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    Principles of Physical Training Implicat

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    CHAPTER 3 PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL TRAINING: IMPLICATIONS FOR MILITARY TRAINING PREPARED BY M. JOS VAN DIJK TRAINING MEDICINE AND TRAINING PHYSIOLOGY ‘ARMED FORCES MEDICAL COMMAND UTRECHT, THE NETHERLANDS SUMMARY The response to a physical training program, ie., the gain that is derived from physical training, is based on several well established principles. The first of these is the principle of overload. The load or the intensity of training must be greater than what one is accustomed to in order for the body to adapt and show a positive gain in capacity. This adaptation consists of an initial breakdown process followed by a buildup or anabolic process. The second principle is that of specificity. This principle refers to the fact that training must be focused on the specific muscles that are to be developed and on the specific movements or tasks to be carried out. The final general principle is that of ibility. Training adaptations will be lost unless training is performed on a regular basis so that the adaptation stimulus is rein- forced. This chapter describes each princi- ple in detail and how they can be applied to thedevelopmentof military training programs. INTRODUCTION ‘The major objective of physical training is to cause biological adaptations within the body to improve the capacity to perform physical activities (in general) and/or to improve performance of ‘specific tasks. Training can be regarded as a series of incremental loads, each followed by a period of rest, in which subsequent adaptations of the human body take place. These adaptations, in turn, caninfiuence the capacity perform physicaltasksorcarry out physicalactivtes. These changes in physical performance capac- ity are the result of both structural and physiological changes in a ‘number of organ systems (2). Physical raining may also serve to increase task skils and improve the ability to ‘dig deeper’ into reserves of performance. ‘Aerobic fitness, muscular strength and muscular endurance are considered the most relevant aspects of physical fitness in the military (41). To a great extent military physical training is directed towards improving hese fitness components. They canbe defined astollons: 2. Aerobicfiness ~The abit ofthe body to delverthe oxygen and nutrients needed forthe aerobicmetabolicenergy generation for muscular contraction andtoremove metabolic waste prod- vets; . Muscular strength - The greatest amount of force a skeletal muscle, ora group ofskeletal muscles, can exert in a single efor, determinedby avaliable stored phosphagen energy stores; ¢. Muscular endurance The ability ofa skeletal muscle, or group of skeletal muscles, topertorm repeated submaximalcontrac- tions for relatively short periods of ime, against a moderate to high resistance. ‘To enhance fitness and performance in an effective way, certain traning principles should be applied in the design ofa taining program. The asic principles of taining overload, specificity, and reversblty-are discussedin the next section. The third ection discusses a modelo the adaptation process ofthe human body to training; this model also ilustrates that planning of restis crucial to {gaining fitness improvements. The three major raining variables - intensity frequencyand uration of exercise, whicharecicaltothe effectiveness of a training program - are discussed in the fourth section. The fith section gives training guidelines for planning military Finess training. The training program should be periodized into general fitnesstraining, task specific training andmaintenance training. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of Periodic evaluation of programs. An effective and efficent military training program should both improve finess levels of service ‘members and enhance their ability to perform physical tasks. PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL TRAINING Physical rainingin the military can resultinimproved performance ‘and combat readiness through systematic, repeated, general and, task-speciic physical exercise. This requiresadherence tocarefully planned and executed training activities. Training science has Identified several physiological principles of exercise conditioning. These basie principles, on which a training program should be based, are overload of training, specificity of training effects, and reversibility oftraining adaptations. Overload Principle ‘An exercise overload must be applied to stimulate the adaptation process n order to bring aboutanimprovementin exercise capacity. Overloadis defined as exercising ata level above that that which a persons accustomed. Overioad causesa variely of training adap- tations that enable the body tofunction more efficiently. The appropri- ate overload for each person can be achieved by manipulating ‘combinations of raining frequency, duration andintensity (37) This ‘conceptofindividualized and progressive overload applies equally toathletes and military personnel. ‘Ann Med Mit Belg 1994; 8/3). 16-25/ Principles of physical aiing: implications formiNtary Walning 18 ‘As the body responds to overloading by improving etficiency and, Capacity, training load must continue to be increased (loading progression) in order to maintain the overload. Progression of loading in pursuit of progression of performance capacity might, in ‘a nutshell, state the whole purpose of training. Progression of loading can be appliod as either increased frequency, longer dura- tion, higher intensity, or a combination of these. Loading must be based on the trainee's current physical fitness and training history. ‘As an untrained person starts to train, the gains in fitness are ‘greatest, because ofthe large potential to be realized. As training proceeds, gains diminish as one approaches genetic potential. Individuals will achieve more stable adaptation and, utimately, a ‘greaterimprovementin performance ifloading progressionisraised cautiously andloading progressions achieved via more extensive training. Accordingly to Harre (18), the recommended progression is: €, Raise frequency of training (e.g., number of consecutive ses- sions, for example from twice weekly to daly traning). », Raise duration of loading per training session, while keeping ‘frequency constant ¢., Raise intensity of loading overtraining sessions. {As a rule, itis not acceptable to bring about these three stages simultaneously. This would increase the risk of incurring a training injury, and itprovides insufficient time for optimal physiologicadap- tations to occur. The firstpriorityisto achieve optimum frequency of training, with the last priority to increase load by intensity. ‘The training load required o produce an effectincreasesas ness level improves during the course of training. The required training load depends, therefore, on the level of fitness of the trainee. The more fit the trainee, the greater the load or stimulus it will take to improve thatfitness. The overload principle dictates thatas adapta- tion toa given load occurs, training load mustbe increasedin order toachieve further improvement. ‘Specificity Principle When appiedto traning, specifiy rferstopattemsin adaptations to the various components of fitness and energy systems which ddopend on the type of overload imposed. For example, strength training, characterized by exercising against high resistance, duces specific strength adaptations (2a), wthlitle rno increasein ‘zerobic endurance (17,21) Aerobic endurance raining, incontras, elicts specific endurance raining adaptations (40 42), with esser tally no improvement in strength (21). The nature of the adaptive response to training is, therefore, specific to the taining stimulus, ‘while nterchange between the separate components of physical finess (1). ‘The specificity principle, however, goes beyond his because adap- tations are also specific tothe mode of training. Development of aerobic fness for marching, raversingan obstacle course, runing, or aim exercising is most effectively achieved when the exercise trains the specific muscle groups involved inthe desired perfor- mance. While swimming andcycling help to develop aerobietiiness {G4.39),they donot improve the running performance as much as _arunningprogram does (26). Specific exercises (modes), therefore, tlic specific raining adaptations in the Involved muscle groups. Specify oftrainings obviouslyimportantand shouldbe takeninto ‘2ccount when planninga training program. Atrainingprogrammust be relevant tothe taskfor which he service memberisbeing trained. A task analysis is required to identify the task demands andhence toallow the training dbjectves tobe clearly defined. The demands identiied wil include: a) the predominant components of physical fitness and energy system(s) involved, and b) the movement pattems and the specific muscle groups involved Physical training must be directed toward improving the specific components of fines: aerobic fitness, muscular strength and muscular endurance, as identfiedin he analysis ofthe task. Table 3-1 gives an example ofmilitary tasks andidentified components of physical ness which contribute tothe performance onthese tasks 49). ‘The task analysis shouldalso give information about which energy _ystem fs predominantly involved in a certain actly ortask. The ‘Table 3-1. Examples of relations between military tasks and ‘components of physicalfitness. Task ‘Average duration Relatedcomponents. of task of finess Casualty Evacuation 47s Muscularendurance 100m, Muscularstrength ‘Ammunition Box Lift 1645 Aerobic fitness 48 boxes of 20.9kg, height 1.3m Maximal EtfonCarrying 2428 Muscularstrength 3 Jerry Cans of 21 kg, distance 3x35 m with and 3x35m withoutload Maximal Effort Digging 2628 Muscularstrength 0.5m3, Acrobictitness Weight Load March 145km ——_Aerobicfitness 5.3kmMh,load245kg 2.44mi energy needed for muscle action canbe produced anaerobically or aerobically. Three categories ofenergy systemsarediscerned(15, 41): ‘8, Stored energy inthe form of phosphagens: b. Energy generated by the anaerobic process of glycolysis with the formation of lactic acid; and e. Energy produced by (aerobic) combustion of glycogen andtat. The principle energy system involved depends on the duration and intensity ofthe activity. Veryintense actviesiasting 110 15seconds (Geo) rely on energy from stored phosphagens. Intense activities lasting up to 1 minute (min) primary use anaerobically generated ‘energy from glycogen with the formation of actc acid (anaerobic ‘alycolysis). Prolonged activities lasting from 1 min up to hours or ‘days rely predominantly on aerobic energyinthe formof combustion of glycogen anda. the exercise intensityis low (duration over 30 min), mainyfatis combusted aerobically; ithe exeriseintonsityis high (duration up to 30 min) glycogen is the main substrate. When high intensity exercise continues forlonger periods, the availabilty ‘of glycogen in the body can become the limiting factor for perform lance. In most (military) tasks, the three categories of energy systems overlap, thats, energy is generated from more than one energy system. Tisisilustatedin Table 32. Based on this classification scheme, the predominant energy system(s) used in a specific activity of task can be identified. Maximum performance, for example an obstacle course of about ‘min, willbring nto play anaerobic glycolysis withlactate production andthe aerobic system by combustion of glycogen. Training should therefore be directedto enhance energy production from these two energy systems. Thus, taining intensity, duration and training ‘modules canbe elected and plannedio enhance energyproduction ‘rom the identified energy system(s). The development of a training program, particularly those with the objective ofenhancing occupationalperformance, shouldalways be based ona thorough analysis of taskdemands. Thisisdve othe fact that physiological adaptations to traning in categories of physical fiiness and capacity and/or power of energy liberation are specific to the content, |e, mode, intensity, and duration ofthe training program. ‘Toennance military physical performance, training must also con- sist of exercises that include the muscle groups and stimulate the ‘movement pattems most often used during the actual execution of the performance. A good example o this principle of specfictyis a military taining study of heavy, prolonged toad cariage by Knapik« and co-workers (30) ‘They found that, despite the fact that all soldiers performed a physical training program toimprove the major categories of physi ‘fan Med it Belg 1994, 6(8): 18-257 Principles of physical raining: Implications formiltarywaining 19 ‘Table3.2. Classification scheme of energy systems according to duration and intensity of exercise. Duration of Intensity Predominant exercise energy system 18-188 ‘Supramaximal _Phosphagens 188-605 Maximal Phosphagens Tanaerobic glycolysis, 1 min-6 min ‘Submaximal Anaerobic glycolysis, ‘aerobic 6min- 30min Medium: ‘Aerobic (Over 30 min Low ‘Aerobie caltitness, only soldiers who practicedroadmarchingatleasttwice ‘month improved their march ability. ‘Task-specific physical training and specific skill and technique training in combination with general physicalfitness taining appear tobe optimal to enhance military task performance. Reversibility Principle ‘The beneficial effects of training are reversible when person stops exercising on a regular base. Detraining or loss of training state ‘occurs rapidly. Afteronly one tothree weeks ofdetraning, significant reductions in both metabolic and working capacity can be meas- tured, Many of the training improvements are lost within several ‘months (7, 25). Detraining can be considered a deconditioning process due to inactivity which negatively affects performance. ‘The time course fortheloss of training adaptations and performance ‘appears tobe relatedto the individual's traininglevel. The magnitude ‘of performance decay is variable and probably influenced by the ‘exercise mode, and the duration of detraining (38). The more recently the fitness level has been achieved, the more quickly it will be affected by reduced training. Long periods of gradual develop- ‘ment are therefore desirable (8, 23). Lengthy transitional periods without training (e.g., holidays, injuries) are to be avoided. Short periods of detraining may require longer periods ofretrainingtotully restore capacities (38). Inallcases, regulantyoftraningis important. takes atleast several months to develop a reasonable level of aerobic fitness, muscular strength or muscular endurance, butitrequires lessefforttomaintain a certain level of fitness. Thus itis recommended that trainees be subjected to an initial, relatively intense train-up period which can then be followed by a less intense (in terms of time spent) mainte- ‘nance program. MODEL OF ADAPTATION TO TRAINING ‘The aim of tainingis toapply a series of stimuli which willdisturbthe normal biological state (homeostasis) of the subject's functional systemsand therefore provide the stimulus for adaptation (35). This jprocess is called overload training. Itappears that exposure to the training exercise disturbs homeostasis incells and organs and this, disturbance is associated with some catabolic processes, such as molecular breakdown of stored fuel and other cellularcomponents. ‘This may result in decreased performance and fatigue. In the recovery phase, homeostasis is re-established, and numerous anabolic processes take place. However, regeneration does not stopatitsformerlevel, butwillovercompensate toa higherlevel.e., the supercompensation phase (18, 19, 32,46). “The body adapts othe training load such that the homeostasis will ‘notbe displacedio he same degree by anidentical loadin the future (4, 18, 19, 44). This mechanism is characteristic of supercompensation (Figure 3-1, panel 1), anditforms the basis for physical fiiness improvements due to training. The degree of possi- ble supercompensalion depends upon the magnitude ofthe training Joadand, hus, the degree ofinducedimbalance inhomeostasis, and ‘upon the recovery (anabolic) capacity of the body. {As stated, the initial decrease in performance for a short period resulting from the initial catabolic process of exercise, will be followed by a recovery period which results in supercompensation ‘and an increased performance capacity. However, itno additional ‘raining load is given during the phase of supercompensation, a decrease in the degree of adaptation occurs and the training effect may be lost (4, 18, 19, 35) (Figure 3-1, panel 2). “The optimal improvement in performance is achieved when new loading is offered at the highest point in the overcompensation phase. Ideally, subsequent training should not take place until ‘supercompensation occurs (18) (Figure-1, panel). Asarule, 24 10.48 hoursare requiredto recover from high resistance andaerobic Joadings, bt the optimal duration ofthe recovery phases variable ‘anddepends onmany factors, suchas flnesslevel, mode ofactivty, ‘and intensity and duration ofthe training load (4, 18, 19). Further research is necessary toidentiy the optimal amount of recovery in order tomaximize training effects. Also, measures(e.g.,changesin hormone levels, amountof tissue damage, subjective fatigue index) ‘mustbe developed to follow more accurately the recovery process. ‘According to Harre (18, 19) itis necessary to provide time for the ‘body to adapt and to benefit from supercompensation. For this reason, restis considered an important component in the training process (35, 47). Furthermore, Kuipers and Keizer (32) stress that Te Figure 3-1. Model which describes the effect of lo performance level of soldiers. ‘ham Med Whit Belg 1994; 8(3): 18-257 Painciples of physical waiing: Implications formiltary raining 20 in addition to providing an adequate amount of rest inthe training program, one mustavoid sudden largeincrementsintraining volume and intensity. When this is ignored and the trainee is exposed to inadequate rest and/or too great an increment in training load, the trainee may fail to adapt, indicated by general fatigue and lack of recovery from raining sessions. Inthis state, continuedtraining may evenlead toa dectine in performance, referredto.as “overtraining” (16, 26, 29, 22) (Figure S-1, panel 4). Itis the purpose of (military) traning to provide the optimal ratio between the amount (volume) and intensity of training without exceeding the trainee's exercise tolerance and recovery capacity. Ifthe demands ofloading exceedthe trainee's capacity, the person's capacity for adjustment will be impaired and performance will stagnate ‘This modelo alteration of anabolic and catabolic phases can also be applied to adaptations that occur in the locomotor system. Due to the force/orthopaedic stress developed in joints, tendons and muscles, these tissues will adapt to the increased stress. When however, the stress is too high or scheduled too often, e.g, every day running andmarching these tissues do nothave ime to adapt, ‘and accumulation of small lesions in these tissues will result in injuries. Inthis respectitis importantto remember that tendons and joints are poorly vascularized and, as aconsequence, the regenera- tion capacty of these tissues is less than that of muscles. This ‘explains the fact that many tendon overuse injuries occur during military training. Asarule, 480 72hours are requiredtorecover fom high torce/orthopaedicstrain, especialy inthe firs phase oftalning. Longer recovery phases should therefore be plannedin the form of restandlowintensit training. Another optionis to plan other modes of activities that do not sirain the same tissues. For example, between runs (high force/orthopaedic stress to the lower extrem ties) on Monday and Wednesday, activities ike swimmingorresist- ance traning shouldbe planned. To classify the force/orthopaedic stress during miltary training, a classification system has been developed. This system enables the military training instructors to plan and evaluate the total strain of the training program on the locomotor system on a daily and weekly base (12) ‘TRAINING VARIABLES: INTENSITY, FREQUENCY, AND DURATION Many factors influence the effects of training. A military training program should be based on sound principles of training, that is, ‘overtoad, specificity and reversibility. Panning of adequate rest (or recovery training) between training sessions is crtical to allow the trainee to adapt to the training load and to improve his physical performance. In order to apply the overload principle, a training [program must consider three major factors in determining the load tobe applied: a) intensity of exercise, b) frequency of exercise, and ‘)duration of exercise. The fourth training factor, mode of exercise, Is discussed in the section on specificity principle. Intensity ‘Training-induced physiologic changes depend primary on the intensity of the exercise. Exercise intensity reflects both the rato of energy production and the specitic energy systems activated. The intensity of loading characterized by the severity ofthe stimulus, Intensity of aerobic/endurance type of exercise training (e.g. run- ning, swimming, cylin) is generally expressedin terms of speed, inmeters/second, orthe frequency of movement (0.g,thenumbor of strokes per minute in rowing exercise). Exercise intensity for aerobic ness development canbe gaugedby the extent of maximum oxygen consumption (VOy,_),PetCent of ‘maximum heart rate (HR max) or heart rate reserve (HR reserve), proportion of maximum speed, blood lactate indices and rating of Percelved exertion (RPE) (48). To be certain that an optimum exercise intensity is prescribed, an individual approach is neces- sary ‘The best method or individual exercise prescriptions based ona laboratory or field exercise test in which oxygen uptake, lactic acid concentration in the blood and corresponding heart rate aremeas- ured. From the testresuls the exerciseintensity (speed) andheart rate corresponding to aerobic, partly anaerobic and primarily anaerobic exercise can be determined (28). Changes in lactate concentration in the bloodin relation to exercise intensity are often, used as guidelines for training prescription. The functional signti- ‘cance of this approach derives from observations that endurance ‘exercise performance is highly correlated with exercise intensities atwhicha given lactate accumulation occurs (27).Basedonlactate concentrations corresponding to certain exercise intensities, a ‘complete training scheme can be developed specifying: (a) active recovery training, (b) endurance training with no or ite lactic acid ‘accumulation; and (c) interval training with progressive lactic acid accumulation. ‘Amore simple method of prescribing exercise intensity is basedon maximum exercise speedover alongdistance, suchas.a5to10km run. For the average trained person this speed corresponds to a maximaleexercise intensity without progressive lactate accumulatt- ‘on in the blood. Based on this value a training scheme can be prescribed. Heart rate is commonly used as a tool for exercise intensity prescription. The targetheart rate correspondingtoacertaintraining intensity canbe calculatedas a percentage otheartratereserve(HR. reserve = HR max - HR rest) ‘Training HR = HR rest + Training Intensity (HR max - HR res!) Forexample: Training Intensity = 60% HR max = 200 beats-min* HR rest= 70 beats-min* Training HR = 70 + 60% (200 - 70) = 148 beats. min* The American College of Sports Medicine (1) recommendsthe use of a system of exercise intensity based on HR max, VO,,,,, of HR reserve and APE (Table 3-3). tis aimed at aerobic fitness training for 20 10 60 min duration. Forany given duration and frequency of exercise, there isa minimal intensity level below which a training effect will not occur. The ‘minimum intensity levelforimprovementin VO,,,,,is approximately 50% of VO,,.,, of HR reserve. There is probably also a celiing intensity level above which there are no additional gains. For example, training intensities which exceed 100% VO,.,, are les effective in improving aerobic fitness because rapid fatigue will reduce the volume of training (49). The lower and upper limits may depend on the subject’ initial capacity and state of training Persons with low fitness levels should start exercising at a lower training heart rate (training intensity about 50% - 70% of heart rate reserve) until they reach a desirable fitness lovel. At this intensity levelno progressive lactate accumulation shouldoccur. As raining Continues the intensity must be raised to gain additional improve- ‘ments in physical performance. ‘Table3-3. Classification ofintensity of exercise based on 20-60 ‘min of aerobic fitness training. HRmax Vong Of APE Classification of HAlTeserve Intensity 25% 30% <10 Very light 35-59% 30-49% 40-11 Light 60-79% 50-74% 1213 Moderate 20-89% 75-84% 1416 Heavy 89% >H% >16 Very heavy Forstrength developing exercises, intensityis generally expressed inbiomechanicalterms, such as weight ited overtime or distance, ‘or forcedeveloped. Force canbe describedin absolute values, such ‘han Med Mit Belg 1994; 6(3) 18-257 Principles of physical Waling: Implications formiMary Walning at ‘as mass moved (newions or newton-meters), orn relative terms such as the percentage ofthe resistance that can be overcome in a single maximum effort (% of one repetition maximum). The intensity of resistance training canbe varied by changing the weight load, repetitions, restintervals betwoen exercises, and number of sets completed (14). For the average person, muscular strength can be enhanced through a process of progressive resistance training, Training with resistance between 70 and 95 % of what can be overcome with a single maximum effort (one repetition maximum or 1-RM) is most effective Muscular endurance can be improvedby training withlighterresist- ance, between 40 to 70% of 1-RM. tis important to recognize that muscular strength and muscular endurance are closely elated. AS muscular strength increases, the ability ofthe muscle to perform repeated contractions with submaximal loads also increases. Progressively increasing the training resistance from 50 to 95% of 1-RIM will produce gains in both components of finess. Aclose relation exists between training intensity andthe numberof repetitions that can be performed: Percentage ot maximumforce: 100% 90% 80% 70%, Number of repetitions: 1 ee ete. io16 Itis therefore not always necessary to determine 1-RM forstrength {raining prescription; the intensity can also be based on the maxi- ‘mum number of repetitions that can be performed until falure with ‘asubmaximum resistance or weight. Frequency Regularadherence toan exercise programisofutmostimportance if an adequate level of physical finess is to be reached and ‘maintained, Research indicates that physical inessisboth gained and lost rather quickly. Therefore, training regularly is a must (45). Howotten onehas trainin order to attain maximal taining effects isless clear. The general consensusis hata frequency of2 times per week can result in improvements in less fitpersons, but wien fitness improves, exercise frequency ofatleast3times perweek is Tequited to gain additional improvements in aerobic fitness and/or ‘muscular strengthandmuscular endurance. Above-average phys- calfitness (.g., needed or special operations) can beattained with regular workouts 4to 5 times per week. tTonly 2 training sessions per week are scheduled in the taining program, one has to combine training modes for diferent compo- rents of physical fitness in a single training session. Muscular strength should preferably be plannedbefore aerobicfiness traning withinasingle traning session. When moretrainingsessionscanbe Performed, itis best to altemate aerobic training and muscular strength training. Toimprove performance onataskitis necessary to combine general physical ness training regulary with task or skil raining. In this way one optimizes the transfor of improved general fitness tothe performance ofthe specifi task or activity Duration Duration referes to the length of time thatthe training exercise stimulus (e.g, the length of an aerobic run or the tial time to ‘complete all resistance loading) is applied during any training session. The duration of the exercise Is inversely related to the intensity ofthe activity Improvement in aerobic fitness can be achieved using durations ftom 1 to 45 min. Maximal gains in VO,,., can be attained with ‘exercise duration of35 to 45 min (49).WWhen the duration of training sessions is short, training intensity should be high (90 10 100% VO,,,,) gain maximaltraining effects. Itshouldalso benoted that short duration training witha lower trainin intensity of 5010 70% VO,,., an be effective in improving aerobic fitness in less fi persons (49) To improve aerobic endurance capacity, ie., capacity to perform ‘over aprolongedperiod of time (onger than 30min), itisnecessary 10 vary the training intensities between 60 and 90% Vs. with ‘substantial training effort in the intensity ange of 6010 80% VO... where litle or no lactate is accumulated. Forthe average trainee, aminimumof 1 setot8to 12repetitions wth ‘suficientresistance to cause muscle failure shouldbe performedto increase muscularstrength. Additional sets or combinations of sets, and repetitions (reps) will produce larger strength gains, although the magnitude ofthe additional strength gains is relatively small (14, 23). Forthe more advanced trainee more specialized resistance training ‘programs can be applied. Muscular endurance can be improvedin several ways: Method 1- 3105 sets of 151025 repetitions with loads of 50-70% 1-RM and short rest intervals (0.5 to 1.5 min); Method2- 4106 sets of25 repetitions with loadof 30 to 50% 1-RM and shor rest intervals (0.5 to 1 min). ‘Maximal strength for highly trained persons canbe furtherimproved with near maximal resistance training with high loads (90-10% 1- FM), 3 to 4 sets of 1 to 3 reps. In addition, more specialized resistance training routines canbe executed e.9,,eccentriccontracti- ‘ons, plyometric contractions, supersets, pre-exhaustion training, ‘nd forced repetitions [33). is beyond the scope of this overview todiscuss these methods in detail. Itis evident that a well balanced training program is necessary 10 Improve physical fitness of service members. The amount and intensity of training depends on many factors, Such as initial fitness, level of the trainee, the training objectives, the available time and equipment. In genera, the following rules can be given to plan a training program toimprove aerobic fitness, muscular strength and ‘muscular endurance of service members (Table 4), Table 3-4. Guidelines to improve the major components of physical fitness ‘Aerobic Muscular Muscular Fitness Strength Endurance Intensity §0-100% 70-95% 1-RM 40-70% 1 RM HR reserve, 50-100% VO, Frequency 2-timesiweek 2-Stimes/week 2-3times/week Duration 20-40minutes 1-8 sets/ 35sets/ S-12reps ——15-30reps Mode Repetitive Majormuscle Majormuscle dynamicactivies groups ‘groups using large ‘dynamics -dynamics . muscle groups These guidelines can also be used to evaluate current physical training programs. To train each component of finess separately, the training program should meet these minimum requirements. it ‘one wants to train more components offitnessatthe sametime, one has to combine several training modes in one training session. Training of muscular strength and muscular endurance can be combined with progressive resistance training, ‘TRAINING GUIDELINES. ‘When discussing training and training principles, itis essential to keep in mind the specific purpose of the traning. In the military, ‘mission dictates raining. For example, infantry men must be pre- pared to proceed on foot, carrying heavy loads under a variety of dificult circumstances (temperature, terrain, protective clothing) ‘Ann Med Mit Belg 1984; 8(3):18-25/ Principles of physical waning: Implications Yor miltary Walning 22 Forthese men, ahigh aerobic capacity and strength are important to their performance and training programs must be directed to improve these components offitness (41).Asarule, thebesttraining isachievedby acombination of generaltrainingaimedatimproving general fitness and task specific training forimproving the spectic fitness, skills andtechniques that directly supporttaskperformance. ‘The service member often has totrain many different components of physical performance (aerobic fitness, muscular strength, mus- cular endurance, skills and technique). It may be practical and sometimes necessary, because of time limitations, to concentrate ‘onsome of these componentsat certain periods. Thisparticular ype of training has to be continued, however, even though it may be at reduced frequency, when the trainee concentrates on the next ‘component. ‘Awelldesigned raining program alsoincludes planning ofrecovery periods between training sessions. Alternating thetrainingloadand, recovery petiod forms the basis for physical fitness improvements, and should therefore be planned together in a training program. Inadequate rest between sessions wilimpairthe training response and itcan lead to overtraining and injuries. ‘A physical fitness training program should be scheduled into three definite phases: general finess training, task specific training and maintenance training. The mostimportant features of these training phases are summarized in Table 3-6. ‘Table 3-5. Relevant features of the three phases of military training, GeneralFiiness Task Specific Maintenance Training Training Training ‘Aim: Condon Enhancetask Keep up physi- aerobicand ——performance, cal fitness and muscular skills task perfomance system Duration: 812weeks 6-10wooks —_Life-time Frequency: 3-4timesink 3-4 times/nk"—_3timesivk Mode: Generalcondi-Taskrepetition Combination of tioningexercises: specific generaland ‘majormuscie task specific ‘groups exercises, “During the phase of task specifictraining, general fitness shouldbe trainedatleast2times per week omaintain he acquiredlevel. Task ‘specific training shouldbe planned 1 to2times per week, depending ‘on the complexity of the task. General Fitness Training ‘Service members mustfrst enhance theirfitness througha general training program. In this phase the aim of trainingis to condition the service member's aerobic and muscular system. Through thiskind, of training, the service member improves their general physical fitness so that they can handle the physical load of tasks with less etfort and fatigue. The duration ofthis training phase should be at least 8 to 12 weeks in order to build up a minimum required level of ‘general physical finess. A good general level of fitness lays the foundation for more effective task-spectfic training, Toreachadesiredlevelofphysical fitness, the raining load mustbe increased to increase muscular strength and aerobic fitness. For Unfit service members the training load must be moderate in the beginning. The load progression is carried out primarily by raising the frequency of the training. Then the duration of the training ‘session is extended, while keeping frequency constant. As a last step, the intensity of loading is raised. If training load is increased gradually, a more stable adaptation and, ultimately, a greater lmprovement in performance willbe achieved. Forexample, toimprove aerobicritness, untrained service members should jog at an easy pace for 15 to 20 min, 2 times a week. They continue a this level until this can be done comfortably and there Is ‘no undue fatigue. Once this point has been reached, they increase the frequency tothree times aweekand graduallyincrease the time 1030 fo 40 min, Between workouts they should have no more than ‘wo days rest. When they can handle longer runs, they begin to increase the pace to the desired level for 30 to 40 min. When selecting training activities for the untrained service member, spe- cial attention is needed to prevent injuries. A gradual increase in duration and frequency of training, especially for activities with high impact forces like running, should be planned. ‘To improve the strength of young service members, itis advisable tostartwitha generalstrength rainingprogram. The programshould consist of 80 10 exercises involving the major muscle groups. A ‘minimum of 1 setof 10-15 reps at mediumintensity (50-70% 1-RM) shouldbe completed. Specialattentionin raining shouldbe directed to development of the abdominal and back muscles and to a proportional development of the whole body musculature. Itis important to emphasize proper technique in resistance exer- cises, During thefirst3 05 weeks of such training, substantial gains in strength can be achieved due to neural factors such as an improvedrecruitment pattem ofthe muscle fibers (13, 31).After Sto ‘8 weeks of strength training, muscle mass will increase and this training-inducedhypertrophy will resultin further, butslower, gains in muscular strength (3, 9). As the service member advances and isbetterable totolerate resistance training the frequency of taining ‘can gradually beincreasedtotimesawoek. When timeppermitsthe umber of sets per workout should be increased to 2 or 3 to elicit ‘optimal strength gains. At this point, the resistance or weight is increased to 70-95% of 1-AM. Task Specific Training Whenacertainievelof generalfitnessis reached, itis necessary to introduce more specific training into the program. Task-spectic trainingis almedatenhancing the particular physiological systems, skills and techniques that directly support task performance. Gains in performance will be optimal when the program consists of activities thatinclude the muscle groupsand simulate the movement patterns most often used during the actual execution of that task. ‘The trainingmustinclude skill and technique exercises. Toimprove the ability to lift and carry heavy objects, for example, training exercises have to simulate iting and carrying tasks. Further exam- ples of military tasks for which specific traning is required are: to transverse an obstacle course, digging, marchingwithheavy loads, throwing, and mountain climbing. To enhance the performance on these tasks, a service member has to practice and train on these tasks. An important consideration for military persons who are responsible forthe planning of traning programs shouldbe thattask specific training should notbegin untilareasonable level of general physical fitnessis achieved. Asa rule, task specific training should be scheduled at least 1 to 2 times per week, depending on the ‘complexity ofthe task Maintenance Training ‘As a continuation of general fitness and task specific training, ‘maintenance trainingis directed towardkeeping physical fines and taskpertormance at the desiredlevel. Three workoutsof30t040min, ‘week is sufficient to maintain an acceptable level f the separate ‘components of physical fitness. The intensity of the training load ‘appears to be the regulating factor to maintain a training-induced increase in endurance and performance (38). An effective mainte- nance program shouldinclude exercises for aerobicriness, muscu- lar strength, muscular endurance, and exercises for skill and tech- nique. ‘Maintenance training should become partof each service member's, training routine. Thisis simply due tothe fact that within the intial 2 10 4 weeks of the cessation of training, many of the physiologic “hon Med Mil Belg 1994; 6(3): 18-257 Principles of physical waning: npieatons for miliary Waning 23 adaptations to taining are rapidly lost and physical performance

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