Unit 1

Topic 1 – Hardware and Software

Contemporary Digital Devices
A digital device is a piece of physical equipment that uses digital data such as by
sending, receiving and storing or processing it.
a. Computers (desktop PCs, tablets, smart TVs, games consoles,
microprocessors/single board computers, wearable computers (smart
watches), supercomputers)

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or data. It

has ability to store and retrieve and process data. Computers are able to
type document, send emails, play games, browse the web etc.

b. Peripheral devices (keyboards, mouses, joysticks, microphones, scanners,

monitors, speakers, printers, video cameras, webcams, touch screens,
graphics tablets, biometric scanners, barcode readers, chip and pin devices,
sensors)

A peripheral device is any device which sends and receive data from the
CPU. Peripherals may be internal or external devices and can either be
input or output.

c. Mobile phones (smartphones)

A mobile phone is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls. It
is also supporting a variety of other services such as text messaging,
multimedia applications, emailing, internet accessing and many more.

d. Storage devices (magnetic storage, solid state and optical hard drives,
magnetic tape drives, removable solid state (SSID) cards, network-attached
storage (NAS), RAID storage).
 A storage device is a computing hardware used for storing, porting or
extracting data files. They can store information permanently or
temporarily and can be either external or internal.

e. Embedded systems (MP3 players, video game consoles, digital cameras,

microwave ovens, washing machines)

An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software designed

to do a specific function or functions. Embedded systems can be an
independent system or it can be a part of a large system and are
microcontroller or microprocessor-based systems.

Features and functions of contemporary digital devices

a. Portability
A portable device is any device that can easily be carried. It is a small form
factor of a computing device that is designed to be held and used in the
hands. Portable devices are becoming an increasingly important part of
personal computing as the capabilities of devices like laptops, tablets and
smartphones continue to improve.
A portable device may also be called a handheld device or mobile device.
 Q – Explain how the portability of devices affect our daily life with examples
b. Performance
Performance seems to have two meanings:

1. The speed at which a computer operates, either theoretically (for

example, using a formula for calculating Mtps - millions of theoretical
instructions per second) or by counting operations or instructions
performed (for example, (MIPS) - millions of instructions per second)
during a benchmark test. The benchmark test usually involves some
combination of work that attempts to imitate the kinds of work the
computer does during actual use. Sometimes performance is expressed
for each of several different benchmarks.

2. The total effectiveness of a computer system, including throughput,

individual response time, and availability.

c. Storage
Data storage is the recording (storing) of information (data) in a storage
medium. Handwriting, phonographic recording, magnetic tape, and optical
discs are all examples of storage media. Data storage in a digital, machine-
readable medium is sometimes called digital data. Computer data storage is
one of the core functions of a general-purpose computer. Electronic
documents can be stored in much less space than paper documents.
Barcodes and magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) are two ways of
recording machine-readable data on paper.
With data storage space, users can save data onto a digital device. And
should the digital device power down, the data is retained. And instead of
manually entering data into a digital device, users can instruct the device to
pull data from its storage. Digital devices can read input data from various
sources as needed, and it can then create and save the output to the same
sources or other storage locations. Users can also share data storage with
others.
Modern computers, or terminals, connect to storage devices either directly
or through a network. Users instruct devices to access data from and store
data to these storage devices.
The smallest unit of information is a bit. Even the largest mountains of data
start there, since a bit is the smallest possible distinction that a computer
can make: 1 or 0. In programming, this is called a “Boolean”. There’s
nothing smaller than a bit – the state 1 or 0 for digital applications, and
since computers communicate in binary, data sets are calculated in ones
and zeros.
Data quantities and thus also storage units in computers are always given in
bytes. One byte consists of 8 bits and is abbreviated by a “B”
Various prefixes come in handy for differentiating among quantities of data.
In establishing these prefixes, the decimal system that humans commonly
use and the binary system used by computers come head-to-head. That’s
why there are two systems for labelling data quantities: binary prefixes and
decimal prefixes.
Binary prefixes, also referred to as IEC prefixes, define data quantities in
powers of two (i.e., 2x). Decimal prefixes, also called SI prefixes, stand for
powers of ten (i.e., 10x).

You might have already noticed that commercial indications of storage

units (e.g. KB, GB, or TB) are not always accurate. That’s because binary
prefixes can more accurately represent storage units in computers but
aren’t the official unit for describing quantities of data. For example, 1
kilobyte is supposedly 1,000 bytes in the decimal system. But 1 KB is 1,024
bytes.
d. User Interface
The user interface (UI) is the point of human-computer interaction and
communication in a device. This can include display screens, keyboards, a
mouse and the appearance of a desktop. It is also the way through which a
user interacts with an application or a website.
The 5 main types of user interface are:
 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Graphical User Interface are the most common type of interface
these days. They consists of graphical elements which are easily
perceivable by the users. GUI are also known as WIMP interfaces.
This is because they use Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointers.
Few examples of Graphical User Interfaces are operating systems
such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, websites and apps, business
applications, etc.
 Command Line Interface (CLI)
Command Line Interface are those old interfaces which works on
commands. These are not very user friendly because they require the
user to remember lots of commands and programming skills to work
 efficiently. UNIX, LINUX, MS DOS, etc. are examples of Command Line
Interface.
 Natural Language Interface (NLI)
Natural Language Interface use human language to interact with the
users. These types of user interfaces use languages like English,
French, etc. in a very humanistic way so that users don’t feel like they
are talking to a robot. NLI can be verbal or written.
In verbal interfaces, it feels like someone is talking to you and getting
the work done for you. Most common examples are Apple’s SIRI,
Microsoft’s Cortana, Google’s Assistant and Amazon’s Alexa.
However, in written NLI, it feels like someone is chatting with you
and again helping get your work done. For example, Chat Bots which
appear at almost every customer service and help solve the common
issues.
 Menu-driven Interface
Menu-driven Interface are used for very specific purposes which only
requires a few options or a small menu to be given to the users. Still,
the users are almost always able to achieve their tasks with those
limited options. The options can be in the form of buttons which can
be either touch-based or physical. Few examples of Menu-driven
interfaces are ATM machines, vending machines, coffee machines,
etc.
 Form-based Interface
Form-based Interface are very straight forward and does what the
name suggest. They mimic a physical form and are used when heavy
input data is required from the users. Form-based interfaces use
form elements like text box, drop down list, radio buttons, check
boxes, etc. Registration forms, application forms for educational
purposes, forms to apply for credit card, etc. are few examples.

e. Connectivity
All modern computers have more or less the same interfaces. There are
some differences between desktop and laptop computers as well as various
mobile devices, but usually all devices have at least the following interfaces.
When you know the different connection ports, you know what devices you
can connect to your computer.
Digital devices can be connected through cables and wireless connection
Cables
1. HDMI
HDMI (High-Definition Media Interface) is a type of computer cable used
to transmit high-definition video and audio signals. Using the HDMI
cables, the audio and video signal can be easily transmitted without
compromising the quality of images and can send crystal clear images
using this cable. HDMI cable is capable of transmitting both audio and
video signals at the same time.

2. VGA
VGA (Video Graphics Ray) cable is another type of computer cable which
is used for sending video signals and is used to link the monitor and the
CPU of a computer. The VGA cable can also be used in HD televisions. All
the information displayed on the monitor is coming from the VGA cable.
There is a total of 15 pins in the plugin the cable, which have three rows
containing 5 pins each. And the cable is easily fitted in the monitor and
the other end is fixed in the system unit of a computer system.

3. DVI
DVI cables are used to connect the LCD monitor and the video card.
Using this cable, the user can see high image quality without having any
disturbance. The DVI cable is mostly used in CRT monitors, which have a
VGA connection. This cable transmits the digital and analog signals to
the computer system. The DVI cable is capable enough of digital
connections and analog connections. The DVI cable can be easily
distinguished, whether it is analog or digital, by looking if there is any
flat pin present on the cable. If the flat pin has four pins around, then it
is a DVI analog, and there is only a flat pin, then it is DVI digital.

4. Ethernet cable
The Ethernet cable is a type of computer network cable which is used
for a wired network. The Ethernet cable is used to connect the switches,
 monitors, PCs to the LAN (Local Area Network). The length and
durability of the Ethernet cable describe the quality of the connection. If
the cable is too long and is not durable, it will contain a poor quality of
the signal. And due to this factor, there are different types of Ethernet
cables present in the market. The Ethernet cables are plugged into the
Ethernet port present on the motherboard. The Ethernet cable looks like
a phone cable but contains more wires than phone cables. There are
eight wires in the Ethernet cable.

5. 5mm Audio cable

The 3.5mm audio cables are a type of computer cables that are used in
computer audio applications. This cable can be used for connecting a
mini-stereo audio device, PC sound card or any portable CD player to
any multimedia speaker. This cable can also be used to connect
earphones and headphones to the system.
The green port is for headphones and computer speakers. Blue port is
for DVD player, MP3 player and pink port Is used for connecting
microphones.

6. USB cable
The USB (Universal Serial Bus) cable is a standard cable used to connect
universal devices or personal computers. It is mainly used for short-
distance digital communication. The digital data can be transferred using
a USB cable. Nowadays, the USB cable is used to charge devices like
smartphones, Bluetooth speakers, trimmers and many more. The USB
cables can be used to connect two devices directly. The USB cable is
connected to the USB port present in the computer system. The mouse
and keyboard are also connected to a USB port as they have USB cables.
As the device is connected through the USB cable, the unplugging of the
USB cable when a device is running can cause damage to a device, so
whenever there is a need of removing the USB cable, first it should be
ejected safely and then it should be removed from the system.
The small micro-USB port has been the most common port in phones,
cameras and other portable devices. The newer USB-C port is becoming
increasingly common. The Lightning connector, common in Apple
 products, can be connected to the USB port with an adapter or a
separate cable with the correct plugs.

Wireless Connectivity
1. WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)
With WLAN you can connect your digital device at home or at the
university to a wireless network. A WLAN network covers an area
that typically ranges from some tens of meters to some hundreds of
meters.

2. Bluetooth
Using Bluetooth, you can create a short-range connection between,
say, a laptop computer and a mobile phone or headphones. This way
you can transfer data from the computer to the phone or vice versa.
In order to use a Bluetooth network both the devices need to
support Bluetooth. The range of the network does not exceed some
tens of meters. To connect a device to a Bluetooth network, turn on
the Bluetooth functionality on the device.

f. Digital Media
Digital media are forms of communication that can be stored and
communicated via digital devices. They are packaged into ‘digital format’
(i.e. 1’s and 0’s) to be communicated, usually via the internet.
Examples of digital media:
1. eBooks - eBooks are books that can be played on personal devices such
as phones, laptops and eBook readers (such as the Amazon Kindle).
2. MP4 audio - Digital audio can be packaged in many different formats,
but MP4 is one of the most common. Sound is captured by a computer
and digitized, allowing speakers to reproduce it at will. Audio can be
compressed so it’s lossy (meaning the compression decreases audio
quality) or lossless, which usually requires greater memory on a device.
3. Digital photos - Once, photos were produced manually using film. Today,
most cameras are digital, meaning image data is stored in 1s and 0s in a
 computer, ready to be reproduced on screen or printed using imaging
software on a computer or device.
4. Holograms - Holograms can create 3D images using beams of light.
5. Social Media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Etc.) - Social media are
forms of digital media intended to help people communicate through
the use of software. Key social media include the old ‘My Space’ and
Facebook as well as newer platforms including Twitter, Instagram and
Tik Tok.
6. Online Display Advertising - Companies have found new ways to
advertise to potential audiences in the digital era. Now, many
companies use online display advertising which has the great benefit of
being able to create targeted advertising. Advertisers can track people
around the internet and re-advertise to them all around the web with
products they know you want!
7. Virtual Reality - Virtual reality is most commonly googles that you wear
and can explore a three dimensional virtual environment by looking
around with the goggles on. These can be used in medical training, flight
training, and gaming. You can also wear gloves that help you engage
with the virtual environment.
8. Augmented Reality - Augmented reality (AR) is an interactive experience
of a real-world environment where the objects that reside in the real
world are enhanced by computer-generated perceptual information,
sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including visual, auditory,
haptic, somatosensory and olfactory.
9. Wearable technologies - They’re technologies that we place on our body
to help us perform better or give us feedback on our bodies. Examples
include smart watches, virtual reality glasses, augmented reality glasses,
digital heart rate monitors and even our smartphones.
g. Energy Consumption
Internet and technology are advancing every passing day with a lot of new
devices coming into the market. The computing power is increasing and so
is the energy consumption of these devices. Our mobiles, computers,
laptops, and others gadgets rely on energy to operate all the time. The
main sources consuming maximum energy are networks, data centers and
devices. Here are some stats that you need to know about energy
consumption by IT.
 Computers consume energy more than networks and data centers
 36% of energy is consumed by communication networks, 30% by
data centers, and 34% by computers
 The energy required by digital devices is much more (7%) than the
global energy consumption all over the world (3%)
 Production and operation of ICT will rise to about 21% in 2030
 70 billion kilowatt-hours a year are required to run the internet
 There are about 509,147 data centers that are 26.6 million square
meters with 430 hyperscale data-centers
 There are about 8,918,157,500 active mobile devices consuming
about 2 kWh/year energy
 Google only consumes about 0.013% of the world’s energy
 The energy consumption by users is about 55% and 45% by
manufacturers
 There are about 20% phone users, 19% data centers, and 16%
networks consuming energy
 Computer manufacturing takes about 17% energy, TVs take 11%,
smartphones take 11% and others take 6%
 About 0.0003 kWh is consumed while charging mobile over USB for 7
minutes
 Visiting Amazon consumes 0.0003 kWh, streaming 5 MB MP3 song
takes 0.025 kWh, watching 5 minutes YouTube video takes 0.065
kWh, streaming 3 GB movie takes 14.65 kWh, and online video game
takes about 78.13 kWh
 Bitcoin takes about 20 TWh energy per year with aluminum
consuming more energy as compared to other cryptocurrencies
 These are only a few facts that show how much energy technological sector
is consuming. With the development of new devices, energy consumption
will also increase rapidly.
This is not it, streaming a video also consume a lot of energy. Now if your
work requires working on a computer and laptop all day then you can
imagine the total energy consumption of all day.
A lot of people are associated with the technological sector and the rate of
employees in the sector will rapidly increase in the future. With so many
people working in the sector, energy consumption will also increase.
Although there are efficient ways to produce electricity today, but the
resources might not be enough to fulfill the future need of energy by the
technological center.
The tech sector needs to work on devices that consume less energy and
does not burden the world with their pressure. If there are not enough
energy resources than the world will suffer, which is not a desirable
condition.

h. Expansion capability
With hardware, an expansion is a term that describes adding additional
hardware to your computer. For example, an expansion may be adding a
video card with more capabilities, a DVD drive, new hard drive for
additional disk space, or a sound card.
Adding any new computer device requires either connecting an external
device to a port, installing an expansion card into an expansion slot, or
adding a drive into an expansion bay.
Some PCs allow users to install additional components. Some smartphones
and tablet devices have expansion slots to allow them to make use of flash
memory cards. Systems can also be expanded using ports such as USB
ports. These allow the user to connect extra devices called peripheral
devices.

Q – Explain what is expansion capability of digital devices. Explain it with

examples.
 i. Security Features
The data stored on digital devices may be private, valuable or both. This
means that devices need to have security features to keep their users’ data
safe.

Q – Explain how digital devices protect the data in it

Technologies Used by Digital Devices

a. Global Position System (GPS)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system using satellites,
a receiver and algorithms to synchronize location, velocity and time data
for air, sea and land travel. GPS is everywhere. You can find GPS systems in
your car, your smartphone and your watch. GPS helps you get where you
are going, from point A to point B.

Q 1– Explain how GPS make an impact on the design and uses of digital
devices

Q2 – Explain How Has GPS Changed Our Life?

b. Biometrics
In simple terms, biometric authentication is a form of authentication that
uses biometrics to detect and authenticate the identity of the user trying to
access a digital device. It can be performed using multiple ways including
fingerprint readers, facial recognition, voice recognition, and more.
These biometric tools can either be an addition – or a replacement – for the
traditional username-password method.

Q – Explain how biometrics make an impact on the design and uses of

digital devices
c. Touchscreen
A touch screen is a display device that allows users to interact with a digital
device using their finger or stylus. They're a useful alternative to a mouse or
keyboard for navigating a GUI (graphical user interface). Touch screens are
used on various devices, such as computer and laptop displays,
smartphones, tablets, cash registers, and information kiosks. Some touch
screens use a grid of infrared beams to sense the presence of a finger
instead of utilizing touch-sensitive input.

Q – Explain how touchscreen make an impact on the design and uses of

digital devices

d. Sensor
A sensor is a device that measures physical input from its environment and
converts it into data that can be interpreted by either a human or a
machine. Most sensors are electronic.

Q – Explain how sensors make an impact on the design and uses of digital
devices

e. Memory
A memory is defined as a device that can store binary information to be
accessed when needed for processing. After processing, the end results
may be stored back to the memory.
The memory in a digital system may be used to store data and instructions
of a program temporarily during runtime of a program or application. Most
of the digital systems require memory facilities for temporary storage of
data and programs to execute intended applications. In some digital
systems, the memory may be just used to retain data while it is transferred
from an input device to an output device.

Q1 – Explain how memory of digital devices make an impact on the design

and uses of digital devices
Q2 – “Digital memory has made a big impact on human memory. It has
changed the everyday use of human memory.” Explain this phrase.
f. Storage
Storage is the component of your digital device that allows you to store and
access data on a long-term basis.
In many cases where paper files are destroyed, there's no way to recover
the lost data. Electronic data storage lets you back up and protect
important information automatically. While digital files can be lost or
destroyed, there's a much lower risk than with paper files.

Q – Explain the difference between memory and storage.

g. Battery Power
How to store large amount of energy in batteries for increasingly complex
mobile and portable applications is a major technological challenge, and of
particular importance in the area of information and communication
technologies (ICT). At present, both manufacturers and governments are
investing in research on clean and energy-efficient technologies and longer-
lasting batteries to cater for portable electronic devices with power-hungry
features.
The speed at which mobility and portability advance depends to a large
degree on battery performance, but while mobile ICT devices have been
enhanced quickly, batteries have not kept pace. In recent years, batteries
have been improved in terms of energy density, but higher power
requirements of devices have eaten up any benefit made in better battery
performance, with the result being more powerful devices with the same
runtime.
To address the demand for longer device runtimes, progress has been
made in reducing power consumption at different levels of the system
design, allowing devices to operate more energy efficiently. To design an
all-in-one solution – a safe, lightweight, small size and environmentally
friendly battery, with a high-energy density, long run- and lifetimes –
appears to be a difficult task.
Today's most known and most used batteries are based on lithium-ion (Li-
ion)

Q – “Battery life for any device is a vital part of our life” collaborate this.
h. Miniaturization
Miniaturization in electronic devices involves fitting more transistor nodes
on a smaller integrated circuit (IC). The IC is then interfaced within its
intended system or device so that, once assembled, the system can carry
out the desired function. The technology is made tinier yet mightier
Miniaturization is the trend to manufacture ever smaller mechanical,
optical and electronic products and devices. Examples include
miniaturization of mobile phones, computers and vehicle engine
downsizing.
Miniaturization of electronic components has made it possible to build
small portable and handheld computer devices that can be carried almost
anywhere and at any time. As a result, smaller and lighter devices having
high processing capacity are available on the market.

Q – Discuss how miniaturization has made an impact on digital devices.

i. Processor
A processor is an integrated electronic circuit that performs the calculations
that run a digital device. A processor performs arithmetical, logical,
input/output (I/O) and other basic instructions that are passed from an
operating system (OS). Most other processes are dependent on the
operations of a processor.
As an example, your smartphone processor, also known as chipset, is a
component that controls everything going on in your smartphone and
ensures it functions correctly. You can compare it to the brain of the human
body. Every action you perform on your smartphone goes straight to the
processor. These actions are then converted to visual changes on your
screen, and all of this happens in a split second.
You're opening a few pictures in an app, for example. This action is
registered by the processor and stored in the memory of your device.
That's the fetch phase. The action is then translated to ones and zeros in
the decode phase. The instructions are now saved in a language your
smartphone understands. It's ready for the execute phase. The processor
transmits the ones and zeros, and you can see it all happen on the screen.
Your pictures are opened. Finally, the executed instructions are saved in the
 register memory during the save phase. Afterwards, the process will
restart.
The speed at which a processor processes a certain action depends on a
number of factors, like the number of processor cores. The clock speed is
another important aspect. Processors with low clock speeds and
(sometimes) a smaller number of processor cores work more slowly than
processors with high clock speeds and a large number of processor cores.
An image processor is an essential electronic component that is akin to the
“brains” of the camera. It controls the camera to a high degree, from how it
functions to how it depicts and records images.

Q – Explain how a processor can affects the performance of a digital device.

j. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

RFID (radio frequency identification) is a form of wireless communication
that incorporates the use of electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the
radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to uniquely
identify an object, animal or person.
RFID tags are a type of tracking system that uses radio frequency to search,
identify, track, and communicate with items and people. Essentially, RFID
tags are smart labels that can store a range of information from serial
numbers, to a short description, and even pages of data.

How does RFID work?

Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a
transceiver and a transponder. When the scanning antenna and transceiver
are combined, they are referred to as an RFID reader or interrogator. There
are two types of RFID readers -- fixed readers and mobile readers. The RFID
reader is a network-connected device that can be portable or permanently
attached. It uses radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once
activated, the tag sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated
into data.
The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies
based on factors including the type of tag, type of reader, RFID frequency
and interference in the surrounding environment or from other RFID tags
 and readers. Tags that have a stronger power source also have a longer
read range.

k. Near Field Communication (NFC)

NFC is a method of wireless data transfer that allows smartphones, laptops,
tablets and other devices to share data when in close proximity. It’s simply
an evolution of RFID technology that has already been around for decades.
NFC is based on RFID technology, but has a much lower transmission range.
NFC tends to be more secure than Bluetooth, as it operates on a shorter
range allowing for a more stable connection. Therefore, NFC tends to be a
better solution for crowded and busy places, where a lot of different
devices are trying to communicate with each other, creating signal
interference.
Generally, this comes in two forms; device-to-device communication or
readable tags.
NFC has been a staple feature on smartphones for several years at this
point. The Nexus S was the first Android device to include it all the way
back in 2010. Apple also eventually embraced the technology in 2014 —
NFC is present on every iPhone since the 6. Similarly, wearable devices,
 ranging from fitness trackers like the Mi Band to smartwatches like the
Apple Watch, also include it.
Q – explain how RFID/ NFC make an impact on our day-to-day life through digital
devices.

l. Quick Response (QR) Code

QR codes are scannable barcodes that store data. In the marketing sphere,
they're commonly used to redirect users to landing pages, websites, social
media profiles, or store coupons.
A QR code works similarly to barcodes at the supermarket. Each QR code
consists black squares and dots which represent different pieces of
information. When scanned, the unique pattern on the barcode translates
into human-readable data. This transaction happens in seconds.
Users must scan the code with a QR reader or scanner or built-in QR code
camera in your smartphone, although nowadays most people scan QR
codes with smartphones. On the off chance your phone doesn't have the
capability, there are plenty of free apps for QR scanning.

m. Connectivity
Q – Explain how digital devices are connected with each other

Q – “Digital devices connects and disconnect people from others” Elaborate this
phrase.

Technological Convergence
Technological convergence is a term that describes bringing previously unrelated
technologies together, often in a single device. Smartphones might be the best
possible example of such a convergence. Another example is smart television
(TV), to access the contents that are distributed over a network.
Technological convergent devices share three key characteristics. First, converged
devices can execute multiple functions to serve blended purpose. Second,
converged devices can collect and use data in various formats and employ
machine learning techniques to deliver enhanced user experience. Third,
converged devices are connected to a network directly and/or are interconnected
with other devices to offer ubiquitous access to users.
Q – Write opportunities and challenges of technological convergence.

Embedded Systems
Embedded means something that is attached to another thing. An embedded
system can be thought of as a computer hardware system having software
embedded in it. An embedded system can be an independent system or it can be
a part of a large system. An embedded system is a microcontroller or
microprocessor-based system which is designed to perform a specific task. For
example, a fire alarm is an embedded system; it will sense only smoke.
An embedded system has three components −
 It has hardware.
 It has application software.
 It has Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the application
software and provide mechanism to let the processor run a process as per
scheduling by following a plan to control the latencies. RTOS defines the
way the system works. It sets the rules during the execution of application
program. A small-scale embedded system may not have RTOS.
Characteristics of an Embedded System
 Single-functioned − An embedded system usually performs a specialized
operation and does the same repeatedly. For example: A pager always
functions as a pager.
 Tightly constrained − All computing systems have constraints on design
metrics, but those on an embedded system can be especially tight. Design
metrics is a measure of an implementation's features such as its cost, size,
power, and performance. It must be of a size to fit on a single chip, must
perform fast enough to process data in real time and consume minimum
power to extend battery life.
  Reactive and Real time − Many embedded systems must continually react
to changes in the system's environment and must compute certain results
in real time without any delay. Consider an example of a car cruise
controller; it continually monitors and reacts to speed and brake sensors. It
must compute acceleration or de-accelerations repeatedly within a limited
time; a delayed computation can result in failure to control of the car.
 Microprocessors based − It must be microprocessor or microcontroller
based.
 Memory − It must have a memory, as its software usually embeds in ROM.
It does not need any secondary memories in the computer.
 Connected − It must have connected peripherals to connect input and
output devices.
 HW-SW systems − Software is used for more features and flexibility.
Hardware is used for performance and security.
Advantages
 Easily Customizable
 Low power consumption
 Low cost
 Enhanced performance
Disadvantages
 High development effort
 Larger time to market

Firmware
In computing, firmware is a computer program that is "embedded" in a hardware
device and is an essential part of the hardware. It is sometimes called embedded
software. An example is a microcontroller, a part of the microprocessor that tells
the microprocessor what actions to take.
Firmware is installed directly onto a piece of hardware during manufacturing. It is
used to run user programs on the device and can be thought of as the software
that enables hardware to run. Firmware is the foundation of the software stack
that computer hardware uses for basic operations and to run applications.
Firmware is found on computer motherboards to hold hardware settings and
boot data and on myriad consumer electronics devices to hold the operating
system and application.
BIOS also called System Setup is an acronym for Basic Input or Output System.
BIOS is firmware that is embedded on a small memory chip on the computer's
system board or motherboard. It acts as an interface between the computer's
hardware and the operating system.

Factors that can be used to assess the performance of digital devices

Q – Explain how following factors assess the performance of digital devices
1. Speed
2. Capacity
3. Portability
4. Bandwidth (Bandwidth is the data transfer capacity of a computer network
within a given time period. Normally it measured in bits per second (Bps).)
5. Power efficiency
Data file size and time needed to transmit a file
A file size is the measure of space a file takes up on a storage medium, such as a
computer hard drive. File sizes can be measured in bytes (B), kilobytes (KB),
megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB), and beyond.

Calculate Data Transfer Rate

Data transfer rate is the speed that a certain amount of data is transferred over a
given period of time. You might want to know the transfer rate if you’re
downloading something online or transferring data from one source to another.
(First, convert your units so the file size and transfer speed are in either bits or
bytes with the same prefix (kilo, mega, giga, or tera). Then, plug your numbers
into the equation S = A ÷ T in which A is the amount of data and T is the transfer
time to solve for S, the speed, or rate, of transfer. You can also determine the
amount of data or the transfer time if you know one of the variables plus the
speed of transfer.)
Step 1
Find the units regarding the file size. File sizes may be given in bits (b), bytes (B),
Kilobytes (KB), Megabytes (MB), Gigabytes (GB), or even Terabytes (TB).[1]
Pay attention to whether the letters are upper case or lower case as well. For
instance, a bit is denoted with a lowercase "b" while a byte is denoted with an
uppercase "B".

Step 2
Note the units that reference the transfer speed. Transfer speeds might be
provided in bits per second (bps), bytes per second (B/s), Kilobytes per second
(KB/s), Megabytes per second (MB/s), or Gigabytes per second (GB/s).

Step 3
Convert the units to either bits or bytes and make sure they have the same prefix.
Before you use the transfer rate equation, ensure you are using the same units for
the size and speed. Don’t worry about the time units for now.
 8 bits (b) = 1 byte (B); turn bits into bytes by dividing by 8, or convert bytes
to bits by multiplying by 8.
 1,024 bytes = 1 Kilobyte (KB); convert bytes to Kilobytes by dividing by
1,024 or turn Kilobytes into bytes by multiplying by 1,024.
 1,024 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte (MB); change Kilobytes into Megabytes by
dividing by 1024 or convert Megabytes into Kilobytes by multiplying by
1,024.
 1,024 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte (GB); convert Megabytes into Gigabytes by
dividing by 1024 or turn Gigabytes into Megabytes by multiplying by 1,024.
 1,024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte (TB); change Gigabytes into Terabytes by
dividing by 1024 or convert Terabytes into Gigabytes by multiplying by
1,024.
Step 4
Convert between hours, minutes, and seconds as needed. As you know, there are
60 seconds in 1 minute and 60 minutes in 1 hour. To convert from seconds to
minutes, divide by 60. To convert from minutes to hours, divide by 60. To convert
from hours to minutes, multiply by 60. To convert from minutes to seconds,
multiply by 60.
 To convert from seconds to hours, divide by 3,600 (60 x 60). Or, convert
from hours to seconds by multiplying by 3,600.
 Generally, the speed is denoted in seconds. If you have very many seconds,
though, such as for large files, you can convert to minutes or even hours.

Calculating Speed, Time, & Data

1.
Calculate the transfer speed by dividing the amount of data by the transfer time.
Plug the amount of data (A) and transfer time (T) to solve for the rate, or speed
(S), into the equation S = A ÷ T.
For example, you might have transferred 25 MB in 2 minutes. First, convert 2
minutes to seconds by multiplying 2 by 60, which is 120. So, S = 25 MB ÷ 120
seconds. 25 ÷ 120 = 0.208. Therefore, the transfer speed is 0.208 MB/s. If you
want to turn this into Kilobytes, multiply 0.208 by 1024. 0.208 x 1024 = 212.9. So,
the transfer speed is also equal to 212.9 KB/s.
2.
Divide the amount of data by the transfer speed to find the transfer time. If you
want to solve for the transfer time (T) instead, input the amount of data (A) and
the rate or speed (S) of transfer into the equation T = A ÷ S
For instance, say you transferred 134 GB at a rate of 7 MB/s. First, convert GB to
MB so you’re working with the same units in each part of the equation. 134 x
1,024 = 137,217. So, you transferred 137,217 MB at a rate of 7 MB/s. To solve for
T, divide 137,217 by 7, which is 19,602. Therefore, it took 19,602 seconds. To
convert this to hours, divide by 3,600, which is 5.445. In other words, it took 5.445
hours to transfer 134 GB at a rate of 7 MB/s.
If you want to use hours and minutes, separate out the whole number and
decimal: you have 5 hours and 0.445 hours. To convert 0.445 hours to minutes,
multiply by 60. 0.445 x 60 = 26.7. To convert the decimal into seconds, multiply it
by 60. 0.7 x 60 = 42. Altogether, it took 5 hours, 26 minutes, and 42 seconds.

3.
Multiply the transfer time by the transfer speed to find the amount of data
transferred. To figure out how much data was transferred, use the equation A = T
x S, in which A is the amount of data, T is the transfer time, and S is the speed or
rate of transfer.
For example, you can figure out how much data was transferred in 1.5 hours at a
rate of 200 bps. First, convert hours to seconds by multiplying by 1.5 by 3,600,
which is 5,400. So, A = 5,400 seconds x 200 bps. A = 1,080,000 bps. To convert to
bytes, divide by 8. 1,080,000 ÷ 8 = 135,000. To convert to Kilobytes, divide by
1,024. 135,000 ÷ 1,024 = 131.84. Therefore, 131.84 KB of data was transferred in
1.5 hours at a rate of 200 bps.
Data
All data in a computer is represented in binary, whether it is numbers, text,
images or sound. The computer software processes the data according to its
content.
Binary and denary
Humans tend to use the denary number system. This is the base 10 system that
you are familiar with. However, computers work in the binary number system,
which is base 2. Denary numbers must be converted into their binary equivalent
before a computer can use them.

The denary system has ten symbols - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. The value of

each denary place value is calculated by multiplying the previous place value by
ten. For example:

Binary to denary
The value of each binary place value is calculated by multiplying the previous
place value by two. The first eight binary place values are:

In binary, each place value can only be represented by 1 or a 0.

To convert binary to denary, simply take each place value that has a 1, and add
them together.
For example, the binary number 11111002in binary place values is:

Ex: Convert following binary numbers into denary numbers

1. 101102
2. 110112
3. 101012

Denary to Binary

Answer: 110012

Convert these denary numbers to binary

i. 41
ii. 88
iii. 349
Explain how to select digital devices to meet the needs and requirements of
individuals and organizations. (12 marks)

Software
What is software?
Software is the collection of data, programs, procedures, routines and instructions
that tell a computer or electronic device how to run, work and execute specific
tasks. This is in contrast to hardware, which is the physical system and
components that perform the work.

How does software work?

How exactly does software work? Well, it is just another term for a computer
program and a program is a set of instructions that tells the device how to
perform.
Those instructions are written in code that the computer can understand.
At the core of all software is logic and the principle of input > process > output.
The program needs information to work with Ex: the input. Think tapping a button
on your phone. It then asks a series of questions based on a set of rules. For
example, should the button print an invoice or cancel an order?
The output is what happens as a result. Your printer whirrs into life and the
invoice pops out of the tray.
Types of Software

Application
Software

Appliction software
Application software is a computer program that performs a specific function, be
it educational, personal, or business. It is also known as an end-user program or a
productivity program. You can think of your PC as a cake and the application
software as the frosting on top of it.
General purpose software - software that can be used for multiple purposes.
Special purpose software - software built for a specific purpose.
Bespoke application software - software built for a specific user and purpose.
Types of Application Software and Examples
 Word Processing Software: Google Docs, Microsoft Word, WordPad and
Notepad
 Database Software: MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Access, Oracle,
IBM DB2 and FoxPro
 Spreadsheet Software: Google Sheets, Apple Numbers and Microsoft Excel
 Multimedia Software: Media Player, Winamp, QuickTime and VLC Media
Player
 Presentation Software: Google Slides, Microsoft Powerpoint, Keynotes,
Prezzy
  Enterprise Software: customer relationship management (CRM) software
(HubSpot, Microsoft Dynamic 365)), project management tools (Jira,
Monday), marketing automation tools (Marketo, HubSpot), enterprise
resource planning (ERP) software (SAGE, Oracle, Microsoft Dynamics),
treasury management system (TMS) software (SAP S/4HANA Finance,
Oracle Treasury), business intelligence (BI) software (SAP Business
Intelligence, MicroStrategy, Microsoft Power BI)
 Information Worker Software: Documentation tools, resource management
tools
 Communication Software: Zoom, Google Meet, Skype
 Educational Software: Dictionaries – Encarta, Britannica; Mathematical:
MATLAB; Others: Google Earth, NASA World Wind
 Simulation Software: Flight and scientific simulators
 Content Access Software: Accessing content through media players, web
browsers
 Application Suites: Apache OpenOffice, Microsoft Office365, Apple’s iWork,
LibreOffice, G-Suite, Oracle E-Business Suite
 Software for Engineering and Product Development: IDE or Integrated
Development Environments
 Email Software: Microsoft Outlook, Gmail, Apple Mail
Benefits of Application Software
 Applications are the lifeblood of our digital devices.
 Mobile app developers create solutions to let businesses sell and market
themselves online. Financial applications run the stock market. The banking
system uses applications to transfer money and log transactions.
 If your business needs a digital solution, it usually comes in the form of an
app.
System Software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a
computer's hardware and application programs. If we think of the computer
system as a layered model, the system software is the interface between the
hardware and user applications
Operating System
An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the
computer by a boot program, manages all of the other application programs in a
computer. The application programs make use of the operating system by making
requests for services through a defined application program interface (API).
Windows, Linux, and Android are examples of operating systems that enable the
user to use programs like MS Office, Notepad, and games on the computer or
mobile phone.
Utility software
Utility Software performs certain tasks like virus detection, installation, and
uninstallation, data backup, deletion of unwanted files, etc. Some examples are
antivirus software, file management tools, compression tools, disk management
tools, etc.
Utility software helps users configure, analyze, optimize and maintain a computer.
This software normally consists of small programs which are thought of as part of
the operating system (OS) as they often come built in with the OS.
Device driver
A device driver is a special kind of software program that controls a specific
hardware device attached to a computer. Device drivers are essential for a
computer to work properly.
For Example, a printer driver tells the printer in which format to print after getting
instruction from OS, similarly, A sound card driver is there due to which 1's and
0's data of the MP3 file is converted to audio signals and you enjoy the music.
Language translator
Computers are electronic devices that can only understand machine-level binary
code (0/1 or on/off), and it is extremely difficult to understand and write a
program in machine language, so developers use human-readable high level and
assembly instructions. To bridge that gap, a translator is used, which converts
high-level instructions to machine-level instructions (0 and 1).
The translator is a programming language processor that converts a high-level or
assembly language program to machine-understandable low-level machine
language without sacrificing the code's functionality.
There are 3 types of computer language translators: They are:
1. Compiler
A compiler is a special program that translates a programming language's
source code into machine code, bytecode or another programming
language. The source code is typically written in a high-level, human-
readable language such as Java or C++. Compiler scans the entire program
and translates the whole of it into machine code at once.
2. Interpreter
An interpreter is a computer program that is used to directly execute
program instructions written using one of the many high-level
programming languages. Interpreter translates just one statement of the
program at a time into machine code.
3. Assembler
In computer programming, assembly language, is any low-level
programming language. The Assembler is a Software that converts an
assembly language code to machine code. It takes basic Computer
commands and converts them into Binary Code that Computer's Processor
can use to perform its Basic Operations. These instructions are assembler
language or assembly language.
The role of the operating system in managing
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users
Process Management
A process is a set of instruction under execution. There can be several processes
in a single program. It is known as multiprogramming. In multiprogramming
environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how
much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does
the following activities for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible
for this task is known as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device management
Hardware found in a computer system such as printers, keyboard, mouse, scanner
etc. are called devices. According to the user requirement any device can be
connected with the computer. An Operating System manages device
communication via their respective drivers. It does the following activities for
device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as
the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
Memory management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main
Memory. Allocating space in memory for processes is a task of OS.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU.
For a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System
does the following activities for memory management −
 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom,
what part are not in use.
  In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when
and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated.
Security management
The security management function of an operating system helps in implementing
mechanisms that secure and protect the computer system internally as well as
externally. Therefore an operating system is responsible for securing the system
at two different levels which are internal security and external security.
1. Internal security
Internal security refers to the protection of activities of one process from
the activities of another process. The term internal security may also be
regarded as system protection. The internal security of the computer
system also ensures the reliability of the computer system. There may be a
number of processes running in the computer systems use the concept of
least privilege to implement internal security.
2. External security
External security refers to the implementation of a mechanism for securing
the data and programs stored in the computer system as well as the various
resources of the computer system against unauthorized access. The term
external security may also be regarded as system security. External security
is particularly required when a computer system is either on a network or
connected to the internet. Passwords, Anti-virus programs and firewalls are
some protective methods to protect data stored in the computer.
User management
A multi-user operating system (OS) is one that can be used by more than one
person at a time while running on a single machine. Different users access the
machine running the OS through networked terminals. A multi-user operating
system (OS) is a computer system that allows multiple users that are on different
computers to access a single system's OS resources simultaneously, as shown in
this figure.
Users on the system are connected through a network. The OS shares resources
between users, depending on what type of resources the users need. The OS
must ensure that the system stays well-balanced in resources to meet each user's
needs and not affect other users who are connected. Some examples of a multi-
user OS are Unix, Ubuntu, MacOS, Windows and all Linux based OS.

Different sources of software and copyright types

Free
Free software or libre software, infrequently known as freedom-respecting
software, is computer software distributed under terms that allow users to run
the software for any purpose as well as to study, change, and distribute it and any
adapted versions.
Open-source
Open-source software (OSS) is software that is distributed with its source code,
making it available for use, modification, and distribution with its original rights.
Source code is the part of software that most computer users don’t ever see; it’s
the code computer programmers manipulate to control how a program or
application behaves. Programmers who have access to source code can change a
program by adding to it, changing it, or fixing parts of it that aren’t working
properly. OSS typically includes a license that allows programmers to modify the
software to best fit their needs and control how the software can be distributed.
Ex: GNU/Linux, Mozilla Firefox, VLC media player, SugarCRM, GIMP, VNC, Apache
web server, LibreOffice, jQuery
Proprietary software
Proprietary software is any software that is copyrighted and bears limits against
use, distribution and modification that are imposed by its publisher, vendor or
developer. Proprietary software remains the property of its owner/creator and is
used by end-users/organizations under predefined conditions.
Proprietary software may also be called closed-source software or commercial
software.

Creative Commons
A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that
enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted "work". A CC license is
used when an author wants to give other people the right to share, use, and build
upon a work that the author has created. CC provides an author flexibility (for
example, they might choose to allow only non-commercial uses of a given work)
and protects the people who use or redistribute an author's work from concerns
of copyright infringement as long as they abide by the conditions that are
specified in the license by which the author distributes the work.
Creative Commons licenses are designed for content and not software code so
you won't add the Creative Commons license to the software code.

Licensing options
Single user
This license type allows the program to be installed and used on one CPU which is
not accessed by other users over a network. The software will only be used on a
single computer, and other users will not be able to access or run the software
while connected to your computer.
Multiple user
This license allows you to install a program onto multiple computers used by
multiple users. Typically, this may be a set number of users. For example, a five-
user multi-user license allows up to five people to use the program.
Site license
A program can be installed on an unlimited number of computers, as long as
they’re at the location of the site license. Site licenses are usually for schools and
businesses.
Institutional license
The software is licensed based upon the number of people in the organization (or
portion of an organization, such as a school or department) the software is
licensed for. The Population Size licensing model allows you to install the software
on any machines (Macintosh or Windows) used by the licensed population.
Fixed term license
A fixed-term license provides a start date, usually the date of purchase, and an
end date for access to the software. Although technically a subscription license
can also fit this definition, fixed-term licensing implies that the developer and
customer don't necessarily expect to renew the license.
Perpetual license
A perpetual software license is a type of software license that authorizes an
individual to use a program indefinitely. Generally, outside of termination, a
perpetual software license allows the holder to use a specific version of a given
software program continually with payment of a single fee. A perpetual license
allows end users to use the software for as long as the end user complies with all
terms of the license agreement.
Network license
Floating licensing, also known as concurrent licensing or network licensing, is a
software licensing approach in which a limited number of licenses for a software
application are shared among a larger number of users over time. Floating
licensing, also known as concurrent licensing or network licensing, is a software
licensing approach in which a limited number of licenses for a software
application are shared among a larger number of users over time.
With the Network License method, a license server monitors the number of
clients that can run the software, rather than a license being obtained for each
client. The PC that manages all of the licenses is known as the license server, and
the PCs that use the calculator software are known as the clients.

The purpose of, and how to manage, software updates

Software updates are necessary to keep computers, mobile devices and tablets
running smoothly and they may lower security vulnerabilities.
Here are some reasons to consider software updates as soon as possible.
1. Patch security flaws
Security is the No. 1 reason to update software immediately. Software
vulnerabilities enable cybercriminals to access a person's computer. Threat actors
see these vulnerabilities as open doors, enabling them to plant malware on
people's systems.
Malware enables threat actors to take control of computers and steal
information. Malware can also encrypt files, documents and other programs so
they are unusable. Security patches block these open doors in the software to
protect a device from attacks.
People sharing a network with others need to be extra diligent. An infected device
can unknowingly spread malware to others in a network, including colleagues,
friends and family.
2. Get new features
Installing updates may add new features and remove old ones that are no longer
necessary. Technology is constantly changing, and updates offer the latest
features and improvements.
3. Protect data
If a threat actor gets in through a software security flaw, they will search for
personal data such as financial information, passwords, usernames or other
documents with sensitive information.
Threat actors access personal accounts and sell sensitive information on the dark
web. Updating software to improve security vulnerabilities enables data to be
better protected.
4. Improve performance
Not all patches are security related. Software vendors may find bugs in a program
or need to make necessary enhancements to a program. These patches help
improve the performance of the software.
Electronic devices also need regular maintenance and routine updates to run their
best. Having the latest patches can help prevent software from crashing.
5. Ensure compatibility
Software manufacturers send updates to ensure their software is compatible with
the latest technology. Without updates, older software may not be able to work
with newer technology.

Patch
In information technology, a Patch is a modification to a program to improve its
security, performance, or other feature. A patch is sometimes referred to as a bug
fix since a reason for a patch is an imperfection that is discovered by its
developers or users.
To make edits, developers use debugging software to make patches that are
temporary or permanent. Doing so is not foolproof as some patches negatively
affect performance or have ripple effects that interrupt features.
Patching software can be part of an application’s lifecycle, or timeline of
anticipated changes, or it can be in response to news of a security vulnerability,
performance issue, or other defect. Patches can be deployed to proprietary
software as binary changes, delivered as executable files (.exe). Patches to source
code generally occur in open-source software and developers are responsible for
carrying over the update into their uses of the open-source software.

Automatic update
Automatic updates allow users to keep their software programs updated without
having to check for and install available updates manually. The software
automatically checks for available updates, and if found, the updates are
downloaded and installed without user intervention.
For example, the Microsoft Windows operating system has automatic updates to
help keep Windows updated with the latest bug fixes, feature updates, and other
modifications automatically. Automatic updates help keep software better
protected from viruses and hacking attempts.
Other software programs allow automatic updates to be enabled by users, if not
enabled by default upon installation. Internet browsers feature automatic
updates, including Google Chrome and Microsoft Edge. Antivirus programs also
feature automatic updates, to keep the computer protected.
Some software programs allow for the automatic update feature to be disabled,
requiring users to manually check for and install available updates. However,
turning off automatic updates is not recommended, as it can leave the software
and the computer vulnerable to viruses, hacking, and becoming outdated.

Upgrade and Update

Update is a process of enhancing certain parts of the same application or software
like security updates to deal with the newly discovered vulnerabilities so patches
are released and users can download the updates to make the software more
secure.
Upgrade can be defined as a process of shifting to a newer version of any existing
application or software. This definition is in context to the computer science field.
For example, we upgrade our windows whenever any latest version comes in the
market because the newer version contains certainly more features than the
older one.

Compatibility
Compatibility is the capacity for two systems to work together without having to
be altered to do so. Compatible software applications use the same data formats.
For example, if word processor applications are compatible, the user should be
able to open their document files in either product.
Software incompatibility is a characteristic of software components or systems
which cannot operate satisfactorily together on the same computer, or on
different computers linked by a computer network. They may be components or
systems which are intended to operate cooperatively or independently.
What is software compatibility testing? It is to check if the application is
compatible with mobile devices and their platforms like android, iOS, windows,
etc. Compatibility testing helps ensure complete customer satisfaction as it checks
whether the application performs or operates as expected for all the intended
users across multiple platforms.

Q- Compatibility issues can arise when software is updating/ upgrading. Explain

this with examples.

Q – Explain how to select software to meet the needs and requirements of

individuals and organizations.