartons, Totes, Fixtures, Cardboard Boxes

• Non-Contact Accumulation

• Pallet loads when bottom boards are perpendicular to the rollers

• Pallet loads when bottom boards are parallel to the rollers

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 5.0 RACKS

5.1 PALLET RACKS

Pallet rack is a material handling storage aid system

designed to store materials on pallets (or “skids”). Although
there are many varieties of pallet racking, all types allow
for the storage of palletized materials in horizontal rows
with multiple levels. Forklift trucks are usually required to
place the loaded pallets onto the racks for storage.

5.2 PUSH BACK RACK

Push Back rack systems are available in structural

or roll-formed frames. Push Back rack systems
work by placing pallet loads on a series of nesting
carts fed forward by gravity on rigid structural steel
rails.

Push Back Rack offers more versatile storage than

Drive-In rack because each lane flows independently
and vertical storage operates separately from lanes
below.

5.3 FLOW THROUGH RACK

Pallet flow rack systems are generally first in,

first out (FIFO). In a flow rack system, pallets are
loaded into the storage lane from the loading aisle
and fed by gravity towards the discharge aisle.

The pallets are first placed on the rollers that let

them “flow” towards the front of the rack system.
Once they’ve glided to the front of the system, the
pallets rest on pallet stops until they’re unloaded
from the pick face.

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 5.4 DRIVE IN DRIVE THROUGH CANTILEVER RACK

Drive-in and drive-through rack is

designed for last-in, first-out (LIFO –
drive-in) or first-in, first-out (FIFO – drive-
through) inventory management.

Pallets are stored on support rails that are

attached to uprights and are accessed by a
lift truck that drives in to the system with
the load elevated to the height of the rail
and placed in the selected storage location.

5.5 SLIDING RACK

• Location of the aisle is changed by

sliding rows of racks along guide rails in
floor (a.k.a. mobile rack)
• Used when only single-deep storage is
possible and space is very limited or
expensive
• Advantage: High cube utilization and
complete accessibility to all loads
• Disadvantage: More expensive
compared to other storage racks. Lengthy storage and retrieval times because one can only
pick in one lane at a time. Relies on having a reliable power source available.
• Provides increased security for items compared to other racks
• Typically found in library stacks, vaults, and climate-controlled (e.g., refrigerated) storage
room

5.6 AUTOMATED STORAGE/RETRIEVAL SYSTEM

• It consists of integrated computer-controlled system that combines storage medium,

transport mechanism, and controls with various levels of automation for fast and accurate
random storage of products and materials
• Storage/retrieval (S/R) machine in an AS/RS operates in narrow aisle, serving rack slots
on both sides of aisle; can travel in horizontal (along the aisle) and vertical (up and down a
rack) directions at same time
• Advantage: Fewer material handlers, better material control (including security), and
more efficient use of storage space

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 • Disadvantage: Typically, high capital and maintenance costs, and more difficult to
modify.

6.0 HOIST AND CRANES

6.1 HOIST

A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a

drum or lift-wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be
manually operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use
chain, fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium.

6.2 MONORAIL

A monorail crane is a type of lifting device that acts

as an option to conventional cranes or conveyors.
Crane manufacturers commonly utilize these cranes to
relocate materials or products within a restricted
location, as opposed to throughout an entire building.

They may be designed into the structure of a

building/shop, where they enter into the building/shop
via ceiling or columns, or added later on utilizing
different types of supports.

6.3 JIB CRANE

A type of crane, which has a horizontal member (known as jib or

boom) that supports a moveable hoist fixed to a wall or to a
floor-mounted pillar is known as jib crane.

Used mostly in industrial premises and on military vehicles, the

jib may swing through an arc, giving additional lateral
movement. It can be also fixed. The jib cranes can be also fitted
on top floors of warehouse buildings to help lift goods to all
floors from ground to top.

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 6.4 GANTRY CRANE

A gantry crane is a type of overhead crane that is similar to a bridge crane, but instead of moving
on suspended runways, the crane uses legs to support the bridge, trolley, and hoist. These legs
travel on tires or on rails that are embedded in the floor or ground structure.

There are different gantry crane variants, including:

• Full Gantries
• Semi-Gantries
• Portable Gantries
• Adjustable Gantries

6.5 OVERHEAD CRANE

In the simplest of terms, an overhead crane is a

machine, or piece of equipment, that allows you to lift
and move heavy materials from one location to
another in a precise manner.

There is no “one size fits all” approach to defining an

overhead crane, as each overhead crane is carefully
designed and engineered for a specific purpose or
application to suit a business’ material handling needs.

Some of the most popular reasons for using an overhead crane include:

• Loading or unloading materials from a truck.

• Moving materials around a facility more efficiently than a tow motor or manpower can.
• Flipping or pulling dies in and out of stamping machines at a manufacturing facility .
• Feeding raw material into a machine at a manufacturing facility.

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 7.0 AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION AND COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT

7.1 BARCODE

A barcode is a square or rectangular image consisting of a series of parallel black lines

and white spaces of varying widths that can be read by a scanner.

Barcodes are applied to products as a means of quick identification. They are used in retail stores
as part of the purchase process, in warehouses to track inventory, and on invoices to assist in
accounting, among many other uses.

There are two general types of barcodes: 1-dimensional (1D) and 2-dimensional (2D)

1D barcodes : are a series of lines used to store text information, such as product type, size, and
color. They appear in the top part of universal product codes (UPCs) used on product packaging,
to help track packages through the U.S. Postal Service, as well as in ISBN numbers on the back of
books.

2D barcodes: are more complex and can include more information than just text, such as the
price, quantity, and even an image. For that reason, linear barcode scanners can’t read them,
though smartphones and other image scanners will.

Barcodes were developed to improve the speed of sales transactions, but there are other potential
benefits to businesses, including:

• Data is immediately available - Because of the processing speed, information about

inventory levels or sales is available in real time.
• Reduced training requirements - Thanks to the simplicity of the barcode scanner,
employees need little in the way of training in how to use it.
• Improved inventory control - Being able to scan and track inventory yields a much more
accurate count, as well as a better calculation of inventory turn.
• Low cost implementation - Generating barcodes is quick and easy, as is installing a
barcode system. Potential savings can be realized almost immediately.

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 7.2 OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION

OCR (optical character recognition) is the use of technology to distinguish printed or

handwritten text characters inside digital images of physical documents, such as a scanned paper
document.

The basic process of OCR involves examining the text of a document and translating the
characters into code that can be used for data processing. OCR is sometimes also referred to as
text recognition.

OCR can be used for a variety of applications, including:

• Scanning printed documents into versions that can be edited with word processors, like
Microsoft Word or Google Docs.
• Indexing print material for search engines.
• Automating data entry, extraction and processing.
• Deciphering documents into text that can be read aloud to visually-impaired or blind users.
• Archiving historic information, such as newspapers, magazines or phonebooks, into
searchable formats.
• Electronically depositing checks without the need for a bank teller.

8.0 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENT

The following factors may be considered while selecting a material handling equipment:

(a) Material to be moved:

The size of material, its shape, weight, delicacy, nature (solid, liquid, gas) and its chances of
getting damaged during handling, etc., should be considered.

(b) Plant buildings and layout:

Widths of aisles, inequality in floor levels, width of the doors, height of the ceiling, strength of
floor and walls, columns and pillars etc., to a great extent influence the choice of a material
handling equipment.

For example, low ceiling heights may not permit stacking of palletized materials, weak roofs limit
the use of overhead conveyors and steps between two floors will not allow trucks to operate.

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 (c) Type of production machines:

Different machines have different outputs per unit time. The material handling equipment should
be able to handle the maximum output.

(d) Type of material flow pattern:

A vertical flow pattern will require elevators, conveyors, pipes etc., whereas horizontal flow
pattern will need trucks, overhead bridge cranes, conveyors, etc

(e) Type of production:

The type of production affects to a large extent the selection of the material handling equipment.
Conveyors are more suitable for mass production on fixed routes and powered trucks for batch
production; because conveyors though costly, can handle more volume of production per unit time
as compared to trucks, whereas a truck is more flexible equipment.

(f) Cost of material handling equipment.

(g) Handling costs.

(h) Life of the equipment.

(i) Amount of care and maintenance required for the material handling equipment.

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 Subject Title : Engineering Drawing II

Subject Code : S2. T3

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Geometrical Tolerances
2.0 Surface Texture
3.0 Interpretation of Assembly Drawing
4.0 Exercises on preparation of Shop floor Drawings

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 01
Geometrical Tolerances

Key points
❖ Introduction to Geometrical Tolerance
❖ Form and Position Tolerances
❖ Indicating Form tolerance drawing
❖ Interpreting form tolerance given in drawing
❖ Indicating Position tolerance on drawing
❖ Interpreting Position Tolerance given in drawing.

1.1 Introduction to Geometrical tolerance

What Is GD&T?

➢ It is a system of symbols and standards used by engineers to provide manufacturing

information to the production team.

The reasons for using Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) are:

➢ It ensures that mating parts fit together well

➢ The universal language works regardless of who you are working with
➢ Tolerances give a limit to the worst-case conditions
➢ Defines production and inspection processes

Stanley Parker is credited for being the engineer behind the development of the GD&T system in
1938.
Before that, all features used only X-Y axes to determine the position of a hole, for example.
Giving a positional tolerance on that scale means that the circular hole’s position can deviate in a
rectangular pattern from the intended spot.
However, we would actually want the tolerance zone to be a circle, as this allows for a uniform
measurement in all angles, whereas a rectangle is longer towards the corners and shorter towards
the sides.

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 So as Parker realized that, he started working on the new concept which was adopted as a military
engineering standard in the 50s.

Today, GD&T is an important part of engineering, especially when creating parts that require
CNC machining services. The American standard describing the features is ASME Y14.5-2018
and the European equivalent is ISO 1101-2017.

GD&T focuses solely on the geometry of the product. Linear dimensions, surface roughness,
threads, etc. are not part of this standard.

Why Implement GD&T?

➢ We do have traditional methods of denoting dimensions and tolerances. So what is the

need for geometric dimensioning and tolerancing?
➢ Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) offers some unique advantages over
regular methods. Let’s see what these are.
➢ The most important drawback of using traditional dimensioning and tolerancing is that
they denote individual part and part feature information. It does not guarantee how well
our parts will fit and function at the assembly level.
➢ This is important because most parts are not useful by themselves. Consider the example
of a connecting rod. By itself, it doesn’t provide us with any benefit. But when we connect
it to the crankshaft and the piston, it becomes a bit more useful, as it converts the linear
motion of the piston into rotational motion of the crankshaft.
➢ When this assembly becomes a part of a larger assembly such as a diesel engine, it can end
up as a part of a generator that provides us with many uses.
➢ Thus, it is crucial that our parts mate well with each other. This is why we need GD&T.
Using it, we can be 100 per cent certain that our parts will fit together and function exactly
as needed.

Common system to explain the design intent

GD&T also provides the designer with a platform to convey his design intent to all the relevant
departments. These include:

➢ Manufacturing
➢ Inspection
➢ Future designers in the design department who will pick up work if the initial design team
is not available

The definitions, vocabulary and rules are straightforward and universally understandable. This makes
the symbols easy to translate for every engineer and a great way of conveying the designer’s intention.

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 Saves time and money
➢ This is the most important benefit of using GD&T.
➢ Using this system reduces wastage as it cuts down the number of design-manufacturing-test fit
cycles.
➢ This is because manufactured parts fit well at the first attempt and consequently, the number of
rejects will be low.
➢ Using a common language also reduces the effort necessary for inspection.

Form and Position Tolerances

Form and position tolerances are used to specify the shape, form, orientation, and location of
features on a part. Features toleranced with the form and position tolerances reflect the actual
relationship between mating parts. Drawings with properly applied geometric tolerance provide
the best opportunity for uniform interpretation and cost-effective assembly.
When Should Form and Position Tolerances Be Used?
Many designers ask under what circumstances they should use the form and position tolerances.
Because form and position tolerances were designed to position size features, the simplest answer
is, locate all size features with form and position tolerances controls. Designers should tolerance
parts with the form and position tolerances when

➢ Drawing delineation and interpretation need to be the same

➢ Features are critical to function or interchangeability
➢ It is important to stop scrapping perfectly good parts
➢ It is important to reduce drawing changes
➢ Automated equipment is used
➢ Functional gaging is required
➢ It is important to increase productivity
➢ Companies want across-the-board savings

Form Error: It is the variation of the true form of a single factor to its perfect form make a small
shaft found to be distortion and not cylindrical, or the section is out of round, or the axes are
bended, or make a plane found to be warp.

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 Figure 1-1 Examples of Form Error
Position Error (shown in Fig.1-2): is the variation of the actual position of related factors to its
ideal position form. While machining a stepped shaft, the axial cord of each step may not be the
same, namely, concentricity and coaxality error. Surfaces expected to be perpendicular are not
perpendicular after it machined.

Figure 1-2 Examples of Position Error

Basic Dimension (shown in Fig.1-3): is a numerical value used to describe theoretically exact
characteristics of a feature or datum target.

Figure 1-3 An Example of Basic Dimension

Feature: is a general term applied to a physical portion of a part, such as a surface or a line.
Feature of size : is one cylindrical of spherical surface or a set of parallel surfaces, each of which
is associated with a size dimension.
GD&T Features & Symbols

The GD&T language is able to define pretty much any qualities that are necessary for ensuring a
perfect assembly.

The system uses a number of symbols for this purpose. To use these engineering symbols on
drawings correctly, we must first be familiar with some basic building blocks of this system.

We can start with the various definitions, terminologies, and rules before we get to GD&T
symbols.

Nominal dimensions

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 A nominal dimension is the feature size of the true profile. It is the exact dimension which we
would like to achieve ideally. Feature specifics such as size, orientation, the location from a
reference point have a nominal size that machinists target.

On a drawing, they are shown within a box. It may be shown as a number or from a popular
standard such as ASME.
Feature control frame

This frame contains information about part specifics. It contains various compartments where
each compartment defines a specific attribute of the part feature. In one look, the feature control
frame conveys the information required for machining and inspection.

The feature control frame can be divided into 4 main parts as follows.

Leader arrow
This arrow marks the part feature under control. If it leads to a surface, the surface is under
geometric control. If it marks a diametric dimension, then GD&T controls the axis. This arrow
may not be present in some cases.

Geometric characteristic symbol

The first compartment (starting from the left) contains the geometric characteristic symbol. This is
where we specify the geometric characteristic. In total, there are 14 types of geometric tolerances
based on the number of symbols, and 15 when classified.

The different types of geometric characteristics are form control, profile control, location control,
orientation control, etc. We will dive deeper into each category later on.

Feature tolerance compartment

The 2nd block contains a maximum of 3 (sometimes 2 or 1) different symbols.
The first symbol shows the type of tolerance zone. A diameter symbol (⌀) signifies a diametric
zone (cylindrical tolerance zone). To specify a spherical zone, the symbol is the letter ‘S’ followed
by the diameter symbol (⌀). In the absence of a symbol, we assume a total wide zone.

The second symbol in the 2nd block gives the value of the tolerance zone in mm. This value must
always be present in the 2nd block.

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 The third symbol in this block is the modifier for tolerance. This material modifier is only present
when the feature has a size, for instance, a hole. Examples of material modifiers are MMC
(Maximum material condition) and LMC (Least material condition). More information on the
various modifiers available will be discussed further in the article.

Datums
The third block gives information about the datum(s) with a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 3
datums. In the case of 3 datums, they are referred to as primary, secondary, and tertiary datums
with each being shown enclosed in a different box (the image above has 2, for example). This
block may also contain a material modifier.

Datums- are the reference surfaces or the starting points for the location and orientation of
features. They are essential for appropriate and complete tolerance of a part.
Datum geometries can become very complicated when they are features of compound datums or
features of an unusual shape. Datums are theoretically perfect points, lines, and planes. They
establish the origin from which the location or geometric characteristics of features of a part are
established. Datums are specified in the order of precedence as they appear from left to right in
the feature control frame. They need not be in alphabetical order.

All the information above helps us to understand how to read a feature control frame. In order to
better understand how tolerance can be adjusted using material condition modifiers, we need to be
familiar with the different options.

Material Condition Modifiers

Material condition modifiers convey the intent when tolerance applies to a feature at a specific
feature size. Whenever we give tolerances to any feature, it establishes two material conditions
➢ Maximum material condition
➢ Least material condition

Consider a shaft of diameter 100 mm. When manufacturing, if we give it tolerance of ±0.2 mm,
then at 100.2 mm, the shaft will contain the maximum amount of material. This is what we mean
by the maximum material condition.
On the other hand, the same shaft, when manufactured with a diameter of 99.8 mm, will contain
the least amount of material. These limits are called material conditions.

The geometric tolerances can be applied to a feature in 3 different ways.

These are as follows:

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 Maximum material condition
Least material condition
Regardless of feature size

Maximum material condition modifier

We represent this condition by a circled “M” after the tolerance value in the feature
control compartment. The feature contains the maximum material at this feature size.
For external FOS (Feature of Size), such as the diameter of a shaft, MMC represents the largest
size. For internal FOS, such as the diameter of a hole, MMC represents the smallest possible size
within stated tolerance limits because a smaller hole means that more material will be left.
When we need to apply geometric tolerance at the maximum material condition, we mention this
condition in the feature control frame.

Least material condition modifier

LMC is the condition where the material contains the least amount of material.
For external FOS, it will be the smallest possible size within stated limits. And for internal FOS, it
will be the largest possible size.
We represent this modifier with the letter “L” in a circle. This feature removes excessive material
and thus weight. To apply geometric tolerances at this condition, we use its symbol in the feature
control frame.
Regardless of Feature Size (RFS)
When the given geometric tolerances are applied at any increment of size of FOS, we
indicate this by RFS. The symbol for RFS was the letter “S” enclosed in a circle but it is
no longer needed as RFS is considered the default condition now, and does not need a symbol.
Datums and Feature Callouts
Datums are reference points for measuring dimensional tolerances. It could be a point, a line, or a
plane. With the help of a datum, we establish Datum Reference Frames (DRF). The DRF is
basically a 3D coordinate system that helps us define the positions of all other features with
respect to the DRF.
There are 6 degrees of freedom (3 translational and 3 rotational) that we need to control to
manufacture and inspect parts effectively. We use DRF to establish these degrees of freedom.
Datum features are the actual part features such as holes and slots. They can show variation from
desired positions.
Among all the datum features, we give the highest preference to those that mate with other parts
in the assembly. We can mention more than one datum in our feature control frame. As per the
sequence of the DRFs in the feature control frame, the parts are mated to the DRFs in decreasing
order of importance.
1.2 Form Tolerances

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73
 ➢ All form tolerances apply to single, or individual, features. Consequently, form tolerances
are independent of all other features.
➢ No datums apply to form tolerances. When the size tolerance does not adequately control
the form of a feature, a form tolerance may be specified as a refinement. Except for
straightness of a median line and of a median plane, all form tolerances are surface
controls and are attached to feature surfaces with a leader or, in some cases, an extension
line.
➢ No cylindrical tolerance zones or material conditions are appropriate for surface controls.

Flatness
Flatness of a surface is a condition where all line elements of that surface are in one plane.

➢ The surface being controlled in Fig. 3-8 must lie between two parallel planes
separated by the flatness tolerance of 0.005mm specified in the feature control
frame.
➢ In addition, the surface must fall within the size tolerance, the two parallel planes
0.020mm apart. The flatness tolerance zone does not need to be parallel to any
other surface as indicated in the right side view.

Straightness
Straightness- is a condition where a line element on a surface, a median line, or a line element of a
median plane is a straight line.
➢ The line elements being controlled in Fig. 3-10 must lie between two parallel lines
separated by the straightness tolerance of 0.004mm specified in the feature control frame
and parallel to the view in which they are specified—the front view. In addition, the line
elements must fall within the size tolerance of 0.020mm.

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 Circularity
Circularity (roundness) has two definitions, one for a surface of revolution about an axis and the
other for a sphere. Circularity is a condition of a surface:

➢ For a surface of revolution, all points on the surface intersected by a plane perpendicular to
the axis are equidistant from that axis.
➢ For a sphere, all points on the surface intersected by a plane passing through the center are
equidistant from that center.

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 Cylindricity
Cylindricity- as shown in Fig.3-14 is a condition where all points on the surface of a cylinder are
equidistant from the axis.
The surface being controlled must lie between two coaxial cylinders in which the radial distance
between them is equal to the tolerance specified in the feature control frame. Unlike circularity,
the cylindricity tolerance applies to circular and longitudinal elements at the same time.
Cylindricity is a composite form tolerance that simultaneously controls circularity, straightness of
a surface, and taper of cylindrical features.

Profile
Profile is a surface control. It is a powerful and versatile tolerance tool. It may be used to control
just the size and shape of a feature or the size, shape, orientation, and location of an irregular-
shaped feature.
➢ The profile tolerance controls the orientation and location of features with unusual shapes,
very much like the position tolerance controls the orientation and location of holes or
pins.
➢ A profile is the outline of an object. Specifically, the profile of a line is the outline of an
object in a plane as the plane passes through the object. The profile of a surface is the
result of projecting the profile of an object on a plane or taking cross sections through the
object at various intervals.

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 Position Tolerances

➢ Position tolerances can be divided into orientation tolerances, and position tolerance,
concentricity and symmetry tolerances, and runout tolerance.
➢ Orientation tolerances are include parallelism, perpendicularity, and angularity. All
orientation controls must have datums.
➢ It makes no sense to specify a pin, for instance, to be perpendicular. The pin must be
perpendicular to some other feature. The other feature is the datum. Position tolerance is a
composite tolerance that controls both the location and the orientation of size features at
the same time. It significantly contributes to part function, part interchangeability,
optimization of tolerance, and communication of design intent.
➢ Both concentricity and symmetry tolerances are reserved for a few unique tolerance
applications. The tolerances employ the same tolerance concept but apply to different
geometries. Concentricity controls features constructed about an axis, and symmetry
controls features constructed about a center plane. Concentricity and symmetry both locate
features by controlling their center points within a specified tolerance zone. They are
typically used when it is important to accurately balance the mass of a part about its axis or
center plane.
➢ Runout tolerance is a surface control. It controls surfaces constructed around a datum axis
and surfaces constructed perpendicular to a datum axis. Runout tolerance controls several
characteristics of surfaces of revolution, such as coaxality and circularity, as that surface is
rotated about its datum axis.
Parallelism
Parallelism is the condition of a surface or center plane, equidistant at all points from a datum
plane; also, parallelism is the condition of an axis, equidistant along its length from one or more
datum planes or a datum axis.

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 Perpendicularity
Perpendicularity is the condition of a surface, axis, or center plane that is at a 90◦ angle to a datum
plane or datum axis.

Angularity
Angularity is the condition of a surface, axis, or center plane at a specified angle other than
parallel or perpendicular to a datum plane or datum axis.

Position
The position tolerance is a theoretical tolerance zone located at true position of the toleranced
feature within which the center point, axis, or center plane of the feature may vary from true
position.

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 Concentricity
Concentricity is that condition where the median points of all diametrically opposed points of a
surface of revolution are congruent with the axis (or center point) of a datum feature.
Concentricity applies to correspondingly located points of two or more radically disposed
features, such as the flats on a regular hexagon, or opposing lobes on features such as an ellipse.

Symmetry
Symmetry is that condition where the median points of all opposed or correspondingly located
points of two or more feature surfaces are congruent with the axis or center plane of a datum
feature. It has a tolerance zone that consists of two parallel planes evenly disposed about the
center plane or axis of the datum feature.

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 Runout
Runout is a composite tolerance used to control the functional relationship of one or more features
of a part to a datum axis.
It can be divided into circular runout and total runout.
Circular Runout
Circular runout applies to every circular element on the surface of a part constructed either around
its datum axis or perpendicular to its datum axis, while the part is rotated 360◦ about that datum
axis.

Total Runout
Total runout is a compound control that applies to all elements on the surface of a part either
around its datum axis or perpendicular to its datum axis, as the part is rotated 360◦ about that
datum axis.

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 Total runout tolerance applies simultaneously to all circular and profile measurement positions.

GD &T symbols

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 1.3 Indicating Form tolerance on drawing.

1.4 Interpreting Form tolerance given in

drawing.(units are given in inches)

Straightness on an axis at MMC

NOTES:

82
 Circularity

1.5 Indicating position tolerance on drawing.

NOTES:

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 1.6 Interpreting position tolerance
given in drawing.

Inspection
Inspection starts with measuring the hole diameter. If the diameter measures 2.012, it is within the
size tolerance, Ø 2.000–2.020. The next step is to measure the hole location and orientation. The
part is clamped in a datum reference frame by bringing a minimum of three points on the surface
of the primary datum feature into contact with the primary datum plane, a minimum of two points
on the surface of the secondary datum feature into contact with the secondary datum plane, and a
minimum of one point on the surface of the tertiary datum feature into contact with the third
datum plane. Next, the largest pin gage to fit inside the hole is used to simulate the actual mating
envelope. The actual mating envelope for an internal feature of size is the largest, similar, perfect
feature counterpart that can be inscribed within the feature so that it just contacts the surface of the
hole at the highest points. As shown in Fig., the distance from the surface plate, datum B, to the
top of the pin gage is measured. Measurements are also taken along the pin gage to determine that
the hole is within the perpendicularity tolerance to the angle plate, datum A. Suppose the distance
from the surface plate to the top of the pin is 3.008. That measurement minus half of the diameter
of the pin gage equals the distance from datum B to the actual axis of the hole, 3.008 − (2.012/2) =
2.002. The distance, then, from true position to the actual axis of the hole in the vertical direction
is 0.002. With the part still clamped to it, the angle plate is rotated 90◦, and the distance from
datum C to the actual axis of the hole is measured by repeating the previous measurement
procedure. If the distance from true position to the actual axis in the horizontal direction is 0.002,
the actual axis is 0.002 up and 0.002 over from true position requiring a tolerance zone diameter
of less than 0.006, well within the 0.010 diameter cylindrical tolerance zone shown in Fig.The
hole is within tolerance.

NOTES:

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 02
Surface Texture

Key points
❖ Introduction
❖ Symbols used to indicate surface texture
❖ Indicating Surface texture symbols on drawing
❖ Interpreting surface Texture symbols
given in drawing
❖ Exercises

2.1 What is Surface Finish?

Surface finish is the term used to describe the texture of a surface, and it is sometimes used
interchangeably with the term surface texture. Requirements for surface finish are frequently
found on technical drawings for mechanical parts, particularly where parts fit together tightly,
move against each other, or form a seal. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
has published the Y14.36M Surface Texture Symbols standard, which illustrates the proper
specification and use of surface texture symbols on technical drawings. ASME also publishes the

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85
 B41.6 Surface Texture Standard, which contains definitions and measurement methods for surface
finish.
Surface finish is composed of three distinct elements – roughness, lay, and waviness (See Figure 1
below). However, it is not uncommon in machine shops for the term surface finish to be used to
describe only surface roughness. Roughness is the most commonly specified aspect of surface
finish, however, before we get into the details Surface Roughness, let’s discuss these three
elements that make up Surface Finish.

Lay
Lay is the term used to describe the dominant pattern on a surface and the orientation of that
pattern. Lay is generally produced by the manufacturing process and can be parallel,
perpendicular, circular, crosshatched, radial, multi-directional, or isotropic (non-directional). We
will discuss the symbols and interpretation of lay in the Symbols section below.

Waviness
Waviness is the term used for the most broadly spaced surface finish variations. These periodic
imperfections in the surface are larger than the roughness sampling length but small, short, and
regular enough that they are not considered flatness defects. Common causes of surface waviness
include warping from heating and cooling, and machining defects from chatter or deflection.
Waviness is measured over an evaluation length, and a waviness profile for that length is
generated. The waviness profile does not include any irregularities in the surface due to
roughness, flatness, or form variations.

NOTES:

86
 Waviness spacing (Wsm) is the peak-to-peak spacing of the waves, while the wave height is
defined by the average waviness (Wa) or total waviness (Wt) parameters. Waviness requirements
are less common than roughness requirements, but they can be important for certain parts, such as
bearing races or sealing surfaces.

Surface Roughness
Surface roughness, frequently shortened to roughness, refers to small irregularities in surface
geometry. Roughness is the most commonly specified, measured, and calculated aspect of surface
finish, and many people use the term “Surface Finish” to only describe roughness.
Roughness Units of Measurement
The unit used in the United States for roughness measurement is micro-inches. This unit
represents one millionth of an inch, and it is typically written µ in. The corresponding
international (SI) unit is micrometers, or microns for short. This unit represents one millionth of a
meter, and it is written as µm or um. Just as one meter is 39.37 inches in length, one micrometer
is equivalent to 39.37 micro-inches.

Measurement of Roughness
Surface roughness is typically measured perpendicular to the lay direction by an instrument
known as a profilometer (shown in Figure -below). The profilometer generates a graph showing
variations in surface height with changes in position. This graph is known as the measured
surface profile, and an example is shown below. The measured profile will show not only
roughness, but also any wave and flatness defects that may be present. To examine only
roughness, we must remove the wave and flatness defects from the profile.

NOTES:

87
 2.2 symbols used to indicate Surface Texture.
Symbols
The basic surface finish symbol is a check mark with the point resting on the surface to be
specified. Variations of this symbol provide additional instructions as described in the table
below.

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88
 2.3 Indicating surface Texture symbols on Drawing.
Numbers near the basic surface finish symbol are used to provide different surface finish
parameters. The location of the number in relation to the symbol determines which parameter is
indicated. The letters in the figure below show the proper location for each parameter according
to the ASME Y14.36M Standard.

Where a represents the average roughness value (Ra), and b represents the production method,
coating, note, or other additional information. The letter c provides the roughness sampling length
in millimeters or inches, while d gives the direction of the surface lay. The value of e indicates a
minimum material removal requirement in millimeters. Finally, if an alternate surface finish
parameter is provided, the parameter symbol and value are provided in location f (ie: Rz 0.4).
The seven possible lay directions are indicated in the table below.

NOTES:

89
 The surface roughness is too shown by the grade number instead of their numerical values. The
BIS has prescribed twelve grades of surface roughness. These grades of surface roughness. These
grades of surface roughness are numbered as N1, N2, N3…..N12.

The standard prescribed grades of surface roughness may be chosen from the given Table-A
corresponding to the required surface roughness values.

2.4 Interpreting surface Texture symbols given in Drawing.

NOTES:

90
 In order to ensure unambiguity when specifying surface finish requirements it is
necessary to to add the the indication of the following:
(a)= Bandwidth/sample length/parameter numerical value
(b)= can be used for more parameter values
(c)= manufacturing method
(d)= surface lay & orientation
(e)= machining allowance
The above symbol indicates that the removal of material by turning is required to
achieve an Ra value of 2.2µm and an Rz value of 6.8µm when measured using a
0.8mm cut off and lower cut of value of 0.0025mm with Gaussian filtering. The
maximum amount of material removal allowed to achieve the required finish
would be 3mm. The surface lay direction and orientation would be perpendicular
to the view of the symbol. Unless otherwise specified measurements should be
made using a 0.8mm Gaussian filter with an evaluation length of five sample
lengths.
Note: The 16% rule for parameter values is the default rule for all surface finish
2.5 Exercises

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91
 03
Interpretation of Assembly Drawing

Key points
❖ Exercise on interpreting-
Simple assembly drawing
❖ Preparations of Part drawings-
from Simple assembly drawing.
❖ Exercises

A machine is an assembly of various links or parts. It is necessary to understand the

relation between the various parts of the unit for the purpose of design and production.
An assembly drawing is one which represents various parts of a machine in their working
position. These drawings are classified as design assembly drawings, working assembly drawings,
sub-assembly drawings, installation assembly drawings, etc.
An assembly drawing made at the design stage while developing a machine is known as design
assembly drawing.
It is made to a larger scale so that the required changes or modifications may be thought of by the
designer, keeping in view both the functional requirement and aesthetic appearance. Working

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92
 assembly drawings are normally made for simple machines, comprising small number of parts.
Each part is completely dimensioned to facilitate easy fabrication. A sub-assembly drawing is an
assembly drawing of a group of related parts which form a part of a complicated machine. Thus, a
number of such sub-assembly drawings are needed to make a complete unit. An installation
assembly drawing reveals the relation between different units of a machine, giving location and
dimensions of few important parts.
The final assembly drawings are prepared from design assembly drawings or from the working
drawings (component drawings). The class-room exercises are designed to train the students to
master fundamentals of machine drawing, such as principles of drawing, orthographic projections,
etc. In addition, the student will understand the relation between the different parts of the
components and working principles of the assembled unit. The following steps may be made use
of to make an assembly drawing from component drawings:
1. Understand the purpose, principle of operation and field of application of the given machine.
This will help in understanding the functional requirements of individual parts and their location.
2. Examine thoroughly, the external and internal features of the individual parts.
3. Choose a proper scale for the assembly drawing.
4. Estimate the overall dimensions of the views of the assembly drawing and make the outline
blocks for each of the required view, leaving enough space between them, for indicating
dimensions and adding required notes.
5. Draw the axes of symmetry for all the views of the assembly drawing.
6. Begin with the view from the front, by drawing first, the main parts of the machine and then
adding the rest of the parts, in the sequence of assembly.
7. Project the other required views from the view from the front and complete the views.
8. Mark the location and overall dimensions and add the part numbers on the drawing.
9. Prepare the parts list.
10. Add the title block.
NOTE- It is not advisable to complete one view before commencing the other. The better method
is to develop all the required views simultaneously.
Screw jack
Screw jacks are used for raising heavy loads through very small heights. Figure shows the
details of one type of screw jack. In this, the screw 3 works in the nut 2 which is press fitted into
the main body 1. The tommy bar 7 is inserted into a hole through the enlarged head of the screw
and when this is turned, the screw will move up or down, thereby raising or lowering the load.
Exercise
Assemble all parts of the screw jack, shown in Fig. and draw the following views:
(i) Half sectional view from the front, and
(ii)View from above.

NOTES:

93
NOTES:

94
 Knuckle Joint
This is a pin joint and is used to connect two circular rods subjected to axial loads. Compared to a
socket and spigot joint, wherein the axes of both the rods should be in the same plane; in the
knuckle joint, one of the rods can be swiveled through some angle about the connecting pin, i.e.,
the axes of the two rods could be inclined to each other.
Figure shows the details of a knuckle joint. The eye end of the rod 2 is inserted into the fork end 1
of the other rod. Then, pin 3 is inserted through the holes in the ends of the rods and held in
position by the collar 4 and taper pin 5.
Exercise
Assemble the parts of a knuckle joint, shown in Fig. 18.40 and draw, (i) sectional view form the
front and (ii) view from above.

NOTES:

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NOTES:

96
 04
Exercise on Preparation of Shop floor
Drawings

Key points
❖ Introduction
❖ Types of Production drawings
❖ Exercises

INTRODUCTION
A production drawing, also known as working drawing, supplies information and
instructions for the manufacture or construction of machines or structures. A production drawing
should provide all the dimensions, limits, special finishing processes, surface quality, etc. The
particulars of material, the number of components required for the assembly, etc., are given in the
title block. The production drawing of a component should also indicate the sub-assembly or main
assembly where it will be assembled.
Since the working drawings may be sent to other companies to make or assemble the unit, the
drawings should confirm with the standards followed in the country. For this reason, a production
drawing becomes a legal document between the parties, in case of disputes in manufacturing.
Working drawings may be classified into two groups: (i) detail or part drawings and (ii) assembly
drawings.
TYPES OF PRODUCTION DRAWINGS
Detail or Part Drawings
A detail or part drawing is nothing but a production or component drawing, furnishing complete
information for the construction or manufacture of the part. This information may be classified as:
1. Shape description -This refers to the selection of number of views to describe the shape of the
part. The part may be drawn in either pictorial or orthographic projection; the latter being used
more frequently. Sectional views, auxiliary views and enlarged detailed views may be added to
the drawing in order to provide a clear image of the part.

NOTES:

97
 2. Size description -Size and location of the shape features are shown by proper dimensioning.
The manufacturing process will influence the selection of some dimensions, such as datum
feature, tolerances, etc.
3.Specifications -This includes special notes, material, heat treatment, finish, general tolerances
and number required. All this information is mostly located near the title block.
4.Additional information -Information such as drawing number, scale, method of projection,
date, names of the parts, the draughter's name, etc., come under additional information which is
included in the title block.
Since the craftsman will ordinarily make one component at a time, it is advisable to prepare the
production drawing of each component, regardless of its size, on a separate sheet. Figure show the
detailed drawings of a template jig

NOTES:

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 Subject Title : PAINTING TECHNOLOGY

Subject Code: S2. T4

═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Safety
2.0 Paint
3.0 Painting
4.0 Ovens
5.0 Automobile Painting Process - Understanding the Process / Steps and its purpose
6.0 Painting Defects and Trouble shooting
7.0 Handling of Painted Surfaces and Storage of Products
8.0 Adherence to Environmental requirements

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99
 1.0 SAFETY

1.1 Safety Practices in Painting

Basic First Aid

➢ First aid is the assistance given to any person suffering a

sudden illness or injury with care provided to preserve life, prevent
the condition from worsening, or to promote recovery.
➢ First aid is generally performed by someone with basic medical
training.
Safety Signs in Shop Floors
➢ Always be aware of the surroundings in company or industry structure. Walk with care in
the shop to avoid unwanted accidents.

Safety Comes First

➢ Paint safety practices should always be followed,

whenever you take on a house painting task.
Before you get started, familiarize yourself with
the safe use of your painting tools and equipment.
➢ It is also very important to recognize the inherent
dangers involved with house painting.

NOTES:

100
 ➢ Always use Proper PPE (Personal Productive Equipment) for safety measures in working
infrastructure.

Ladder Safety

➢ Ladder safety is a major part of paint safety.

Falling from ladders is an all too common
occurrence.
➢ This can result in serious injuries or even death.
➢ Most ladder accidents occur as the result of
careless or improper ladder usage.

Ladders

IMPROPER HANDLING OF LADDERS

Lung Protection

➢ Exposure to solid particles, spray mist, vapors, and fumes is an inherent part of house
painting.
➢ Protecting your lungs from these hazards should not be overlooked. House painting
preparation and paint application can create high levels of particulates and harmful vapors.
Using a proper paint respirator is very important and worth the cost to purchase it.

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 ➢ Several different paint respirators (lung protection
devices) are available.
➢ Some only offer protection from solid particles while
others protect against harmful fumes.
➢ The paint respirator that you select should be determined
according to the scope of your painting project.

Eye Protection

➢ Eye protection cannot be neglected.

➢ Your eyes may be exposed to paint chips, sanding dust,
paint drips, spray mist, and solvents. All of these can
cause damage to the eyes.
➢ Good paint safety practices include some type of eye
protection.
➢ Wear safety glasses or goggles to avoid painful injuries.

Hand Protection

➢ The greatest concern for your hands, from

house painting, is chemical exposure.
➢ Harmful chemicals can be absorbed
through the skin causing potential medical
problems.
➢ Disposable latex gloves offer some
chemical protection by creating a simple
barrier between your skin and the paint product. Because of their thin profile, these gloves
allow greater dexterity than heavier gloves. They are a good choice while working with the
painting tools.

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 Several accessories are available that offer paint protection from head to toe.

➢ Spray hood or spray sock – these protect the head and hair from paint overspray. Reusable
spray socks stretch over your head, neck, mouth and nose for excellent protection.
➢ Disposable coveralls - they come in a variety of different fabrics, each with materials
perfect for any application you need. Some coveralls come with attached hoods.
➢ Reusable boot and shoe covers - they protect boots and shoes from paint.

✓ Does not paint or store paint near any heat source

✓ Make sure your ladder is in good shape.
✓ Clean up carefully In Work place

Disposable Coveralls Spray Sock Shoe covers

What is Fire?

Three things must be present at the same time to produce fire

1. Enough OXYGEN to sustain combustion

2. Enough HEAT to reach ignition temperature
3. Some FUEL or combustible material
Together, they produce the CHEMICAL REACTION that is fire

Types of Fire & Fire Extinguishers with Classes

1. Water
2. Powder
3. Foam
4. CO2
5. Wet chemical

NOTES:

103
 • Class A – Fires that involve solid or organic materials, such as wood, plastics, paper,
textiles, or coal.
• Class B – Fires that involve flammable liquids, such as gasoline, petroleum oil, paint, or
diesel.
• Class C – Fires that involve flammable gases, such as propane, butane, or methane.
• Class D – Fires that involve combustible metals, such as magnesium, lithium, sodium,
potassium, titanium, or aluminum.
• Class F – Fires that involve cooking oils and fats, such as vegetable oil, sunflower oil,
olive oil, maize oil, lard, or butter (typically those used for deep-fat fryers).

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 2.0 PAINT

2.1 Types, Classification and Application

1. Enamel Paint
This particular type of paint is commonly produced by adding zinc or lead straight to varnish. In
order to achieve a vast array of colors, pigments are going to be added onto it. Enamel paints are
proven to form hard and glossier coatings that are absolutely easy to clean.
Below are some of the most common uses of enamel paint:
➢ Windows
➢ Interior and exterior walls
➢ Stairs
➢ Wood trims, flooring, doors
➢ Surface areas like masonry, metals, wicker, glass and plasters

2. Oil Paint
Oil paints usually use white lead as its base and are usually applied in 3 coatings – primer,
undercoat, and lastly finish coat. This type of paint can greatly achieve glossy and mat finishes
and at the same time while being durable and affordable.
Oil paint is typically used indoors, metal structures, walls and windows.

3. Emulsion Paint
Emulsion paints often use polystyrene and polyvinyl acetate as its binding materials, and at the
same time, it contains driers such as manganese and cobalt. Furthermore, this paint can either be
oil-based or water and its pigments are often used in order to achieve all desired colors. Emulsion
paints are typically characterized by its hardening and fast-drying capabilities.

4. Cement Paint
This type of paint is neither water nor oil-based but usually available in powder form, mixed using
water to achieve paint consistency. The very base material for this is either colored cement or
white and it might also contain pigments, other additives, and even accelerators. Cement paint is
commonly used in both rough external and internal surfaces since its characteristics are proven to
be very durable and waterproof.

NOTES:

105
 5. Bituminous Paint
This specific type of paint is usually made from tar or dissolved asphalt that ultimately gives it a
common characterized black color. It is also waterproof and at the same time alkali-resistant..
Bituminous paint is typically used for concrete foundations, underwater ironworks, iron pipes, and
wooden surfaces. For metal application, it helps in providing rust resistance.

6. Plastic Paint
This type of paint often uses water as the thinner, and this is very much available in a wide-
ranging set of colors. The way it dries is quick and it certainly offers very high coverage. Below
are the common applications of plastic paint:
➢ Slabs
➢ Ceilings, walls of display rooms, auditoriums, showrooms, etc.
➢ Decks

7. Anti-Corrosive Paint
This paint is often characterized by its own chemical resistance as being implied with its name.
Linseed oil, fine sand and zinc chrome are where it has been made of. This paint has a normal
black color and often apply for pipes or any metallic surfaces.

8. Cellulose Paint
This paint is commonly produced from amyl acetate, celluloid sheets and photographic films. This
particular kind of paint is usually characterized by its faster drying, hardness and smoother finish
while it offers resistance against water, acids, and smoke. Cars and airplanes are where cellulose
paint is best applied.

Classification of Paints
Among the various forms of grouping families of paints available today, we can cite the following
classifications:

a) By the sector to which it is intended that the application uses:

1. Paints for the automotive industry

2. Paints for general industry
3. Paints for the construction
4. Decorative paints (home)

NOTES:

106
 b) By the number of coats applied in the paint system:

1. Direct paint
2. Monolayer
3. Bi-layer
4. Tri-layer

1. Direct paint are those paints that are applied directly on the material or substrate, these paints
offer some resistance to both oxidation and ultraviolet radiation and other external agents,
providing directly the color, gloss and aesthetic finish.

2. Monolayer’s paints are known to the classical application of 2 coats of paint, primer plus
enamel, the primer layer protects the material from oxidation and corrosion and promotes
adhesion of the next layer of paint, the top layer commonly called enamel or direct gloss is
provided by the color, gloss and resistance to light and environmental agents.

3. Bilayers correspond to the paint coating system consisting of three layers, primer plus basecoat
plus varnish, in this case the final finish is achieved by means of two different layers, basecoat is
the first layer that provides color and metallic effect, final transparent varnish layer provides gloss
and protection against external agents.

4. Finally we found tri-layers paints, in which the paint application system consists of 4 layers,
the first coat of primer and the last 3 layers correspond to the finish, with the later three layers is
achieved pearlescent or chameleon effects (color change depending on the light incidence and the
angle at which we see), this type of paints are used primarily in tuning automotive sector.

c) By the degree of emission of volatile compounds:

1. Powder paint
2. Water-based paint
3. Paint with high solids content
4. Solvent-based paint

d) By the number of components or containers need to dry or cure the paint:

1. 1-component paint
2. 2-component paint

1. “1-component paints” are those paints which are not need to be mixed with any hardener so that
drying occurs, this type of paint dried by the action of moisture, ultraviolet light, high
temperature, etc. ...

2. “2-component paints” are those that need to add a hardener during the mixing process, in order
to achieve the curing of the paint.

NOTES:

107
 e) By the chemical backbone resin that paints is composed:

1. Epoxy paints
2. Polyurethane Paints
3. Acrylic
4. Alkyd paints
5. Polyester Paint
6. Vinyl paints
7. Rubber paints
8. Silicate paints
9. Silicone paints, etc.

Application of Painting
1. Protection:
a. To protect an object such as steel, wood, aluminium, concrete and plastic from external
elements like sunrays, moisture, rain, etc.
b. Inhibit the deterioration of the material and increase its use over a long period of time.

2. Decoration:
a. Paint gives color and gloss to an object to enhance its appearance which in turn affects the
attractiveness of the product.
b. Particular color of paint can distinguish one vehicle from another i.e. Fire trucks, taxi cab,
ambulance, etc.

2.2 Paints for metallic surfaces

Whether you are painting ferrous metal or galvanized metal, the key to a successful job is
preparing the surface for the prime coat. Ferrous metal needs a clean rust-free surface. Use a
wire brush or a scuff pad to remove rust and wipe the surface with a damp cloth to remove all
dust.

Composition of Paint
1. Binder/Resin.
2. Pigment
3. Solvent.
4. Additives
5. Hardener

NOTES:

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 2.3 Paints for Automobiles - Types, Specification and Application

The automotive paint is made up of three main components:

1. Pigment: Gives the colour to the paint.
2. Thinner: Levels out the consistency of paint
3. Binder: Binds the pigment and thinner

Metallic Paint:
In basic form, the metallic paint is the application of colour followed by an additional layer of
lacquer (also known as the clear coat). Additionally, a small quantity of powdered metal is added
into the paint layer to deliver a much more appealing shine than the basic solid paints. The metal
particles reflect more incident light than the solid colours which leads to a better paint output than
the solid paints.

Pearlescent Paint:
Pearlescent paints are the compilation of basic paint components included in the metallic paint
where the metal powder is replaced with ceramic crystals also known as mica. The unique
property of mica is that along with reflecting the light, it refracts the light too. This refraction
gives a deep colour to the paint along with the shine. The colour changes according to how you
look at it. The pearlescent paint has a clear edge over the metallic paint which is visible if you
have a glance at it in the direct sunlight.

NOTES:

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 3.0 PAINTING

3.1 Preparation of Paint

For commercial manufacturing of paints, a four-storey building is used to have gravitational flow
of materials. Pigments, oil, thinner, plasticizer, drier, etc. are stored on the fourth floor and are fed
by means of chutes in proper proportions, to the grinding mill placed on the third floor and are
ground. The thoroughly ground materials are then sent to storage tanks on the second floor. The
charge in the tanks is kept in motion by agitation mechanism so that settling of materials does not
take place. An additional quantity of vehicle is added here to get the desired composition. The
batch is then tested for quality control. The paint material is then strained and sent to first floor,
where it is packed in containers. Finally, the packed material in containers is sent to the ground
floor. A flow diagram of paint manufacture is shown in Fig.

NOTES:

110
 The factors affecting the quality of paint so prepared are quality of ingredients, grinding, intimate
mixing and proportioning, straining, packing, etc. Ready mixed paints are also available in the
market with different trade names, e.g., Asian, Ducco, Shalimar, Berger Nerolac, etc
3.2 Pre-treatment of metals

Importance of Surface preparation:

Surface preparation includes all the operations involved in restoring a damaged or replaced panel
in order to provide proper base for top coating.

The main reasons are:

1) Protects the Base Metal and prevents rust and blistering

2) Improves Adhesion between layers
3) Restores the Shape by filling dents & scratches
4) Seals the Surface and prevents absorption

In general, the types of surface preparation materials are: Primer, Putty, Surfacer, sealer.

Surface Preparation of Ferrous Metals

The first step to prepare a ferrous metal surface is to ensure that the surface for painting is
noncorrosive by removing any loose rust and peeling paint. For smaller surfaces, using a chisel-
style scraper will take off heavy rusting and loose paint then a hand-held wire brush will remove
any of the rust residue left. However, it is not necessary to remove every bit of rust to take the
surface down to the bare metal, but rather to remove as much rust as these tools can allow. On
larger surfaces, power wire-brushing or disk sanding with aluminium oxide paper are effective
methods. Whatever the chosen method, it is important to wear PPE (personal protective
equipment), including eye protection and a good dust mask.

Surface Preparation of Non-Ferrous Metals

The following is a suggested method for surface preparation.

1. Remove all surface contamination such as oil, grease or dirt by washing with an alkaline
detergent and rinse with fresh potable water.
2. Dry abrasive "brush blast" clean (“whip blast”) the surface using a non-metallic abrasive such
as garnet. The abrasive size and blast pressure shall be such that all oxidation products and other
surface contaminants are completely removed and that the surface is lightly profiled to provide a
suitable key for adhesion of the coating system.
3. If the item being painted is not suitable for brush blasting (Eg sheet metal or thin extrusions)
then use non-metallic abrasive sanding pads to remove any existing oxidation and provide a
suitable key for coating adhesion. Note that this preparation method is likely to be less effective
than brush blasting and should only be used where brush blasting is not suitable.

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 4. Remove all spent abrasive and residual dust by using dry compressed air or, preferably, vacuum
cleaning prior to application of the coating. Avoid handling abraded metal with bare hands.
5. Inspect the surface prior to coating, to ensure no contamination is present and no surface
defects exist.
6. If either contaminants or defects are present, rectification is required before any coating is
applied.
7. Apply first or primer coat as soon as practical after preparation and before the surface oxidizes
or becomes decontaminated.
3.2.1 Sanding Procedure

The process of rubbing a surface with abrasive material, such as sandpaper, is a common method
of surface finishing. Coarse grit removes material quickly, while finer grit will give your surface a
cleaner polish. Aluminum oxide sandpaper or silicon carbide sandpaper is best used for polishing
metal. Use water to cool down the surface and reduce the amount of dust created.

Sandpaper comes in different grit sizes:

180 to 220 Grit Sandpaper: Finer grit sandpaper is great for removing the scratches left by
coarser grits on unfinished wood and for lightly sanding between coats of paint.
320 to 400 Grit Sandpaper: Very fine grit sandpaper is used for light sanding between coats of
finish and to sand metal and other hard surfaces.

Sanding is simply a method for rubbing abrasive particles against the surface of a workpiece to
create a random, non-linear surface texture. Different abrasive media are used, glued onto a
backing paper or plate. The size of the cutting grains is referred to as “grit”: the higher the grit
number, the smaller and finer the particles are and hence the finer the surface finish they are able
to achieve.

Very coarse grits can remove a lot of material quickly, while finer grits are able to achieve a
mirror polish. Water or some other lubricant is often used to flush material away and expose a

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 fresh cutting surface. Sanding is especially useful for contoured or curved surfaces, but it’s not
ideal for getting into very tight corners or pockets.

The artificial abrasives are,

• Borazon (cubic boron nitride or CBN)

• Ceramic aluminium oxide
• Corundum (alumina or aluminium oxide)
• Glass powder
• Steel abrasive
• Silicon carbide (carborundum)
• Zirconium alumina
• Boron carbide

3.2.2 Cleaning Agents - Properties and Uses

1. Scalgun-B manufactured by Ashok Industry is widely used for simultaneous removals of oil
and rust from ferrous parts and components prior to Zinc Phosphating, plating, galvanizing etc. A
10% - 25% solution of Scalgun-B with water is to be prepared in a plastic container and
contaminated parts to be immersed in this solution for 5-30 minutes at room temperature.
Scalgun-B is a very effective cleaner and does away the need of using two different chemicals of
Degreasing and Derusting. Scalgun-B is available in two standard Packing of 6 kgs 40 kgs.

2. Rust Solvent is an aqueous inhibited acidic mixture, soluble in varying proportions with water.
It is a very effective deruster for iron & steel surfaces at room temperature. It has very good
penetrating power to disintegrate and dissolve, rust or scales; either by dipping process or by
swabbing. It can be used very effectively in ultrasonic equipments, tumblers, agitators for
cleaning and /or derusting.

3. The ASFOCOAT-K process operated at room temperature produces a fine grain smooth and
continuous Zinc Phosphate conversion coating for pre-paint treatment of steel. Applied by dip, it
protects the base metal against corrosion and bonds supplementary coatings firmly to the surface.
The chemically converted phosphate coating provides an excellent foundation for the lasting
adhesion of paint.

4. ASFOCOAT-ZX process is operated at higher temperature by dipping method to produce a

smooth and continuous fine grain Zinc Phosphate conversion coating. This coating improves
adhesion between paints and steel and also protects steel from under-paint corrosion thus
enhancing life and durability of paints. ASFOCOAT-ZX process is used on all steel surfaces
which are to be painted or powder coated. It is also used on ground and machined components etc.
to produce medium to heavy weight zinc phosphate coating which is then sealed with rust
preventive such as ASFOSIL DW-56. This process is ideally suited to produce dark grey to black
phosphate coating on nut bolts and fasteners.

5. EMULSOIL-PLS is a metal cleaner consisting of surface active agents, emulsifiers, foam

suppresants and anti-corrosive additives. It is a clear homogenous liquid which can be used

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 directly or diluted with Water, Kerosene, and Petroleum Solvents. When diluted with water from
1-30%, it gives a stable milky emulsion. It removes greasy residues, oils, dirt, dust, and soils very
effectively. It does not contain alkalies, acids, phenolic compounds or toxic solvents, it is neutral
to pH and hence it is extremely safe to use. It is non-dangerous, non toxic and non-corrosive. It is
suitable for ferrous as well as non-ferrous metals, sheets, parts, or components.

3.3 Introduction to Spray Painting

Spray painting is a painting technique where a device sprays a coating (paint, ink, varnish, etc.)
through the air onto a surface. The most common types employ compressed gas—usually air—to
atomize and direct the paint particles.

Spray Painting Principle:

When compressed air is discharged from the air holes in the air cap, negative pressure is created at
the fluid tip, which in turn applies suction to the paint in the cup.

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 What is paint atomization?
Spray painting is a painting technique where a device sprays a coating (paint, ink, varnish, etc.)
through the air onto a surface. The most common types employ compressed gas—usually air—
to atomize and direct the paint particles.

3.3.1 Spray Painting Booth

A spray booth is a pressure controlled closed environment, used to paint vehicles in a body shop
to ensure the ideal working conditions (temperature, air flow and humidity). These booths are
equipped with one or more groups of ventilation systems and burners to provide adequate
atmosphere and to assist in the removal of the over-sprayed paint from the air.

Generally three types of commercially available spray-painting booths are found in auto body
shops-

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 1) Downdraft spray painting booths
2) Semi-downdraft spray painting booths
3) Cross draft spray painting booths.

DOWNDRAFT SPRAY PAINTING BOOTH

✓ Downdraft spray-painting booths are designed to let air enter through filters in the ceiling
of the booth and leave through a metal grate in the floor of the booth.
✓ During the painting process, conditioned ambient air is introduced to the paint spray booth
through the roof.
✓ The air and paint pass downward over the parts to be painted.
✓ The paint over spray and solvent fumes exit with the exhaust air from the painting area
through grates on the floor.

SEMI-DOWNDRAFT/ SIDE-DRAFT SPRAY PAINTING

✓ In a semi-downdraft booth, air enters through filters in the ceiling of the booth and is
exhausted through filters in the back of the booth.
✓ During the painting process, conditioned ambient air is introduced to the paint spray booth
through the roof.
✓ The air and paint pass down and across the parts to be painted. The paint over spray and
solvent fumes exit with the exhaust air from the painting area through openings usually on
one side of the booth.

CROSS-DRAFT SPRAY PAINTING BOOTH

✓ In a Cross Draft booth, air enters through filters in one side of the ceiling of the booth and
is exhausted through filters in the other side of the ceiling of the booth.
✓ During the painting process, conditioned ambient air is introduced to the paint spray booth
through the roof.
✓ The air and paint pass down and across the parts to be painted. The paint over spray and
solvent fumes exit with the exhaust air from the painting area through openings on the
ceiling of the booth.

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 3.3.2 Air Compressors

Spraying paint with an air spray gun requires a large volume of air being injected into the paint
which creates atomization or break up of paint. Volume is referred to as SCFM or CFM on a
compressor. Often people can confuse PSI and think that PSI is what determines paint break up.
The 3 factors are:
1. Pressure
2. CFM
3. Tank Size
1. Pressure:
There are mainly two types of spray guns that used compressed air. The HVLP (high volume low
pressure) spray gun and the LVLP (low volume low pressure) spray gun.

2. CFM
CFM stands for cubic feet per minute. In other words, it is the volume of air produced by the air
compressor per minute. It’s not the force of the air, CFM refers to the quantity of air the air
compressor can produce at a certain pressure, say 90 PSI.

3. Tank Size
Unlike other pneumatic tools like nailers, which use air intermittently to fire nails, paint sprayers
require a continuous flow of compressed air from the air compressor. Paint sprayers require a
compressor with a large tank, preferably from 50 gallons and above, in order to be able to keep up
with the spray gun.

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 3.3.3 Spray guns - Types, Selection and Safety Precautions

Spray gun is a device which creates an air-paint mist using the supplied compressed
air and paint and applies it as a layer on an object.
Types of Spray gun:

1. Gravity Feed Type

2. Suction Feed Type
3. Compression Type

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 SPRAY GUN DIAGRAM

Fan Spreader Adjustment Screw

✓ Adjusts the shape of the spray pattern.
✓ Loosening the screw creates an oval pattern and tightening the screw creates a rounder
pattern.

Air Adjustment Screw

✓ Adjusts the amount of air pressure.
✓ Loosening and tightening the adjustment screw increases and decreases the amount of air
pressure.

Fluid Adjustment Screw

✓ It adjusts the amount of fluid delivery.

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 ✓ Loosening and tightening the screw increases and decreases the amount of fluid delivered
through the nozzle.

Fluid Tip
Fluid tip is the part where vacuum is created and compressed & paint is mixed.

Air Cap
The air cap discharges air to help atomize the paint. It has several air holes, each having a
different function.

Center Air hole

Creates a vacuum at the fluid tip

Fan control Air hole

Defines the shape of spray pattern.

Atomizing Air hole

Promotes atomization of the paint discharge.

Trigger
✓ The air-paint mixture is released from the spray gun, when we press the trigger.

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 ✓ Pulling on trigger initially allows only air to spray out and pulling it further, causes the
needle to open and allows paint to spray with the air.

The following factors should be considered while performing a spray painting:

A. Spray gun distance
B. Spray gun stroke speed
C. Spray gun angle
D. Spray gun overlapping pattern

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 Spray gun distance
✓ The ideal distance is decided by the type of paint, spray gun and the painting method used.
✓ 100 ~ 200 mm is normally suitable for painting solid colors.

Spray gun stroke speed

The spray gun must be held consistently perpendicular to the panel surface both in vertical,
horizontal and angular directions.

Spray Stroke Speed

✓ The speed at which the spray gun is moved.
✓ A stroke speed between 900~1,200mm/sec is suitable for general painting.

Spray Pattern Overlapping

✓ To get a uniform coat, the spray pattern needs to have a uniform thickness. An appropriate
overlapping width is approximately 1/2 ~ 2/3 of the spray pattern.

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 PRECAUTIONS IN SPRAY PAINTING

1) Mix the ingredients of the paint mixture properly before putting it into the spray painting
machine.
2) Always spray 7 inches away from the work piece, and move the spray gun back and forth in a
rapid motion.
3) Two thin coats are better than one thick coat.
4) start your spray in an inconspicuous spot in case it spatters out of the nozzle.
5) Always wear a mask, disposable or otherwise it makes a hazard to us.
6) Dispose cans properly at a toxic waste disposal sites.

3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Spray painting

Advantages

1) Spray paint offers more even coverage without brush strokes.

2) Spray paint helps to paint a wide space with very minimum effort over a less period of time.
3) It can also help in patching up damaged surfaces such as cracks, wide gaps, bumps as well as
broken edges that paint brushes and rollers usually cannot do.

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 4) Spray paint helps to paint smooth surfaces where other options such as rollers and paint brushes
cannot excel. It can provide wide varieties of Surface appearances.
5) Specialty spray paints can be used to transform metal, wicker, plastic, resin and other surfaces.
6) Spray paint dries much faster than other painting methods (without an additive).

Disadvantages
1) Skilled persons are required to perform spray painting.
2) For small jobs, it’s not economical to use spray painting.
3) Spray paint and spray paint equipment are more expensive than brush or roller method.
4) Spray paint requires ventilated area to work and all the area which are not to be painted should
to be covered; including floors.
5) Dripping paints can ruin the surface finish and smoothness of the painted surface.
6) Spray paint is toxic and paint particles are hazardous to health. Hence, it is not recommended to
do spray painting without proper PPEs.

3.5 Putty - Types and Uses - Special Reference to Automotive Painting

Apply the first coat in a vertical “bottom to top” fashion by using a putty blade/spatula/ trowel or
any finishing tool. Leave the first coat dry completely for a minimum 6 to 8 hours. After drying of
the first coat of putty just rub the surface gently with emery paper in order to remove the loose
particle.

1. Putty is a substance which is used to fill the dents and Scratches

2. It is a paste like undercoat material used to fill deep dents and to create a smooth surface.
3. Different types of putty are available depending on the depth of the dent and the material that
will be applied.
Putty Types:
1) Polyester Putty:
Organic peroxide base hardener -generally contains extender pigments

2) Epoxy Putty:
Amine base hardener-mostly used for repairing resin parts

3) Lacquer Putty:
One component nitrocellulose type .used to fill pin holes & light scratches

3.6 Primers - Types and Uses - Special Reference to Automotive Painting

The primer is the first coat to be applied. The primer serves several purposes.

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 ➢ It serves as a leveler, which is important since the cab often has marks and other forms of
surface defect after being manufactured in the body shop. A smoother surface is created
by leveling out these defects and therefore a better final product.
➢ It protects the vehicle from corrosion, heat differences, bumps, stone-chips, UV-light, etc.
➢ It improves ease of application by making it easier for paints to stick to the surface. Using
a primer, a more varied range of paints can be used.

Metal Itching Primer

Rust-Oleum Self Etching Primer prepares bare metal, aluminum and fiberglass surfaces to
promote maximum adhesion and smoothness of the top coat. This product is formulated to stop
rust and is an essential step to achieve a professionally finished look. Etches & primes in one easy
step.

Corrosion Resistant Primer

Primer is for use over most firm surfaces. This high-quality versatile primer is formulated for
long-term protection. Designed for application by brush, roller or spray.

Zinc Chromate Primer

This compound was a useful coating because it is an anti-corrosive and anti-rustprimer. Since it
is highly toxic, it also destroys organic growth on the surface. Zinc chromate is also used in spray
paints, artists' paints, pigments in varnishes, and in making linoleum

Epoxy Primer
It refers to sealer that is a non-porous finish. These base coats or epoxy primers can be used over
fiberglass, plastic or the black iron phosphate coating. This primer can also be used on cracks and
dents. Its bonding capacity is excellent and produces a good surface finish.

3.7 Types of Painting finishes

There are five types of paint finishes:

1. Flat/Matte: Flat paints (also called matte paints) have the least amount of shine. They provide
the most coverage of any other paint and require fewer coats to cover imperfections like nail
holes.

2. Eggshell: Eggshell finishes are a very popular paint finish. They’re slightly more lustrous than
flat paints (with the delicate low sheen of an eggshell), they still cover imperfections, and they’re
more durable than flat finishes.

3. Satin: Satin finishes are the most common interior paint finish. They have a velvety sheen and
are easier to clean than flat and eggshell paints, which makes them a great choice for high-traffic
areas like kitchens, playrooms, family rooms, bathrooms, and laundry rooms.

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 4. Semi-gloss: Semi-gloss paints are shiny and reflective. They’re extremely durable and mildew-
resistant, so they’re best used in rooms that get a lot of wear and tear or moisture, like kids’
rooms, kitchens, and bathrooms.

5. High-gloss: High-gloss paints are the shiniest paint finish of the bunch. They’re also the most
durable and washable, so they can handle daily scrubbing. Consider this family of paint for doors,
trim, and cabinetry.
4.0 OVENS
An Industrial Paint Curing Oven cures dries the paint through the heated air that is re circulated in
the Oven. This is generally done by having a heating chamber where air is heated and the heated
air is circulated inside the Paint Curing Oven chambers by means of fans.

The provision of a Paint Drying Oven in a production shop ensures

➢ Speeding up of the paint drying operation
➢ Improved quality of product
➢ Increase in the durability of the product
➢ Economizing the cost of painting the product and lastly
➢ Dust free product.

4.1 Types of Ovens

There are several different varieties of industrial paint oven:
1. E-coat Oven
2. Sealer Oven
3. Primer Oven
4. Drying Oven
5. Heated Flash Off (HFO)
6. Top Coat Oven

1. E-coat Oven: The first oven in a paint shop is the E-Coat Oven. Also known as the ED, PTED,
or ELPOoven. After the Electro-coat is applied by submerging the parts in the E-coat tank, the
parts are rinsed and sent through the E-coat bake oven to dry and cure. The E-coat oven is the
hottest oven in the paint shop at temperatures of ~350°F. The Electrocoat paint is held at
temperature for 20 minutes where it cross-links and hardens. E-Coat is a water-based paint, so
there's very low amounts of VOC in the E-coat oven, but it does tend to create smoke at high
temperatures when the E-Coat drips off onto the hot oven surface. Oven air turnover and exhaust
is required to keep temps up and smoke down. An air pollution abatement system like a
Regenerative Thermal Oxidizer (RTO) may be needed to control the amount of smoke.

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 2. Sealer Oven: The second type of oven is the Sealer Oven which is the only paint oven that
does not cure a paint coating layer. Instead, the sealer oven is used to dry and cure the polymer-
based sealer applied to the seams of the vehicle to make it water-tight.

3. Primer Oven: The primer oven is used to cure the primer layer of paint, which coating be
liquid sprayed or powder coat primer. The primer oven is optional and is not used in a 3-wet paint
process where the primer, basecoat, and clear coat layers are applied after sealer oven and then
cured together.

4. Drying Oven: The dry-off oven is optional often not used. It is only used when the primer coat
is wet sanded, rinsed, and dried before applying the base and clear topcoats.

5. Heated Flash Off (HFO): Heated Flash-off tunnels or HFOs are essentially small ovens that
only heat up to 160-180°F to dehydrate the outer layer of waterborne paint layer before applying
the next liquid spray layer. The HFO is not needed for a solvent-borne paint; instead an ambient
temperature flash off tunnel may be used. Two HFOs are used in a 3-wet paint booth process,
between prime and base coat booths, and between base and clear coat spray booths.

6. Top Coat Oven: The final and most important oven, it finishes the final paint cure,
determining the finish quality that all customers will see. If there's no primer oven, as in a 3-wet
process, then the Top Coat oven is responsible for fully drying and curing all three layers of
primer, base coat, and clear coat. The topcoat oven is almost always an indirect-fired oven with
heat exchanger to preserve the colour integrity of the base coat and color coat layers.

4.2 Functions of Ovens

➢ For process heating operations in general, the most common technology is the convection
oven, which heats and circulates the enclosed air within the oven, transferring heat to the
part primarily by the movement of the heat-transfer fluid (in this case, air).
➢ This technology is very effective in many applications, such as annealing or heat-treating,
where the entire part needs to be heated to and maintained at a specific temperature.
➢ For drying and curing operations, convection ovens are best suited to products with
complex shapes.
➢ The convection ovens transfer heat via air, any surface that is exposed to the air will
absorb the heat evenly, which leads to uniform heating

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 5.0 AUTOMOBILE PAINTING PROCESS - UNDERSTANDING THE PROCESS/STEPS
AND ITS PURPOSE

5.1 Receiving from weld shop

When the automobile body sheet metal components are welded together, the resulting structure is
referred to as the body-in-white (BIW). The first sequence in preparing the BIW for subsequent
coating is pretreatment. Pretreatment consists of cleaning the body surface to remove remaining
oils from the stamping process and welding residues through three primary liquid dip processes of
degreasing, conditioning, and phosphating.

5.2 Phospating

A phosphate treatment applies an inert layer of metal phosphate, providing resistance to corrosion
spread. The degreasing solution is composed of alkaline salts and surfactants and can include
caustic soda, trisodium phosphate, and sodium carbonate. The surfactants are types of detergents
for emulsifying oils and lubricants on the BIW. The degreasing zone typically consists of at least
two sequences, including a spray stage known as knock-off-degrease (KOD) and a dip sequence.

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 5.3 Electrocoating

E-coating involves dipping automobile bodies into the coating solution and passing an electric
current through the body and the liquid ED paint solution. Because of the charged nature of this
coating process, the ED paint penetrates into places a spray would not reach. The ED paint is
promoted to bond with the metal substrate, and a uniform coating thickness is produced. The
result is an insoluble, deposited layer with a very high solids content and firm adherence to the
pretreated body.
During operation, a mixture of resin, binder, and a paste containing the pigments is fed into the
electro-deposition tank. The automobile body is lowered into the tank, and an electric current
applied; the solution in the tank consists of 80%–90% deionized water and 10%–20% paint solids
(consisting of resin, binder, and pigment). The deionized water acts as a carrier for the paint
solids, which are under constant agitation. The resin is the backbone of the final paint film and
provides corrosion protection, durability, and toughness. Pigments are used to provide color and
gloss.
5.4 Baking

After the E-coat, the automobile body enters a bake oven, in which heating and keeping at a
temperature of 160 °C for 10 min causes film curing to promote maximum performance
properties. The oven temperature and heating time primarily enhance chip resistance and film
adhesion to the body; corrosion protection is affected less by these conditions.
5.5 Primer coating

During this step, it is also typical to apply a soft tip primer coat that improves the chipping
resistance (resistance against chipping by flying stones or debris). This layer is applied to the front
edge of the hood, which is an area prone to chipping shock, using a high elastic resin that resides
between the ED and primer coats. Primer coating operations in an automobile assembly plant are
usually implemented in three stages: interior coating, exterior coating, and then curing in an oven.
Manual spray painting is used for the interior coating of the doors, engine compartment, and
luggage or trunk space. Some of these areas are not sprayed with basecoat.

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 5.6 Baking

Subsequently, the primer is cured by passing the body through an oven at 140 °C for 30 min. For
water-borne primers, preheating (or flashing) of the body before oven exposure is necessary
because of the higher specific heat and longer drying times of water compared to that of solvent-
borne primers.
5.7 Base coat

The basecoat contains the primary coloring pigment, and the clearcoat provides a protective
coating against environmental effects, corrosion, and UV light degradation, promotes unmatched
color retention, and provides a smooth, unblemished, and even finish. Three different types of
basecoats are used for automobiles, including solvent-borne medium solids (MS), solvent-borne
high solids (HS), and water-borne. The MS basecoats contain 15%–20% solid levels and have a
spray viscosity of 100 mPa.s at 1000 rpm.
5.8 Flash over oven

The body is first coated with either a water-borne or solvent-borne basecoat. If the manufacturer is
using a wet-on-wet process, then the clear coat is applied onto the basecoat after a short flash-off,
before curing in an oven. In the absence of a wet-on-wet process, the basecoat is cured before the
clear coat is applied. Independent of which process is employed; typical thermal cure times and
temperatures are 30 to 40 min at 125 °C, respectively
5.9 Clear coat

The final coating on an automobile’s surface is the clear coat; it provides durability,
environmental etch, and scratch resistance to the overall coating. It protects against damage such
as fading that is caused by UV rays from the sun and imparts a gloss and depth that otherwise are
not as vivid. The clear coat also makes repairs and maintenance easier. The flow characteristics
and mechanical durability of clear coats depend on 1K (does not require a hardener, catalyst, or
activator for hardening) or 2K (needs to be mixed with a hardener, catalyst, or activator to
harden). The 1K acrylic melamine clear coat is the most common paint used in the automotive
industry because of its good cost and performance balance.
5.10 Baking

The automobile industry seeks to eliminate or minimize the extent of spray application processes,
space, and baking ovens because of the significant savings in material and energy. One approach
has already been successfully established a wet-on-wet-on-wet-system (3-wet) that mostly
eliminates the primer oven in the coating process. Waterborne, 3-wet paint systems have been
developed to reduce VOCs and CO2 emissions. These systems apply the primer coat, then
basecoat and finally the clear coat, after which curing is accomplished in only one oven.

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 5.11 Inspection

A visual inspection is used to assess the condition of all the surfaces in need of painting and
identify potential water damage, fungus contamination in the paint job. A water-break test to
detect the areas contaminated with oil or grease. A UV “black light” test to determine the presence
of hydrocarbons.

6.0 PAINTING DEFECTS AND TROUBLE SHOOTING

1. Water Spotting
2. Scratches
3. Orange Peel / Texture
4. Dirt Inclusions
5. Contamination / Fish-eyes
6. Peeling Problems
7. Sanding Marks – Topcoats
8. Moisture Blisters
9. Wrinkling / Lifting
10. Shrinkage / Edge mapping
11. Pinholes - Topcoats
12. Runs
13. Peroxide Staining

S.NO Defect Causes Remedies

1 Water Spotting 1. Excessive film thickness, 1. Remove marks by
drying time too short polishing
2. Failure of cross linking 2. Sand, isolate and
due to moisture repaint
contamination
3. Unsuitable thinner

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 2 Scratches 1. Frequent use of brush or
soft cloth automated car
wash facilities
2. Wiping a dry surface
instead of rinsing with water
1. Polish
2. For severe scratches,
sand and repaint

3 Orange Peel / Texture 1. Incorrect spray pressure, 1. Sand and polish

4 Dirt Inclusions
gun setup, viscosity, 2. Sand and repaint
technique, or application
temperature
2. Wrong combination of
solvents or non-system
solvents
3. Substrate not sanded
thoroughly
1. Various types of 1. Sand, and polish
contamination typically 2. Sand, and repaint
introduced during the
application or drying process

5 Contamination / Fish-eyes 1. Oil, wax, grease or 1. Apply light coats of

silicone contamination
2. Contaminated air supply
3. Use of polishes or aerosol
sprays containing silicone.
4. Insufficient cleaning
basecoat until defect is
covered
2. Sand panel, clean /
isolate, and repaint
3. If required, use fish-
eye eliminator

6 Peeling Problems 1. Substrate not sufficiently 1. Sand damaged area

prepared (rust, grease, and repaint
moisture, poor sanding or
cleaning)
2. Use of incompatible
material or an incompatible
substrate
3. Flash off and drying times
too short
4. Condensation of substrate
due to temperature changes

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 7 Sanding Marks – Topcoats 1. Sanding paper too coarse 1. Thoroughly dry
2. Soft, solvent reversible affected area
substrates e.g. acrylic 2. Sand, isolate, and
lacquer (T.P.A.) repaint
3. Insufficient film build

8 Moisture Blisters 1. Residue of sanding water Remove contaminated

9 Wrinkling / Lifting
in corners, edges, crevices, finish and repaint
or below decorative strips
2. Contaminated air supply
3. Insufficient isolation of
polyesters
4. Ambient humidity too
high
1. Finish not fully cured 1. Remove finish in
(synthetic resin finishes) affected area and repaint
2. Unsuitable substrate
(aerosol paints, acrylic
lacquer or nitrocellulose)
3. Excessive film build

10 Shrinkage / Edge mapping 1. Substrate not fully cured 1. Thoroughly dry

2. Subsequent coats applied
too soon to preparatory
materials
3. Excessive film thickness
4. Sanding paper too coarse
affected area
2. Sand, isolate if
necessary, and repaint

11 Pinholes 1. Fiberglass bodies 1. Remove damaged

2. Insufficient mixing of
polyesters
3. Solvent popping that has
been sanded to open the top
4. Insufficient isolation of
polyesters
finish
2. Sand and apply a
sprayable polyester
filler, prime, and repaint

NOTES:

133
 12 Runs 1. Incorrect spray viscosity, 1. Sand, and polish
flash off time, technique, or 2. Sand, and repaint
film thickness
2. Defective spray gun,
incorrect gun setup, or spray
pressure
3. Temperature of paint,
substrate or room too low
3. Incorrect choice of
hardener and/or thinner
13 Peroxide Staining 1. Incorrect addition of 1. Remove polyester and
hardener re-do repair
2. Insufficient mixing or
2. Sand, isolate with a
sprayable polyester,
prime and repaint

7.0 HANDLING & STORAGE OF PAINTED COMPONENTS

Handling of painted Components:

➢ Paints, varnishes, lacquers, thinners and other inflammable materials shall be kept in
properly sealed or closed containers.
➢ The containers shall be kept in a well-ventilated location, free from excessive heat, smoke,
sparks or flame.
➢ The floor of the paint store shall have 100 mm thick loose sand on it.
➢ Paint materials in quantities other than required for daily use shall be kept stocked in the
regular storage place.
➢ Temporary electrical wiring and fittings shall not be installed in the paint store.
➢ When electric lights, switches or electrical equipment are necessary to be stored or used in
the same room, the room shall be designed in a way to reduce explosion risk.
➢ Sources of ignition, such as open flame and exposed heating elements, shall not be
permitted in paint store, nor shall smoking be allowed there.

Storage of painted Components:

Temperature control
All paints have specific temperature requirements when stored. For example, vinyl esters that are
kept at temperatures above 35 °C start to become solid whether or not the components are mixed.
Another example, water-based paints - the range of Xylan, products - are irremediably damaged in
case of negative temperatures. In order to keep the paints in optimal conditions to apply them
properly, the paints must be kept in a temperature range between 15 and 25 °C.

NOTES:

134
 Temperature monitoring
Any paint has a certain storage time also called "Shelf Life". The period of time described in the
technical specifications is usually, three or six months, or one year or more, depending on the type
of paint. Some paint manufactures may extend this term if evidence is found that the paint has
been kept in optimal temperature conditions. AlpAccess's storage facilities are equipped with
temperature data loggers which record the temperature minute by minute.
Proper ventilation
Many industrial paints are solvent-based. These, even when stored in special cans, may release
solvent vapours and produce a toxic or potentially explosive atmosphere. Therefore, the store
facility is recommended to be mechanically ventilated. Our storage facilities are properly
ventilated and the low explosion limit is constantly monitored.
Sufficient lighting
Any industrial paint storage facility should be light enough to allow operators to proper identify
the products that are to be used. A sufficient amount of light is somewhere over 50 ft-candela (538
Lux).
Fire protection
• Build the facility using fireproof materials: fireproof sandwich panels, metal panels, OSB
firestop
• Use flameproof electrical equipment: luminaires, heaters, solvent recovery equipment,
certified air conditioners
• Use mechanical ventilation to remove the solvent vapours
• Use explosion vapours detectors (LEL), temperature, fire and smoke sensors
• Equip the facility with verified fire extinguishers, placed in visible areas and marked
accordingly
• Install warning signals on the content of the storage facility to forbid smoking, working
with fire etc.
Accidental anti-spill protection
A complying paint storage facility use protection against accidental spills of products to prevent
leaking the paints or their chemical components into the soil or the groundwater. Our facilities are
equipped with a secondary containment insulated with polyurethane coating (an elastomeric paint
with good chemical resistance and impact strength) in a layer with a thickness of 3-5 mm.
Polyurethane insulation ensures easy cleaning of the floor and total removal of the leaked product.
Proper inventory management and evidence of the stored product lots
It is very important to have a correct inventory of the products in the store facility. Lot number
help us establish the traceability between paint used and the painted items, which is evidence that
for a certain item we used the proper paint, in accordance with the technical requirements.
Easy access to Safety Data Sheets and Product Data Sheets
In the store facility, there must be an area clearly defined where the Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS) are available for the stored products. The Safety Data Sheets are useful to establish the
paint handling procedures, what protective equipment should be used, or - in case of an accident -

NOTES:

135
 for doctors to determine the appropriate treatment method. When using the products, copy of
Safety Data Sheets will be available near the areas where paint is applied.
FIFO Organization (First In First Out) and honoring orders
When we have significant amounts of paint, the storage must be kept considering product rotation
by age (FIFO management: the first product stored is the first product used). This prevents
forgetting products in the warehouse, where they expire and can cause quality issues, financial
losses and unwanted waste.
Protection equipment and signaling
Since most paints are toxic, we must ensure proper signaling and protection means in the storage
facility. The protection equipment include: respiratory masks, eye showers, medical kit. Among
the warning sign, we mention: Caution Toxic Chemicals, Caution Flammable Materials, Highly
Corrosive Chemicals, Mandatory Protective Equipment (suit, respiratory mask, gloves, glasses).

8.0 ADHERENCE TO ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

• Adhering to the highest operational standards for handling hazardous materials.

• Preventing Pollution & leveraging the 3R (Reduction, Recycle, Reuse) principle and
moving towards zero industrial effluent generation and zero hazardous solid waste
generation.
• Minimizing impact of end-of-life plastics generated out of our packaging material.
• Reducing energy-intensity, carbon-intensity and increasing contribution of energy from
renewable sources.
• Leveraging rainwater harvesting, water conservation & water replenishment and utilizing
wastewater as an alternate source.
• Nurturing biodiversity within and outside our factory premises.

The Road to Ensuring Environmental Compliance in Paint Shops:

1 - A factory should know exactly what its pollution levels are

➢ The factory needs to measure the VOCs (volatile organic compounds) that are being
emitted into the air.
➢ The process is simple: measure VOCs in the paint and multiply by much paint is used.
➢ Once the paint dries all the solvents go directly into the air.

2 - Determine how much of the excess solids from the paint are going into the water

➢ Paint water pollution

➢ This calculation is a little more difficult than the air emissions.
➢ Take the weight of the product before and after painting and subtract the second from the
first to determine transfer efficiency.

NOTES:

136
 3 - Discuss environmental regulations with the local government and how the factory is
complying to them

➢ Having this discussion creates buy-in with the local government and together with the
factory they can create a joint plan to solve the problem before it starts.

4 - Start cutting pollution

➢ The most cost-efficient method is to improve transfer efficiency.

➢ By improving the coating processes, a factory can reduce the liters of paint or the
kilograms of powder paint by 30% to 90%.
➢ Improve paint coating processes
➢ Changing anodizing and phosphating to non-heavy metal coating is also simple and
effective.
➢ Lead-free electrocoat is well known and is an excellent way to reduce pollution and
improve efficiency.
➢ This keeps bad chemicals from the waterways and airways, saves money, and helps
factories avoid shutdowns from non-compliance.

NOTES:

137
 Subject Title : ENGINEERING SCIENCE

Subject Code : S2 T5
═══════════════════════════════════════════════════════
1.0 Force, Motion and Energy
2.0 Stress and Strain
3.0 Corrosion and its Control
4.0 Magnetism

NOTES:

138
 1.0 Force Motion and Energy
1.1 MOTION
A body is said to be in motion if its position changes with respect to
other bodies regarded as fixed with the passage of time.

LINEAR MOTION

The motion along a straight line is called linear motion.

Eg: Athlete running 100m along a straight track. The terms

associated with linear motion are:

1.2 SPEED

The time rate of covering a distance by an object is called speed. It is

also scalar quantity and its unit is m/s.

Speed=distance/time

VELOCITY

The time rate of change of displacement of an object is called the

velocity of the object. Its unit is m/s. Velocity is similar to speed,
but is different because it measures the distance between where an
object started and where
it ended. Velocity is a
vector quantity.

Velocity = displacement/time

Scalar Quantity

Those quantities, which have only magnitude but no direction is called scalar quantity.

E.g. - Mass, time, speed, distance traveled etc. …

NOTES:

139
 Vector Quantity

Those quantities, which have both magnitude and direction is called Vector quantity.

E.g. - velocity, momentum, Force etc …

Displacement

It refers to change of position of an object in a particular direction.

Displacement is a vector. This means it has a direction as well as a
magnitude and is represented visually as an arrow that points from the
initial position to the final position.

Uniform Velocity

The velocity of a particle is said to be uniform if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of
time in the same direction.

Average Velocity
It can be defined as the uniform velocity with which the particle
should travel to have the same displacement as actually described
by the particle in the same interval of time.

Acceleration
It is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

The unit of acceleration is m/s2. It is said to be uniform if the velocity of the particle changes by
equal amounts in equal intervals of time.

Acceleration=Velocity/time

Uniform Acceleration

A body is said to possess uniform acceleration if its velocity changes equally in equal intervals of
time however small the intervals may be.

NOTES:

140
 1.3 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

The acceleration of a freely falling body under gravitational force is called “acceleration due to
gravity”.

The acceleration which is gained by an object because of gravitational force is called

its acceleration due to gravity. Its SI unit is m/s2. Acceleration due to gravity is a vector, which
means it has both a magnitude and a direction. The acceleration due to gravity at the surface of
Earth is represented as g.

Its value is 9.8 m/s2 on Earth. That is to say, the acceleration

of gravity on the surface of the earth at sea level is 9.8 m/s2.
The acceleration due to gravity, the term 'g' in lower case, is
a constant on Earth, but varies depending on which planet or
moon is considered.

Gravity is always acting vertically downwards. If you take

all quantities moving in the upward direction as positive, then acceleration due to
gravity would be taken as negative and vice versa.

you weigh six times

less on
the Moon than
you do on Earth!

NOTES:

141
 Problem:
1) What is the speed of a sailboat that is travelling 100 meters in 120 seconds?

2) A cyclist covers a distance of 15 km in 2 hours. Calculate his speed.

3) A boy walks at a speed of 4 kmph. How much time does he take to walk a distance of 20 km?

Equation for laws of motion

Let,
u-initial velocity

V-final velocity

t-time,

a- acceleration

i. Acceleration, a = velocity / Time

a = v-u

v-u = at
1
v = u+at

ii. S - displacement
Average velocity = S/t

S = v+u

t 2

2S = vt+ut

[From equation No.1,v=u+at]

2S = (u+at) t+ut
2
S = ut+1/2at2

NOTES:

142
 iii. Average velocity = S/t
S/t = v+u2 {we know that, a = v-u/t

t = v-u}

S/t = S

v-u

S/t = S = v+u

v-u 2

2as = (v+u) (v-u)=v2-u2

3
v2 = u2+2as 3
3

1.4 EQUATION OF MOTION

v = u+at Where,u-initial velocity ,V-final velocity,

s = ut+1/2at2 t-time, a- acceleration

v2 = u2+2as

Problems

1. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 seconds for a distance
of 110 m. Determine the acceleration of the car.
2. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47 seconds. Determine the
acceleration of the car and the distance traveled.

NOTES:

143
 3. A bike accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 7.10 m/s over a distance of 35.4 m.
Determine the acceleration of the bike.
4. A stone is dropped into a deep well and is heard to hit the water 3.41 s after being dropped.
Determine the depth of the well.
Answer to Q.01

Given: Find:
S= 110 m t = 5.21 s u= 0 m/s a = ??

s = ut + 1/2at2

110 m = (0 m/s)x(5.21 s)+ 1/2(a)x(5.21 s)2

110 m = (13.57 s2)x a
a = (110 m)/(13.57 s2)
a = 8.10 m/ s2

Answer to Q.02

Given: Find:
u = 18.5 m/s v= 46.1 m/s t = 2.47 s s= ??

a = ??
a = v-u/t

a = (46.1 m/s - 18.5 m/s)/(2.47 s)

a = 11.2 m/s2
s = ut + 1/2at2

s = (18.5 m/s)x(2.47 s)+ 1/2(11.2 m/s2)x(2.47 s)2

s= 45.7 m + 34.1 m
s= 79.8 m
(Note: the ” s “ can also be calculated using the equation v2= u2 + 2as)
Answer to Q.03
Given: Find:
u= 0 m/s v= 7.10 m/s s = 35.4 m

NOTES:

144
 a = ??

v2 = u2 + 2as

(7.10 m/s)2 = (0 m/s)2 + 2x(a)x(35.4 m)

50.4 m2/s2 = (0 m/s)2 + (70.8 m)x a
(50.4 m2/s2)/(70.8 m) = a
a = 0.712 m/s2

Answer to Q.04

Given: Find:
a = -9.8 m/s2 t = 3.41 s u= 0 m/s d = ??

s = ut + 1/2at2

d = (0 m/s)x(3.41 s)+ 0.5x(-9.8 m/s2)x(3.41 s)2

d = 0 m+ 0.5x(-9.8 m/s2)x(11.63 s2)
d = -57.0 m
(NOTE: the - sign indicates direction)

1.5 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

First Law of Motion

A body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon by an
unbalanced external force.

NOTES:

145
 Second Law of Motion
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and takes place in
the same direction of force.

F= dP/dt or F=d(mv)/dt

F= mdv/dt

F=ma.

In symbols:

a=F/m or, F=ma.

Examples: If you use the same force to push a truck and push a car, the car will have more
acceleration than the truck, because the car has less mass.

Impulse
The product of force and the time for which the force acts is called the Impulse of the force.
Impulse = Force X Time = F X T kg m s-1.

Impulse is the change of momentum of an object when the object is acted upon
by a force for an interval of time.
Problem:

1) A truck, mass 1485 kg, travelling south at 116 km/h, slows to a stop in 10.25 seconds. What is
the net force that acted on the truck?
(Answer,F = 4.67 kN)
Third Law of Motion
Every action has equal and opposite reaction.

Example: If a man pulls up a weight with a force

of 100 N, the weight pulls down with a force of
100 N.

NOTES:

146
 Momentum (Linear)

It’s defined as the total quantity of motion contained in a body and it’s measured as the product of
mass of the body and its velocity.

P= M V

Force

Force is described as an external agency (E.g. Push or Pull) which produces or tends to produce
motion or else destroy or tend to destroy the motion
of a body.

Effects of force:

To cause a stationary body to move by

a) Push or b) Pull.
Unit of Force
A unit of force is that force which produces unit acceleration on a body of unit mass.
SI unit of force is Newton (N).

Inertia
Inertia is defined as the inability of
a body to change by itself the
state of rest or of uniform motion in straight line.
1.6 WORK
Work is said to be done, if force acting on a body is able to actually
move it through some distance in the direction of the
force.

Its unit in SI is joule and is denoted by J.

Work = Force × Displacement

NOTES:

147
 W = FS

I JOULE =1Newton X 1Metre.

POWER

The rate of doing work is called power.

If an agent does work W in time t, then average power, Pavg is given

by

Pavg= W/t. (Power = Work/Time)

Since power is a ratio of two scalar (W and t), the average power is a
scalar.

Dimension and Units of Power

Its absolute unit is Watt in S.I units. It is denoted by W.

ENERGY
It is defined as the capacity to do work. Since energy of a body is the total quantity of work
therefore it is a scalar quantity.

It has the same unit of work i.e. Joule.

Potential Energy

It is the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its

position or state of condition.
Example for potential energy is
a) Water stored in reservoir.
b) The wound up spring in the watches and clocks.

Potential energy(P.E) = mgh

Kinetic Energy

It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.

NOTES:

148
 Kinetic Energy(K.E)=1/2mv2

Where m= mass of the body, with Velocity v.

Eg. A) A bullet fired from a gun.

B) A rotating wheel.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:

It states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be converted from one
from to another.

It is one of the fundamental laws and is always obeyed in the entire processes taking place in the
universe. Energy can exit in various forms. Whenever, energy in one form disappears, in fact an
equivalent amount of energy appears in some other remaining forms.

Example:
The total energy of an isolated system always remains constant.

1. In an electric bulb, the electrical energy changes to light energy

2. In an electric motor, the electrical energy is converted in to mechanical energy
3. In an electrical heater, the electrical energy is converted into heat energy.

NOTES:

149
 Problem:

1) Calculate: If a man pushes a concrete block 10 meters with a force of 20 N, how much
work has he done?

Answer:200 joules.

1.7 TORQUE

What is Torque?

Torque is a measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to rotate. The
object rotates about an axis, which we will call the pivot point, and will label 'O'. We will call
the force 'F'. The distance from the pivot point to the point where the force acts is called the
moment arm, and is denoted by 'r'. Note that this distance, 'r', is also a vector, and points from
the axis of rotation to the point where the force acts.

Torque is defined as Γ = r × F = r F sin(θ).

In other words, torque is the cross product between the distance vector (the distance from the
pivot point to the point where force is applied) and the force vector, 'θ' being the angle
between r and F.

1.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TORQUE AND POWER

For any rotatory motion, to derive the relation between torque and Power, compare the
linear equivalent. The linear displacement is the distance covered at the circumference of the
rotation and is given by the product of angle covered and radius. And linear distance is given by
the product of linear velocity and time.
Linear distance = radius × angular velocity × time
Torque makes object undergo rotational motion. It is expressed as-
Torque = Force × Radius
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
Force = 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

Thus,

NOTES:

150
 Force × Linear distance
Power = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
( )𝑋 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑋 𝐴𝑢𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑋 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
Power = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Power = Torque × Angular velocity

2.0 Stress and Strain

2.1 STRESS:

The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as stress.
Mathematically

𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆(𝒑)
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔(𝝈) =
𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂(𝑨)

The unit of stress is N/mm2.

The latest S.I unit for stress is Pascal.

1N/m2 = 1 Pascal = 1 Pa

1N/mm2 = 106 N/m2

2.2 STRAIN:

When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of the body.
The ratio of change in length of the body to the original length is known as strain.

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒉(𝜹𝒍)
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 (𝜺) =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉(𝒍)

The strain is only a ratio between the two same quantities and hence it has no Unit
According to the applied load, the force system is classified as follows –

Tensile stress
Compressive stress
2.3 TENSILE STRENGTH

NOTES:

151
 The tensile strength of a material is the ratio of the maximum tensile load (a pulling force) a
material can bear without failure, to the original cross-sectional area of the material.

Tensile forces play an important role in failure of tools, jigs and fixtures, machinery, and parts.
Therefore, tensile strength is an important property of materials which the tool designer must
consider, to make the designs practically successful.

Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of a material is the ratio of the maximum compressive load (a pushing
load) a material can withstand without failure, to the original cross-sectional area of

the material.

Compressive forces play an important role in the failure of bearings, foundations of buildings, and
tools for compression moulding. The compressive strength of hardened die steel is an important
property which a die designer must consider, to make successful designs.
Load
An external force applied on a rigid body is called load and is denoted by P
SI-unit of load is Newton (N)
1 kilo-Newton (KN) = 103 N
1 Mega-Newton (MN) = 106 N
1 Giga-Newton (GN) = 109 N
Tensile Load
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite pulls, the body tends to elongate.
These pulling forces are called as Tensile Load.

NOTES:

152
 Plain Rod in a State of tension

Tensile Stress

The resistance to elongation, induced in the body (a force equalling the tensile load), acts

across the cross section (area= A) of the body. This resisting force per unit of cross sectional area,
is called tensile stress and is denoted by p

Mathematically,

𝑃
Tensile stress, p=
𝐴

P = Load

A = Area

Unit for tensile stress is N/m2 or N/mm2 or Pascal (Pa); 1 K Pa = 1000 Pascal

Tensile Strain

The ratio of elongation to original length of the body is called tensile strain and is denoted

by e.

Mathematically,

𝛅𝐥
Tensile strain, 𝐞=
𝐥

δl = Increase in length

l = Original length

Tensile strain is a ratio and has no unit.

2.4 COMPRESSIVE STRESS

The resistance to contraction induced in the body (a force equaling the compressive load),

acts across the cross section (area = A) of the body. This resisting force per unit of cross

sectional area, is called compressive stress, and is denoted by pc.

NOTES:

153
 Mathematically,

P
compressive stress, pc = Unit for compressive stress is N/m2 or N/mm2
A

Compressive Strain

The ratio of decrease in length to the original length of the body is called compressive

strain, and is denoted by ec.

Mathematically,

𝛅𝐥
compressive strain, ec=
𝐋
δl = Decrease in length
L = Original length
Compressive strain is ratio and has no unit.
2.5 SHEAR STRESS:- Shear stress is a stress state where the stress is parallel to the surface of
the material, as opposed to normal stress when the stress is vertical to the surface.
A stress in which the material on one side of a surface pushes on the material on the other side of
the surface with a force which is parallel to the surface is known as Shear stress or Tangential
stress.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

Unit for shear stress- N/m2 or N/mm2 or Pascal (Pa),

1 kPa = 1000 Pascals.
SHEAR STRAIN ( ɣ ):- Shear strain is the rate of angular deformation of a body due to applied
shear force. It is denoted by the symbol ‘ɣ’
2.6 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
For any solid material loaded within the elastic limit, the ratio of the stress to the corresponding
strain is a constant.
In the case of direct loading, the ratio of the tensile or compressive stress to the corresponding
strain is a constant. This constant is called the Modulus of Elasticity

NOTES:

154
 material

Young’s Modulus

The elastic constant or the modulus of elasticity, is also called the Young’s Modulus.
Young’s Modulus, the constant, E solid material loaded within the elastic limit, the ratio of the
stress to the material. It is denoted by E.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑝
𝐸=
𝑒

We know that,

𝑃
𝑝=
𝐴

𝛿𝑙
𝑒=
𝐿

Where, P= Load

A = Area

𝛿𝑙= Increase in length

𝐿= Original Length

Substituting for P & e

𝑃
𝐴 𝑃𝐿
𝐸= 𝛿𝑙
𝑜𝑟
𝐴𝛿𝑙
𝐿

𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸

The unit for Modulus of Elasticity E is N/m2 or N/mm2. The unit for _l is m (or) mm.

Young’s Modulus of a material can also be defined as the direct stress within the elastic limit

of the material, that will produce a strain, that is equal to one.

NOTES:

155
 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
=
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
=
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Modulus of elasticity of materials

Material Modulus Of Elasticity in GN/m2
Steel 200-220
Wrought Iron 190-260
Cast Iron 100-160
Copper 90-110
Brass 80-90
Aluminium 60-80

2.7 SHEAR MODULUS or MODULUS OF RIGIDITY :

It is denoted by C or G is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.
Modulus of Rigidity, or Shear Modulus, is an experimentally derived number that represents the
degree of elasticity a material displays under shear stress.

2.8 POISSION’S RATIO:

The ratio of the lateral strain to the corresponding longitudinal strain within limits is called Poisson’s ratio.
It is represented by μ or 1/m.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Poisson’s ratio = 1/m = 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

For most of the material, Poisson’s ratio lies between 0.25 to 0.33

Lateral strain:

"Change in breadth dimensions to original dimension is also known as LATERAL STRAIN"

Let

δl = Increase in length,

δb = Decrease in breadth, and

δd = Decrease in depth

NOTES:

156
 δb δd
lateral strain = 𝑜𝑟
𝑏 𝑑

Longitudinal strain :

The longitudinal strain is also defined as the deformation of the body per unit length in the
direction of applied load.

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ δl
Linear or longitudinal strain, e == =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙

2.9 PROBLEMS

1) A rod of 150 cm long and diameter of 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 KN. If

the modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2×105 N/mm², determine (a) Stress, (b)
Strain, and (C) Elongation of the rod.

Given data:

Length of the rod, l = 150 cm = 1500 mm

Diameter of the rod, d = 2 cm = 20 mm

Axial pull, P = 20 KN = 2 ×1000 N

Modulus of elasticity, E = 2.0×105 N/mm²

Solution:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴

𝜋𝑑2 3.14𝑥20𝑥20
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴) = =
4 4

= 314mm2

20000
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑝) = 314

= 63.662 N/mm2

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ δl
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑒) = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
=L
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

NOTES:

157
 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐸
63.662
e=
2.0×105
e = 0.000318
𝛿𝑙
𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒 =
𝐿
𝛿𝑙 = 𝐿𝑥𝑒
= 1500x0.000318
= 0.477

A rod of 1.8 m long and diameter of 15mm is subjected to an axial pull of 28 KN. The

modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2x105 N/mm2 , Determine

(a) Stress (b) Strain and (c) Elongation of the rod

Given Data :

Diameter, d = 15mm

Length, L = 1.8m

= 1800 mm

Load, P = 28KN

= 28000N

E = 2 x 105 N/mm2

SOLUTION:

(a) Stress , p = Load/ Area = P/A

= 28000 / 176.63
= 158.52 N/mm2
(b) Strain, e = Stress / E
= 158.52 / 2x105
= 0.0007926
e = 𝛿𝑙/ l

NOTES:

158
 𝛿l = e x l
= 0.0007926 x 1800
= 1.427 mm

3.0 Corrosion and its control

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Corrosion is the loss of metallic properties of a metal

such as strength, luster or shine and electrical
conductivity as the metal reacts with the atmosphere
or water.

Rust is brownish red in color and is formed from the corrosion of iron.

➢ Other metals like copper and aluminum also corrode or weaken.

Promoters of Corrosion

For corrosion to occur both water and oxygen need to be present.

Examining the corrosion of iron using nails:

Oxygenated
Humid Dry Deoxygenated Salt water
water air air (anhydrous water
(shaken)
CaCl2)
(Boiled water/
oil layer)

Rust Rust No rust No rust Extensive

rust

If a nail is placed in deoxygenated water it will not rust. If a nail is placed in dry air it will not
rust. For rust to occur both oxygen and water need to be present. The presence of salt accelerates
or speeds up the rate of corrosion.

NOTES:

159
 3.2 ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESS

The process of rust formation is due to a series of

chemical reactions. Points of stress acting in the
nail allow the iron to be easily oxidized. Carbon
impurities in the nail allow water to be reduced.

An internal battery or galvanic cell is set up

Oxidation of iron at points of stress in the crystal
lattice:

2Fe(s) ==> 2Fe2+ (aq) + 4e-

Reduction of water at the site of carbon impurities:

O2(g) + H2O(l) + 4e- ==>4OH-(aq)

Overall equation: 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + H2O(l) ==>Fe(OH)2

The iron (II) hydroxide is converted to rust through a serious of reactions.

The iron (II) hydroxide firstly oxides to iron (III) oxide.

1. Fe (OH) 2(s) =oxidation-=> Fe (OH) 3

The iron (III) oxide then changes to rust through a dehydration reaction.

2. Fe(OH)3(s) =dehydration=> Fe2O3.nH2O(s) or rust

Rust adheres loosely to the surface of the metal. This exposes the metal to more and more water
and oxygen allowing rust to continue to proceed.

NOTES:

160
 3.3 FACTORS FAVORING CORROSION

• More the reactivity of metal, the more will be the possibility of the metal getting corroded.
• The impurities help in setting up voltaic cells, which increase the speed of corrosion.
• Presence of electrolytes in water also increases the rate of corrosion.
• Presence of CO2 in natural water increase rusting of iron.
• When the iron surface is coated with layers of metals more active than iron, then the rate
of corrosion is retarded.
• A rise in temperature (within a reasonable limit) increases the rate of corrosion.

3.4 UNIFORM ATTACK CORROSION

This theory suggests that corrosion of a metal (iron) is due to the presence of acids surrounding it.
According to this theory, iron is corroded by atmospheric carbon di- oxide, moisture and oxygen.
The corrosion products are the mixture of Fe(HCO3)2, Fe(OH)CO3 and Fe(OH)3. The chemical
reactions suggested are given below.

This theory is supported by the analysis of rust that

gives the test for CO= ion. Further, the process of
rusting is reduced by the presence of lime and caustic
soda (these two can absorb CO2, thus reducing
corrosion).

Fig: - Uniform attack corrosion

NOTES:

161
 GALVANIC CORROSION

When two dissimilar metals (eg. zinc and copper) are electrically connected and exposed to an
electrolyte, the metal higher in electrochemical series undergoes corrosion. In this process, the
more active metal (with more negative electrode potential) acts as a anode while the less active
metal (with less negative electrode potential) acts as cathode.

In the above example, zinc (higher in electrochemical series) forms the anode and is attacked and
gets dissolved; whereas copper (lower in electrochemical series or more noble) acts as cathode.

Mechanism: In acidic solution, the corrosion occurs by the hydrogen evolution process;

While in neutral or slightly alkaline solution, oxygen absorption occurs. The electron-current
flows from the anode metal zinc to the cathode metal, copper.

Zn Zn 2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)

Thus it is evident that the corrosion occurs at the anode metal; while the cathodic part is

Protected from the attack.

Example: (i) Steel screws in a brass marine hardware (ii) Lead-antimony solder around

Copper wise; (iii) a steel propeller shaft in bronze bearing (iv Steel pipe connected to copper

Plumbing.

NOTES:

162
 Fig: - Galvanic corrosion

LOCALIZED CORROSION

❖ Localized corrosion is defined as the selective removal of metal by corrosion at small

areas or zones on a metal surface in contact with a corrosive environment, usually a liquid.
❖ It usually takes place when small local sites are attacked at a much higher rate than the rest
of the original surface.
❖ Localized corrosion takes place when corrosion works with other destructive processes
such as stress, fatigue, erosion and other forms of chemical attack. Localized corrosion
mechanisms can cause more damage than any of those destructive processes individually.
❖ There are many different types of localized corrosion. Pitting, Stress concentration
cracking, Chloride stress corrosion, Caustic stress corrosion, Primary side stress corrosion,
Heat exchanger tube denting, Wastage and Intergranular attack corrosion and one is
explained in detail.
Environmental Cracking

Environmental cracking refers to a brittle fracture of a typical ductile material where the
environment’s corrosive effect is the actual causing agent.

Cracking corrosion is caused by various conditions that can result in different forms of corrosion
damage like:

➢ Corrosion fatigue
➢ Stress corrosion cracking
➢ Hydrogen attack
➢ Season cracking
➢ Sulfide stress cracking

NOTES:

163
 ➢ Stepwise cracking
➢ Liquid embrittlement
Environmental cracking is also known as caustic embrittlement, which refers to the cracking in
riveted boiler plates made from steel, or as environmentally-assisted cracking (EAC). In the past,
it was known as season cracking.
Environmental cracking occurs from the combined function of these components:

• Tensile stress
• Susceptible material
• A particular environment or chemical species

For instance, if copper with its alloys are vulnerable to the compounds of ammonia, mild steels
are vulnerable to alkalis, while stainless steels are vulnerable to chlorides. There is no single
mechanism that can describe environmental cracking.
There are several different models to explain environmental cracking, such as:
➢ Film rupture: - Stress ruptures local passive films and creates an active-passive cell. New
passive films undergo rupture again, and this cycle goes on until failure.
➢ Adsorption: - Various chemical species go through adsorption onto the cracked surface
and reduce stress fractures.
➢ Embrittlement: - Atoms of hydrogen diffuse onto crack tip and cause embrittlement to the
metal. Embrittlement of hydrogen is the main mechanism related to environmental
cracking, especially in alloys like titanium and steels.
➢ Active path: - Compounds and intermetallics are formed along pre-existing paths such as
grain boundaries.

Flow Assisted Corrosion

It is also known as flow-accelerated corrosion, is a corrosion mechanism in which a normally

protective oxide layer on a metal surface dissolves in fast flowing water. The underlying metal
corrodes to re-create the oxide, and thus the metal loss continuous.

NOTES:

164
 It has been observed in the case of an iron tank containing water, that the portion of iron tank just
below the water level undergoes corrosion. It is due to the difference in oxygen concentration.
Corroding portion is poor in oxygen and acts as anode as shown in fig.

Reactions:-

At anode: Fe Fe++ + 2e-

At cathode: H2O H+ + OH+

(4H+ +O2 +4e- 2H2O)

Fe++ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2Fe(OH)

Fig: - Waterline corrosion occurs just underneath the meniscus and

the water level

High Temperature Corrosion

High-temperature materials are used in many critical components.

Hydrogen reformers or ethylene pyrolysis furnace systems used in
chemical and petrochemical processes, the interior of jet engines,
and fossil-fired steam boilers, all use high temperature, high
performance materials.

NOTES:

165
 The need for these materials has to do with corrosion. At elevated temperatures, high temperature
corrosion reactions occur at an alarming rate in unprotected materials or conventional materials

such as carbon steel. To reduce the occurrence of oxidation, and other corrosion processes such as
carburization, sulfidation, halogen corrosion, salt corrosion and hot corrosion, engineers continue
to develop materials that can withstand extreme temperatures, without compromising mechanical
properties.

3.5 METHODS TO MINIMIZE / ELIMINATE CORROSION OF METAL

In virtually all situations, metal corrosion can be managed, slowed, or even stopped by using
the proper techniques. Corrosion prevention can take a number of forms depending on the
circumstances of the metal being corroded. Corrosion prevention techniques can be generally
classified into 6 groups:

1. Environmental Modifications
2. Metal Selection and Surface Conditions
3. Cathodic Protection
4. Corrosion Inhibitors
5. Coating
6. Plating

3.5.1 Environmental Modifications

➢ Temperature: The rate of corrosion is directly proportional to temperature i.e. Rise in
temperature increases the rate of corrosion. This is because the rate of diffusion of ions
increases with rise in temperature.
➢ Humidity of air: The rate of corrosion will be more when the relative humidity of the
environment is high. The moisture acts as a solvent for oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide etc. in the air to produce the electrolyte which is required for setting up a corrosion
cell.
➢ Presence of impurities in atmosphere: Atmosphere in industrial areas contains corrosive
gases like CO2, H2S, SO2 and fumes of HCl, H2SO4 etc. In presence of these gases, the

NOTES:

166
 acidity of the liquid adjacent to the metal surfaces increases and its electrical conductivity
also increases, thereby the rate of corrosion increases.
Presence of suspended particles in atmosphere: In case of atmospheric corrosion: (i) if the
suspended particles are chemically active in nature (like NaCl, Ammonium sulphate), they absorb
moisture and act as strong electrolytes, thereby causing enhanced corrosion;(ii) if the suspended
particles are chemically inactive in nature

➢ (eg., charcoal), they absorb both sulphur gases and moisture and slowly enhance corrosion
rate.
➢ Influence of pH: Generally acidic media (ie, pH<7) are more corrosive than alkaline and
neutral media. However, amphoteric metals (like Al, Zd, Pb, etc.) dissolve in alkaline
solutions as complex ions. The corrosion rate of iron in oxygen-free water is slow, until
the pH is below 5. The corresponding corrosion rate in presence of oxygen is much higher.
Consequently corrosion of metals, readily attacked by acid, can be reduced by 14
increasing the pH of the attacking environment, eg., Zn (which is rapidly corroded, even in
weakly acidic solutions such as carbonic acid suffers minimum corrosion at pH=11.
➢ Nature of ions present
➢ Conductance of the corroding medium
➢ Formation of oxygen concentration cell Flow velocity of process stream
➢ Polarization of electrodes.

3.5.2 Metal selection and surface conditions

➢ No metal is immune to corrosion in all environments, but through monitoring and
understanding the environmental conditions that are the cause of corrosion, changes to the
type of metal being used can also lead to significant reductions in corrosion.
➢ Metal corrosion resistance data can be used in combination with information on the
environmental conditions to make decisions regarding the suitability of each metal.
➢ The development of new alloys, designed to protect against corrosion in specific
environments, is constantly under production. Hastelloy® nickel alloys, Nirosta® steels,
and Timetal® titanium alloys are all examples of alloys designed for corrosion prevention.
➢ Monitoring of surface conditions is also critical in protecting against metal deterioration
from corrosion. Cracks, crevices or asperous surfaces, whether a result of operational

NOTES:

167
 requirements, wear and tear, or manufacturing flaws, all can result in greater rates of
corrosion.
➢ Proper monitoring and the elimination of unnecessarily vulnerable surface conditions,
along with taking steps to ensure that systems are designed to avoid reactive metal
combinations and that corrosive agents are not used in the cleaning or maintenance of
metal parts are all also part of effective corrosion reduction program.

3.5.3 Cathodic Protection

➢ Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals are situated together in a corrosive
electrolyte.
➢ This is a common problem for metals submerged together in seawater, but can also occur
when two dissimilar metals are immersed in close proximity in moist soils. For these
reasons, galvanic corrosion often attacks ship hulls, offshore rigs, and oil and gas
pipelines.
➢ Cathodic protection works by converting unwanted anodic (active) sites on a metal's
surface to cathodic (passive) sites through the application of an opposing current. This
opposing current supplies free electrons and force local anodes to be polarized to the
potential of the local cathodes.
Cathodic protection can take two forms:
1) sacrificial system
2) Impressed current protection
1) Sacrificial system
➢ The first is the introduction of galvanic anodes. This method, known as a sacrificial
system, uses metal anodes, introduced to the electrolytic environment, to sacrifice
themselves (corrode) in order to protect the cathode.
➢ While the metal needing protection can vary, sacrificial anodes are generally made
of zinc, aluminum, or magnesium, metals that have the most negative electro-potential.
The galvanic series provides a comparison of the different electro-potential - or nobility -
of metals and alloys.

NOTES:

168
 ➢ In a sacrificial system, metallic ions move from the anode to the cathode, which leads the
anode to corrode more quickly than it otherwise would. As a result, the anode must
regularly be replaced.

2) Impressed current protection

➢ The second method of cathodic protection is referred to as impressed current protection.
➢ This method, which is often used to protect buried pipelines and ship hulls, requires an
alternative source of direct electrical current to be supplied to the electrolyte.
➢ The negative terminal of the current source is connected to the metal, while the positive
terminal is attached to an auxiliary anode, which is added to complete the electrical circuit.
Unlike a galvanic (sacrificial) anode system, in an impressed current protection system,
the auxiliary anode is not sacrificed

Fig: - External cathodic Fig: - Internal cathodic

protection of water pipeline protection of pipeline by
by sacrificial anode method sacrificial anode method

3.5.4 Corrosion Inhibitors

Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that react with the metal's surface or the environmental gasses
causing corrosion, thereby, interrupting the chemical reaction that causes corrosion.

Inhibitors can work by adsorbing themselves on the metal's surface and forming a protective film.
These chemicals can be applied as a solution or as a protective coating via dispersion techniques.

The inhibitors process of slowing corrosion depends upon:

NOTES:

169
 ❖ Changing the anodic or cathodic polarization behavior
❖ Decreasing the diffusion of ions to the metal's surface
❖ Increasing the electrical resistance of the metal's surface
Major end-use industries for corrosion inhibitors are petroleum refining, oil and gas exploration,
chemical production and water treatment facilities. The benefit of corrosion inhibitor is that they
can be applied in-situ to metals as a corrective action to counter unexpected corrosion.

3.5.5 Coating

In order to protect metals from corrosion, it is necessary to cover the surface by means of
protective coatings. These coatings act as a physical barrier between the coated metal surface and
the environment. They afford decorative appeal and impart special properties like hardness,
oxidation resistance and thermal insulation.

Classification:
Protective coatings can be broadly classified into two types. They are
1) Inorganic coatings
2) Organic coatings
Organic coatings consists of
Paints, Varnishes, Lacquers and Enamels
Paints
Paint is a viscous, opaque (not clear), mechanical dispersion mixture of one or more pigments
(dye) in a vehicle (drying oil).
Constituents of paint:
a) Pigment
b) Vehicle or medium or drying oil
c) Thinner
d) Driers
e) Fillers or Extenders
f) Plasticizers
g) Ant skinning agents

NOTES:

170
 Inorganic coatings are further classified into two types. They are
i) Metallic coating:
1. Hot dipping- Galvanizing, Tinning
2. Metal cladding
3. Cementation-Sherardising, Chromising, Calorising
4. Electroplating.
ii) Non-metallic coating:
1. Surface coating or chemical conversion coating - Chromate coating,
Phosphate coating and Oxide coating.
2. Anodizing
3. Enamel coating or Vitreous or Porcelain coating
Metallic Coatings:

Corrosion of metals can be prevented or controlled by using methods like galvanization, tinning,
metal cladding, electroplating, cementation, anodizing, phosphate coating, enamelling, electroless
plating. Some of the methods are

1) Hot dipping:

It is used for producing a coating of low-melting metals such as

Zn (m.p.=419 deg C), Sn (m.p.=232 deg C), Pb, Al etc., on
iron, steel and copper which have relatively higher melting
points. The process in immersing the base metal in a bath of
the molten coating-metal, covered by a molten flux layer (usually zinc chloride).

2) Galvanizing:

It is the process of coating iron or steel

sheets with a thin coat of zinc to prevent
them from rusting. The process is iron or
steel article is first cleaned with dil.
Sulphuric acid and washed with distilled
water and dried. The dried metal is dipped

NOTES:

171
 in bath of molten zinc, now the thin layer of zinc is coated on the iron or steel article.

3) Metal cladding:

It is the process by which a dense, homogeneous

layer of coating metal is bonded firmly and
permanently to the base metal on one or both
sides. Corrosion resistant metals like nickel,
copper, lead, silver, platinum and alloys like SS,
nickel alloys, copper alloys, lead alloys can be
used as cladding materials.

4) Tinning:

It is a method of coating tin over the iron or steel articles. The

process is first treating steel sheet in dilute sulphuric acid and it
is passed through a flux (ZnCl2), next steel passes through a
tank of molten tin and finally through a series of rollers from
underneath (bottom of) the surface of a layer of palm oil.

Plating

Metallic coatings, or plating, can be applied to inhibit corrosion as well as provide aesthetic,
decorative finishes. There are four common types of metallic coatings:

Electroplating

➢ Electroplating is the method of coating one metal with another. It is most commonly used
for decorative purposes, appearance and protection.
➢ Electroplated items include chrome bumpers, jewelry, electronics, circuit boards and
airplane parts.

NOTES:

172
 Electroplating procedure

1. Preparation of the work piece. Solutions such as alkaline cleaners, solvent degreasers or acidic
pickling mixtures are used to remove dirt, greases, oxidation and contaminants from the piece.
2. The piece to be plated is connected to the negative pole (cathode) of the dc. power supply while
the plating (coating) metal anode is connected to the positive pole (anode).
Multi-range ammeter (in series) and voltmeter (in parallel) are connected to the cell to measure
the cell current and voltage.
3. The piece is then immersed in the plating solution until coated and rinsed and then buffed or
polished, if necessary.

Note: The plating time depends on the required thickness and can be calculated from Faraday’s
law.

Factors affecting coating quality:

The quality of coating depends on:

1. Average thickness of coating

2. Porosity and continuity

3. Uniformity of thickness

4. Adherence

NOTES:

173
 Fig. 1, some examples for electroplating process

2. Electroless Plating Principle

Electroless plating is a newer technique of depositing a noble metal

from its salt solution on a catalytically active surface of the metal to
be protected by using a suitable reducing agent without using
electrical energy.

The reducing agent reduces the metal ions into metal which gets
plated over the catalytically activated surface giving a uniform and
thin coating.

Metal ions + reducing agents Metal (deposited) + Oxidized product

Applications:

1) It is used extensively in electronic appliances.

2) It is used in domestic as well as automotive fields (eg., jewellery, tops of perfume bottles).

3) Its polymers are used in decorative and functional works.

4) Its plastic cabinets are used in digital as well as electronic instruments

NOTES:

174
 4.0 MAGNETISM

4.1 MAGNET UNITS

4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETISM

Magnets exhibit the following properties:

➢ All magnets have two poles: The North Pole and the South Pole
➢ Magnets attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt.
➢ The magnetic force of a magnet is stronger at its poles than in the middle.
➢ A freely suspended magnet always points in North-South direction.
➢ There are two types of magnet: Permanent and Temporary magnets. Permanent magnets
remain magnetized even without the influence of the external magnetic field. While,
temporary magnets lose their magnetism when removed from the external magnetic field,
such as an iron pin.

4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY

➢ The relationship between electricity and magnetism is intimate.

• Electricity Magnetism
➢ A changing magnetic field induces electrical current in a wire.
➢ An electrical current flowing through a wire creates a magnetic field.

NOTES:

175
 ➢ Changing electric and magnetic fields travel out from their source as a wave in a straight
line at the velocity “C”.
➢ Constant magnetic fields do not produce electric fields.

4.4 MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR

➢ Magnetic effect of electric current is one of the major effects of electric current in use,
without the applications of which we cannot have motors in the existing world.
➢ A current carrying conductor creates a magnetic field around it, which can be
comprehended by using magnetic lines of force or magnetic field lines.
➢ The nature of the magnetic field lines around a straight current carrying conductor is
concentric circles with center at the axis of the conductor.
➢ The strength of the magnetic field created depends on the current through the conductor.
➢ The direction of the magnetic field lines of force around a conductor is given by the
Maxwell’s right hand grip rule or the right handed corkscrew rule. Imagine that you are
holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the thumb points
towards the direction of current. Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the
direction of the field lines of the magnetic field (See Fig.). This is known as right hand
thumb rule.

NOTES:

176
 Characteristics of magnetic field

The magnetic field produced has the following characteristics:

➢ It encircles the conductors and lies in a plane perpendicular to the conductor.
➢ If the direction of current in the conductor is reversed then the direction of magnetic field
also reverses.
➢ Application: The motors used in toy cars or bullet train or aircraft or spaceship use similar
magnetic effects.
4.5 LEFT HAND RULE FOR CONDUCTOR
➢ If a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force due to the
magnetic field. On the other hand, if a conductor moved in a magnetic field, an emf gets
induced across the conductor (Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction).
➢ John Ambrose Fleming introduced two rules to determine the direction of motion (in
motors) or the direction of induced current (in generators). The rules are called as
Fleming's left hand rule (for motors) and Fleming's right hand rule (for generators).
Fleming's Left Hand Rule
Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a
force which is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of current.

According
to Fleming's left
hand rule, if the
thumb, fore-finger
and middle finger of
the left hand are
stretched to be
perpendicular to each
other as shown in the
illustration, and if the fore finger represents the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger
represents the direction of current, then the thumb represents the direction of force. Fleming's left
hand rule is applicable for motors.

NOTES:

177
 How to Remember Fleming's Left Hand Rule?
Relate the thumb with thrust, fore finger with field and center-finger with current as explained
below.
➢ The Thumb represents the direction of Thrust on the conductor (force on the conductor).
➢ The Fore finger represents the direction of the magnetic Field.
➢ The Center finger (middle finger) the direction of the Current.

4.6 MAGNETIC FIELD OF COIL

➢ When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil.
➢ A magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along its
longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil.
➢ The magnetic field circling each loop of wire combines with the fields from the other
loops to produce a concentrated field down the center of the coil.
➢ A loosely wound coil is illustrated below to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The
magnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is wound tighter.

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 ➢ The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but also
with each loop that is added to the coil.
➢ A long, straight coil of wire is called a solenoid and can be used to generate a nearly
uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet.

Points to remember:

1. The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but also
with each loop that is added to the coil.
2. A solenoid can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar
magnet.

4.7 FARADAYS LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

What is Faraday’s Law

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction (referred to as Faraday’s law) is a basic law of

electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce
an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction.

Faraday's First Law:

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets induced across the
conductor (called as induced emf), and if the conductor is a closed circuit then induced current
flows through it.

Magnetic field can be varied by various methods -

NOTES:

179
 1. By moving magnet

2. By moving the coil

3. By rotating the coil relative to magnetic field

Faraday's Second Law:

Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction states that, the magnitude of induced emf is
equal to the rate of change of flux linkages with the coil. The flux linkages are the product of
number of turns and the flux associated with the coil.

4.8 MAXWELL’S EQUATION

➢ Maxwell's Equations are composed of four equations with each one describes one
phenomenon respectively.
➢ Maxwell didn't invent all these equations, but rather he combined the four equations made
by Gauss (also Coulomb), Faraday, and Ampere.

But Maxwell added one piece of information into Ampere's law (the 4th equation) - Displacement
Current, which makes the equation complete.

1. Gauss's law for static electric fields

2. Gauss's law for static magnetic fields
3. Faraday's law which says a changing magnetic field (changing with time) produces an
electric field
4. Ampere-Maxwell's law which says a changing electric field (changing with time)
produces a magnetic field

The combination of equations 3 and 4 can explain electromagnetic wave (such as light) which can
propagate on its own.

The combination says that a changing magnetic field produces a changing electric field, and this
changing electric field produces another changing magnetic field. Thus the cycle continues and an
electromagnetic wave is made and propagates through the space.

NOTES:

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 Mathematical representations

Maxwell's equations can be expressed in two forms:

➢ Integral Equations Form

➢ Differential Equations Form

Equation Name Integral Equations Form

Gauss's Law
for Static Electric
Fields

• Electric charge q produces an electric field E

• The electric field flux passing through any closed surface is
proportional to the total charge contained within that surface

Gauss's Law
for Static Magnetic
Fields

• The total magnetic flux passing through any closed surface is 0.

• The assumption that there are no magnetic monopoles.
• There are no magnetic flow sources, and the magnetic flux lines
always close upon themselves.
• Also called the law of conservation of magnetic flux

Faraday's Law of
Induction

• Changing magnetic flux through a surface induces an electromotive

force (EMF) in any boundary path of that surface.

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 • A changing magnetic field induces a circulating electric field.
• The voltage accumulated around a closed circuit is proportional to
the time rate of change of the magnetic flux it encloses.

Ampere's Law
(with Maxwell's
Addition of
Displacement
Current)

• An electric current I or a changing electric flux through a surface

produces a circulating magnetic field around any path that bounds
that surface.
• Electric currents and changes in electric fields are proportional to the
magnetic fields circulating about the areas where they accumulate.

Differential Equations Form

Equation Name
(Point Functions)

Gauss's Law
for Static Electric
Fields

The electric field produced by electric charge diverges from positive

charge and converges upon negative charge.

Gauss's Law
for Static Magnetic
Fields

• The divergence of the magnetic field at any point is zero.

• The assumption that there are no magnetic monopoles.

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 Faraday's Law of
Induction

A circulating electric field is produced by a magnetic field that changes

with time.

Ampere's Law
(with Maxwell's
Addition of
Displacement
Current)

A circulating magnetic field is produced by an electric current and by an

electric field that changes with time.

INTEGRAL FORMS

NOTES:

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 DIFFERENTIAL FORMS

Symbols Used

E = Electric field ρ = charge density i = electric current

B = Magnetic field ε0 = permittivity J = current density

D = Electric displacement μ0 = permeability c = speed of light

H = Magnetic field strength M = Magnetization P = Polarization

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