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2003 Electrostaticsofparticles PDF
2003 Electrostaticsofparticles PDF
Electrostatics of particles
Abstract—In powder handling, each particle collides with another particle or a wall, and conse-
quently becomes charged up to a certain value. Such contact charging is experienced in various elds.
In the present review, the basic concepts of contact charging are summarized; in particular, the effect
of the contact potential difference and the initial charge on the charge transfer is described in detail.
Furthermore, the variation of the particle charging caused by repeated impacts on a wall is formu-
lated. This theory is extended to the particle charging in gas– solids pipe ow, where each particle
has a different amount of charge; the distribution of the particle charge is also analyzed theoretically.
In addition, the method of measuring important electrostatic properties, the technique of detecting
particle charging and the application of particle charging are described.
Keywords: Electrostatics; particle charging; contact potential difference; charge distribution; measure-
ment.
NOMENCLATURE
¤
To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: matsu@cheme.kyoto-u.ac.jp
144 S. Matsusaka and H. Masuda
Greek
® D Vb =Ve .D k0 =k3 / (—)
1; 11 ; 12 change of energy level caused by charge transfer (J)
"0 absolute permittivity of gas (F / m)
"p absolute permittivity of powder layer (F /m)
¹ viscosity of gas (Pa s)
º1 ; º2 Poisson’s ratio (—)
½ gas density (kg/ m3 /
½c charge density (C / m3 /
½p particle density (kg/ m3 /
¾0 standard deviation of initial charge per unit mass (C / kg)
¾k standard deviation of impact charging factor (C /kg)
Á; ÁI ; Á2 ; ÁM ; ÁI work function (J)
! frequency of radiation (1 / s)
1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 2. Charge on a chromium sphere, 4 mm in diameter, in contact with another metal sphere,
13 mm in diameter, as a function of the CPD of chromium against each metal [21].
Figure 3. Charge density of nylon 66 by contacting with various metals. The horizontal axis is the
CPD of each metal against a gold reference VM=Au [24], where the CPD is dened as VAu=M .
(ii) Ion transfer. Several researchers have suggested that contact charging be-
tween a metal and an insulator may be due to the transfer of ions [20, 29, 30]. Insu-
lators may contain ions in the body or on the surface. These ions can be transferred
by diffusion, relative acidity, afnities and the kinetic effect based on shearing off.
When ions exist in excess, ion transfer affects contact charging; however, when the
ions are few, electron transfer will control the contact charging.
(iii) Material transfer. The impact or friction between two bodies can result in
the transfer of material from one to the other. When a metal slides over a polymer,
large amounts of polymer may transfer to the metal, and the transferred polymer
can carry charge and change the effective contact potential difference. Also, when
brittle particles impact on a metal wall, elements of particles can be transferred on
the metal [31].
(iv) Effect of the separation state on charging. Particle charging can be inu-
enced by the state of separation. If the charge transferred to the surface of the insu-
lator ows back to the metal, the net charge will be reduced. This reduction depends
on properties such as conductivity and the separation state such as the speed of slid-
ing or rolling. In addition, a gaseous discharge may occur during the separation
[32– 34].
Electrostatics of particles 149
Á1 C 11 C eEf z0 D Á2 ¡ 12 ; (4)
where 1 is the change of the energy level caused by the charge transfer.
2.2.1. Charge transfer. When a particle impacts on a metal wall, each acquires
an equal and opposite charge. The amount of charge transferred depends on the total
potential difference V between the contact bodies, which is made up of two parts:
Vc based on the surface work function and Ve arising from image charge, which is
150 S. Matsusaka and H. Masuda
induced in the wall by an external charge. These are related as follows [37– 39]:
V D Vc ¡ Ve : (5)
The potential difference Ve is approximated by:
Ve D k0 q; (6)
where k0 is a constant and q is the charge on the particle before impact. The charge
transferred in a repeated impact process is analyzed by approximating the process to
an equivalent rate process, i.e. the charge transfer is treated as a continuous quantity
dqc =dn to obtain the enveloping curve of the remaining charge after a number of
collisions:
dqc
D k1 CV ; (7)
dn
where n is the number of collisions, k1 is the charging efciency and C is the
capacitance between the contact bodies, which is given by:
"0 S
CD ; (8)
z0
where "0 is the absolute permittivity of the gas, S is the contact area and z0 is the
critical gap including the surface roughness between the contact bodies.
Charge relaxation with elapsed time dqr =dt is approximated by [40]:
dqr
D ¡k2 q; (9)
dt
where k2 is a constant. When the particle collides at regular intervals, i.e. the
frequency is dened as fc , (9) is rewritten as:
dqr k2
D ¡ q: (10)
dn fc
From (5)– (8) and (10), the following equation is derived:
dq dqc dqr
D C
dn dn dn
"0 S k2
D k1 .V c ¡ k0 q/ ¡ q: (11)
z0 fc
Solving (11) with initial conditions (n D 0; q D q0 /, the following equation is
derived:
´ ´¼
n n
q D q0 exp ¡ C q1 1 ¡ exp ¡ ; (12)
n0 n0
where:
Vc
q1 D ; (13)
k2 z0
k0 C
k1 "0 Sfc
Electrostatics of particles 151
Figure 5. Charge on a rubber sphere accumulated by repeated impacts with a steel wall [39].
and:
1
n0 D : (14)
k0 k1 "0 S k2
C
z0 fc
Figure 5 shows the variation in the charge on a rubber sphere by repeated impacts
[39]. The transferred charge caused by an impact decreases with the number of
collisions and the charge approaches a limiting value. The limiting value tends to
decrease as the interval between collisions increases because the charge relaxation
increases with elapsed time. The broken lines in Fig. 5 are the results calculated
using (12). The experimental results are in agreement with the calculated values.
2.2.2. Effect of elasticity. When a particle impacts on a hard plate, the particle is
deformed and a contact area is produced. If the particle is a sphere with a smooth
surface and the contact deformation can be approximated by a Hertzian deformation
pattern [41], the maximum contact area S during the impact is represented by:
4=5
S D 1:36ke2=5 ½p2=5 Dp2 vi ; (15)
where ke is the elasticity parameter, ½p is the density of the sphere, Dp is the particle
diameter and vi is the impact (incident) velocity. If the particle is not spherical, the
particle shape should be taken into account [42]. The elasticity parameter ke is given
by
1 ¡ º12 1 ¡ º22
ke D C ; (16)
E1 E2
where º is Poisson’s ratio, E is Young’s modulus, and subscripts 1 and 2 represent
the sphere and the plate, respectively.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the transferred charge and the maximum
contact area calculated using (15). The transferred charge is approximately
152 S. Matsusaka and H. Masuda
Figure 6. Relationship between transferred charge and maximum contact area during impact of a
rubber sphere of 0.032 m in diameter on a steel wall [39].
proportional to the contact area and, therefore, it is deduced that the maximum
contact area based on the elastic deformation controls the amount of the transferred
charge.
In gas– solids pipe ow, particles are charged as a result of the collisions with the
wall; the charged particles form an electric eld and the electric eld inuences the
total potential difference V , i.e. [37, 38]:
V D Vc ¡ Ve ¡ Vb (17)
where Vb .D k3 q/ is the potential difference arising from the electric eld, which
is called the ‘space charge effect’. When a length of metal pipe that is isolated
electrically is grounded, the charge transferred from the particles to the wall ows
to earth. The charge transferred per unit time is detected as electric current. The
current I generated from the pipe of a length from x to x C 1x is expressed as:
´¼ ´¼
I n.x/ n.1x/
D fqm0 ¡ qm1 g exp ¡ 1 ¡ exp ¡ ; (18)
Wp n0 n0
where Wp is the mass ow rate of particles, qm0 and qm1 are the charge-to-mass
ratio at x D 0 and x D 1, respectively. n is the number of particle collisions and
n0 is the relaxation number. When x D 0, (18) becomes:
´¼
I n.1x/
D fqm0 ¡ qm1 g 1 ¡ exp ¡ : (19)
Wp n0
Electrostatics of particles 153
2.4.1. Probability density function of particle collision with the wall inside.
Assuming that the probability density function of particle collision is expressed as
a normal distribution, which is derived from a binomial distribution, and also using
the relationship between the number of particle collision and the particle charge, the
154 S. Matsusaka and H. Masuda
probability density function of the charge to mass ratio f1 .qm / is represented by:
2 n ± o2 3
qm ¡ qm0 ²
6 q m1 ln 1 C ¡Nnk 7
qm1 1 qm1 ¡ qm
f1 .qm / D p exp 6
4 ¡ 7 ; (26)
5
qm1 ¡ qm 2¼ nk N N
2nk 2
where nN is the mean number of particle collisions and k is the impact charging factor
.D qm1 =n 0 /. When qm0 D 0 and jqm j ¿ jqm1 j in the early stages of the particle
charging, (26) is simplied as:
¼
1 .qm ¡ nk/
N 2
f1 .qm / ¼ p exp ¡ : (27)
N
2¼ nk N 2
2nk
Z qm1
f2 .qm / D f1 .qm /fic .qm0 / dqm0
¡1
qm1 1
D q
qm1 ¡ qm 2¼.nk N 2 C ¾02 /
2 n ± ² o2 3
qm
6 q m1 ln 1 C ¡ N
nk 7
qm1 ¡ qm
£ exp 6
4 ¡ 7;
5 (28)
N C ¾0 /
2.nk 2 2
where ¾0 is the standard deviation of the initial charge. When jqm j ¿ jqm1 j, (28)
is simplied as:
( )
1 .qm ¡ nk/
N 2
f2 .qm / ¼ q exp ¡ : (29)
N 2 C ¾ 2/
2¼.nk N 2 C ¾02 /
2.nk
0
Figure 7. Effect of the mean number of particle collisions nN on the charge distribution (qm1 D
¡6 mC/ kg, qm0 D 0 mC/ kg, ¾0 D 0:3 mC/ kg, k D ¡0:2 mC/ kg).
2.4.3. Probability density function of impact charging factor. The impact charg-
ing factor k is not always constant, i.e. it depends on electrostatic properties, particle
impact velocity, particle diameter, surface roughness, angle of incidence, etc. In the
same manner as (28), the probability density function of particle charge f3 .qm / is
represented by:
Z 1
f3 .qm / D f2 .qm /fk .k/ dk; (30)
¡1
where fk .k/ is the probability density function of the impact charging factor.
Assuming that fk .k/ is represented by a normal distribution, (30) becomes:
Z 1
qm1 1
f3 .qm / D q
¡1 qm1 ¡ qm 2¼.nk N 2 C ¾02 /
2 n ± qm ² o2 3
6 q m1 ln 1 C ¡ N
nk 7
qm1 ¡ qm 7
£ exp 6
4 ¡ 5
N 2 C ¾02 /
2.nk
¼
1 N 2
.k ¡ k/
£p exp ¡ dk
2¼ ¾k 2¾k2
156 S. Matsusaka and H. Masuda
Z 1
qm1 1 1
D q
qm1 ¡ qm 2¼ ¾k ¡1 nk N 2 C ¾02
2 n ± ² o2 3
qm
6 q m1 ln 1 C ¡ N
nk N 27
qm1 ¡ qm .k ¡ k/
£ exp 6
4 ¡ ¡ 7 dk; (31)
N 2 C ¾02 /
2.nk 2¾k2 5
Figure 8. Effect of the standard deviation of the impact charging factor ¾k on charge distribution
(¾ 0 D 0:3 mC/ kg, nN D 3:0; kN D ¡0:2 mC / kg).
Figure 9. Comparison between experimental data and theoretical curves (y ash: Dp50 D 12¹m;
(E) uN D 77 m/ s, 1x D 0:5 m; (n) uN D 58 m/ s, 1x D 2:0 m [44].
Electrostatics of particles 157
where kN and ¾k are the mean value and the standard deviation of the impact charging
factor, respectively. When jqm j ¿ jqm1 j, (31) is simplied as:
Z 1 ( )
1 1 .qm ¡ nk/
N 2 N 2
.k ¡ k/
f3 .qm / ¼ q exp ¡ ¡ dk: (32)
2¼ ¾k ¡1 .nk N 2 C ¾02 / N 2 C ¾02 /
2.nk 2¾k2
Figure 8 shows the effect of the standard deviation of the impact charging factor
¾k on the charge distribution. The charge distributions for ¾k D 0 and for ¾k 6D 0
are calculated using (29) and (32), respectively. The shape of the distribution curve
becomes skewed as the value of ¾k increases, i.e. the tail on the left-hand side of the
distribution curve becomes larger.
Figure 9 shows typical examples of the results for the charge distribution of
particles. The values of particle charge are widely distributed, including positive
charge as well as negative charge, and the distributions are skewed, i.e. there is
a longer tail on the left-hand side. Calculated lines are also added to Fig. 9. The
experimental data agree well with the theoretical curves taking into account the
distribution of the impact charging factor.
3.1.2. CPD. The CPD directly controls the contact charging as mentioned in
Section 2.1. In fact, the surface of materials is not pure and is usually covered with
an oxide lm, and thus the CPD of the materials used may differ from the values
shown in literature. To measure the CPD between a powder and a wall, a measuring
system based on the Kelvin – Zisman method was developed [40, 46, 47]. The
measuring system is shown in Fig. 10. This system has an electric circuit in which
there is a capacitor made up of two electrodes, a DC supply and an electrometer in
series. Powder is lled in the concavity of the lower electrode and upper electrode
158 S. Matsusaka and H. Masuda
Figure 10. Measurement of the CPD based on the Kelvin– Zisman method.
Figure 11. Characterizationof the coated particles by the Kelvin– Zisman method [47].
made of gold oscillates vertically. When the voltage applied on the upper electrode
is equal to the potential difference between the powder and the upper electrode, the
induced currents detected by the electrometer become zero. Hereafter, the applied
voltage is called a zero-point potential V0 , which is expressed by the following
equation:
½c dl2
V0 D VP=Au C ; (33)
2"p
where VP=Au is the CPD between the powder and gold reference, ½c is the charge
density, dl is the thickness of the powder layer, and "p is the absolute permittivity
of the powder layer. When the charge of the powder layer is sufciently small
.½c ¼ 0/; V0 is equal to VP=Au. Figure 11 shows an example of the measurements
Electrostatics of particles 159
for analyzing the CPD of coated particles. The value of the CPD varies according
to the thickness of the coat, i.e. the value approaches that of the coating material
as the thickness increases. In addition, various studies such as evaluation of toners
[40] and particles with different functional groups [48], and analysis of the effect of
temperature and humidity [49] have also been carried out using the method.
4. PROCESS
Figure 12. Electric current generated from a detecting pipe as a function of powder ow rate (quartz
sand: D p50 D 320 ¹m [43].
transferred from the particles to the wall ows to the ground, and can be detected
as electric currents. The currents are caused by the particle charging in the pipe
and thus the value of the current should be proportional to the particle ow rate.
As shown in Fig. 12, a linear relationship is obtained experimentally [43]. This
relationship is also explained by (18), where the right-hand side term must be a
constant. In general, this is satised in dilute and high-speed conveying systems.
As for dense-phase conveying systems, the surrounding particles prevent the free
contacts between the particles and the wall; as a result, the currents are less than
those expected under ideal conditions. Using smaller particles, the adhesiveness
also prevents free contacts. In addition, the initial charge on the particles affects the
charge transfer (see (18)). In fact, the particles collide with many different walls
before arriving at the pipe, e.g. hopper, feeder, chute, disperser, etc., and hence the
polarity and the amount of the particle charge change according to the operating
condition. To estimate the charge transferred from the particles to the wall, the
initial charge has to be known beforehand.
5. APPLICATIONS
Figure 13. A novel method for measuring the particle ow rate.
charge is not so easy. If the particle ow rate is determined from only the electric
currents, it is very convenient for the measurement. Figure 13 shows a method for
measuring the particle ow rate [52, 53]. The system has two different detecting
pipes connected in series with electrical isolation. The charge balances for the rst
and the second detecting pipes are given by the following equations, respectively:
I1
D a1 qm0 C b1 ; (36)
Wp
and:
I2
D a2 qm1 C b2 ; (37)
Wp
where I is the electric current, Wp is the particle ow rate, qm is the charge per
unit mass of particles at the inlet of each detecting pipe, a and b are constants, and
subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the rst and second detecting pipes, respectively. Since
the charge at the outlet of the rst pipe is equal to that at the inlet of the second pipe,
the charge balance is expressed as:
I1
qm0 ¡ qm1 D : (38)
Wp
From (36)– (38), the powder ow rate Wp is given by the following equation:
here:
.a1 ¡ 1/a2
cD ; (40)
a1 b2 ¡ a2 b1
and:
a1
dD : (41)
a1 b2 ¡ a2 b1
In (40) and (41), the denominator of the right-hand side must not be zero. Therefore,
the electrostatic property of the rst detecting pipe must differ from that of the
second, i.e.:
b1 b2
6D : (42)
a1 a2
Figure 14 shows the electric currents generated from the two detecting pipes. The
polarity of the currents is determined by the relative electrostatic property between
particles and the wall. Since particles are fed continuously into the pipe, the currents
almost keep constant. The responsiveness in this system is so high that a small
uctuation of the feed rate can be detected as the variation of the current. Figure 15
shows the results on the measurement of the particle ow rate. The relative error
is less than 10%. This system can be applied to even polymer particles over wide
range [54].
Figure 14. Electric currents generated from the two detecting pipes [52].
Electrostatics of particles 163
Figure 15. Comparison between the online method and weighing method [52].
Figure 16. Comparison between the online method and Faraday cage method [52].
The above system can be applied to the measurement of particle charge. From
(36)– (38), the following equation is derived:
.b2 ¡ a2 b1 /I1 ¡ b1 I2
qm0 D : (43)
a2 .a1 ¡ 1/I1 C a1 I2
164 S. Matsusaka and H. Masuda
Figure 16 shows the comparison between the values obtained by this online method
and those obtained by the Faraday cage method.
6. CONCLUSION
Contact charging is usually classied into three categories according to the contact-
ing materials. For metal – metal contacts, the charge transferred can be explained by
the CPD. As for metal – insulator contacts and insulator– insulator contacts, many
other factors affect the charge transfer. When a linear relationship between the
transferred charge and the work function is obtained experimentally, it is very prob-
able that the charging will occur by means of electron transfer and the CPD plays
an important role. When a particle impacts on a metal wall, the charge transfer
depends on the total potential difference, including the effect of the initial charge.
The charge transferred is approximately proportional to the contact area. When the
particle deforms elastically, the charge can be estimated theoretically. The particle
charging caused by repeated impacts on a metal wall can be expressed using an
equation with exponential functions. This theoretical analysis can be extended to
the particle charging in gas– solids pipe ow, where the charge transferred per unit
time, i.e. electric current, is an important evaluation factor. Since many particles
ow in the pipe, the charge on particles is widely scattered. The charge distribution
can be explained by introducing the probability density functions of (i) the num-
ber of particle collision, (ii) the initial charge on the particles and (iii) the amount
of charge transferred by an impact. In addition to the theoretical study, extensive
experimental studies have been carried out. Various measuring techniques to char-
acterize the electrostatic properties and charge transferred have been developed, and
some of them are used widely in the laboratory and industry.
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