applied

sciences
Article
The Combined Effect of Calcium Chloride and Cement on
Expansive Soil Materials
Abdullah Almajed , Muawia Dafalla * and Abdullah A. Shaker

Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800,
Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia; alabduallah@ksu.edu.sa (A.A.); ashaker@ksu.edu.sa (A.A.S.)
* Correspondence: mdafalla@ksu.edu.sa

Abstract: In this study, the chemical stabilization of moderately to highly plastic expansive soil using
calcium chloride with added cement is introduced as an effective alternative to the conventional
approaches using a single additive such as lime, cement, or a by-product of industrial processes. Using
only calcium chloride may lead to its leaching or dissolution over time, leaving a collapsing skeleton
with weak bonds. The chemical effect produced by additives is dependent on the constituents of
the stabilized soil and the curing period considered. Herein, calcium chloride concentrations of 2%,
4%, and 8% with the addition of 2% cement by dry weight of the soil were considered. The main
objective of this study is to investigate the addition of a low amount of cement as a binder to improve
the strength and durability of a chemically treated expansive soil. The engineering properties were
investigated at 3 curing times: 3 days, 7 days, and 28 days. A laboratory investigation was carried
out to investigate the effect of the addition of calcium chloride with cement on the swell potential,
swell pressure, compression index, suction, and unconfined compressive strength. Scanning electron
microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) testing was conducted. The X-ray
diffraction patterns were recorded to observe the mineralogy of the material. The results confirmed
that calcium chloride with cement is very effective for stabilizing the expansive soil. A reduction
in the swell potential by 8% and 25% and a reduction in swelling pressure by 28% and 37.4% were
observed for 4% and 8% calcium chloride with cement addition. The compression index decreased
with the increase in the calcium chloride content.

Citation: Almajed, A.; Dafalla, M.;

Keywords: calcium chloride; cement; clay; chemistry; expansive soil material; stabilization
Shaker, A.A. The Combined Effect of
Calcium Chloride and Cement on
Expansive Soil Materials. Appl. Sci.
2023, 13, 4811. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app13084811
1. Introduction
Expansive soils are clays that contain a large amount of expanding minerals and
Academic Editor: José António
are prone to swelling and contracting in response to changes in moisture content. This
Correia
can cause significant problems and damage such as the cracking of walls and settling
Received: 8 March 2023 of foundations. Calcium chloride is a salt known for attracting moisture when mixed
Revised: 9 April 2023 with wet soil. Removing moisture from expansive clay material can increase strength and
Accepted: 10 April 2023 improve stability.
Published: 11 April 2023 The addition of cement to the soil, either in the form of Portland cement or another
type of hydraulic cement, can further improve the stability of the soil. The cement reacts
with the soil particles to form a stable matrix that helps to bind the soil particles together
and increases the strength of the soil.
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
The chemical stabilization of expansive soil is related to an added material that can
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
react with the soil in the presence of water. This reaction can improve the swelling and
This article is an open access article
shrinking characteristics as well as the soil’s physical and mechanical properties. Re-
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
searchers and practicing engineers are well aware that lime and cement are predominantly
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
used for chemical stabilization. However, the amount of additives and the level of sta-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ bilization are dependent on the mineralogy of the expansive soil, in addition to other
4.0/). various placement conditions. The cost and the processes of mixing constitute a major

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13084811 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 2 of 16

issue in chemical stabilization methods. The advantages and disadvantages of using a

particular stabilizer must be determined and evaluated by an experienced geotechnical
engineer. Currently, lime is typically used as a common stabilizer as it costs less than other
strong binders such as cement. Vast areas in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are affected
by expansive soils. Expansive soils are reported in the east, north, northwest, and central
areas of the country. The threats and damage caused by this type of soil to structures and
foundations include uplift, twist, cracking, overturning, and collapse. The use of chemical
stabilization can improve subgrade soils that support major roads and highways in the
northern and north-western parts of the country. Extensive research was conducted on the
use of chemical stabilizers for expansive soils. Studies reporting the use of lime have been
published since the middle of the 20th Century. McDowell [1] surveyed the soil stabiliza-
tion process using lime, lime-fly-ash, and other lime-reactive minerals. Lime enhances the
geotechnical properties of the stabilized soil by reducing its moisture content and plasticity
index. The formation of flocculated soil particles takes place due to hydration and cation
exchange capacity. Sherwood [2] stated that adding quick lime to wet soil reduces its
moisture content by nearly one-third. Liu et al. [3] found that adding lime improves the
strength and compaction characteristics rapidly in the early stages of curing and continues
to improve at a slow rate in longer curing periods. Wang et al. [4] investigated the addition
of 3% and 9% lime to marine sediments and found that the plasticity index is reduced and
unconfined compressive strength is increased. Barman and Dash (2022) [5] conducted a
review on expansive soil stabilization using chemical additives. They also observed that
the stabilization process occurs as a result of hydration and cation exchange. Pozzolanic
reactions can cause soils to flocculate and form stiff lumps and particles. The minimum
lime content required to maintain high pH value (pH = 12.40) in the soil–lime mixture is
recommended as the percentage represented the optimum lime content (Eades and Grim,
1966) [6]. The amount of lime required to achieve significant improvement varies from
5% to 10% according to the US Army Corps of Engineers, 1994 [7]. Other research stud-
ies [8–16] reported that the addition of CaCl2 can increase the initial and long-term strength
of constructed roadbed materials and improve their durability due to cation exchange and
flocculation of soil particles.
Chemical treatments using a single product may be associated with some deficiencies,
such as a slow reaction process or leachability in a wet environment. Lime or calcium
chloride-treated soils are frequently prone to the leaching of the additive, leading to less
concentration of the stabilizer and leaving some voids that affect the general mixture
performance [17]. The decrease in the rate of pozzolanic reactions and increase in hydraulic
conductivity can be influenced by the dose of the additive and the mineralogy of the soil.
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is expected to hold particles together when some parts
of calcium chloride are washed out. The microstructure and interaction between the clay
particles and cement can be observed by high magnification scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) images. The formation of voids within expansive soils, if not excessive, may help in
reducing the swell pressure and swell potential.
Zumrawi et al. [18,19] investigated the effect of the addition of chloride salts on the
index properties of expansive soils as well as the extent of reduction in swell pressure and
swell potential for other selected chloride salts (e.g., AlCl3 , FeCl3 , and NH4 Cl). Calcium
chloride salt can absorb water greater than its weight, and in a highly humid environment,
calcium chloride can absorb water greater than 16 times its weight [20]. This property
can reduce the exposure of expansive clay to water, thereby decreasing the expansion and
swelling. As calcium chloride is a soluble salt, it creates voids and spaces for swelling to
occur internally. Murty and Padavala [21] stated that the plasticity index of the clay bed
decreased by 7–15% and 40–60% with lime and calcium chloride treatments, respectively.
The use of combined additives including calcium chloride is rare in the literature. The
works of Suresh and Murugaiyan [22] suggested using calcium chloride and alccofine.
This study is aimed at using a small amount of cement (2%) to improve the calcium
chloride stabilization of expansive soil. The combined effect of the two stabilizers is
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 3 of 16

presented as an alternative to a single additive. Higher cement content needed for good
stabilization may result in a stiff and non-workable soil mixture.
The use of a low amount of the strong binder (2%) is suggested for two reasons.
(1) The higher amount of cement is expected to produce very stiff lumps that are not easily
compacted. Moreover, the delay of compaction may be a significant factor that affects field
operations. (2) The cost of using excessive cement as an additional binder will impact the
budget of the stabilization process.
Legas, 2022 [23], considered using cement at 2% as a cementing agent to the PUMICE
foam additive to expansive soils. The plasticity index was reduced by nearly 30% when
2% cement and 12% PUMICE foam material is added.
Al-Jabban, 2019 [24], confirmed that the addition of cement has immediate and long-
term effects on the consistency limits and improves the strength and stiffness of the un-
treated soil.
The call for using a low amount of a strong binder, namely, cement along with the
calcium chloride is expected to perform well and reduce the level of leaching by preventing
the disintegration of weakly cemented lumps formed as a result of the pozzolanic reaction.
Calcium chloride with little cement is expected to give better results than other stabi-
lization methods using lime or calcium chloride alone. This research is conducted using
highly plastic expansive soil obtained from Al-Qatif region in the eastern province of
Saudi Arabia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
2.1.1. General
Many parts of semi-arid zones in the Arabian Peninsula may include clay with high
plasticity that is rich in smectite minerals. These clays can be very harmful to light structures
when water is introduced or removed, as in wetting and drying. The Al-Qatif clay used
herein was obtained from the eastern parts of Saudi Arabia, representing the highest
swelling soils in the region. The other materials used included cement and pure calcium
chloride salt.

2.1.2. Al-Qatif Clay

Herein, unprocessed clay was used, and natural swelling clay was obtained from
Al-Qatif city (coordinates; 26.5764917, 49.9982360), which is known to be composed of
highly plastic green to dark brown clay. The city is located along the shoreline of the
Arabian Gulf. It is about 400 km to the east of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The properties
and swelling characteristics of Al-Qatif were extensively investigated [25–31]. All studies
confirmed that the Al-Qatif clay is highly expansive due to its mineralogy and the amount
of smectite mineral content. Tables 1 and 2 present the physical and chemical compositions
of Al-Qatif clay, respectively. The liquid limit was measured in the range of 130 to 150,
while the plasticity index varied from 70 to 80. This is classified as CH (highly plastic clays
in accordance with the unified classification system, USCS).

Table 1. The physical properties of the Al-Qatif clay. After [27].

Property Range
Material passing sieve number 200 >90%
Liquid Limit % 130–150
Plastic Limit % 60–70
Plasticity Index 70–80
Maximum Dry Density (kN/m3 ) 11.5–12
Optimum Moisture Content 32–40%
Swell percent (ASTM D4546) 16–18%
Swelling pressure (ASTM D4546) 500–800 kN/m2 (γ = 12 kN/m3 )
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 4 of 16

Table 2. The chemical composition of the Al-Qatif clay. After [27].

K+ K2 O Al Al2 O3 Si SiO2 Ca2+ CaO

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1.8 2.2 3.3 6.3 8.1 17.3 0.7 0.9

2.1.3. Calcium Chloride

Pure calcium chloride was used in this study, which is an inorganic powder that is
typically placed in a sealed, tight jar due to its anhydrous nature. White calcium chloride
salt was used, with a 98% purity as stated by the manufacturer. The boiling point of
calcium chloride is known to be high, i.e., >1900 ◦ C. Calcium chloride exhibits several
applications and it is frequently used for de-icing or dehumidification. In addition, it is
used in road surfacing to reduce deterioration and render a wet appearance to the road or
pavement surface.

2.1.4. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was used as an additive in all of the experiments,
which is a grey powder produced by heating limestone and clay. Its main constituents
include calcium oxide, silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, and ferric oxides. This material is
classified as Type I in ASTM C150 [32]. The properties of Ordinary Portland Cement were
investigated by Azmee et al. [33] and many others. The chemical properties of the local
Portland Cement used in this study are given in Table 3.

Table 3. The chemical properties of a typical OPC.

Oxides Percentages
SiO2 19.97
Al2 O3 5.55
Fe2 O3 3.96
TiO2 0.36
MnO 0.06
MgO 0.75
CaO 65.98
Na2 O 0.08
K2 O 0.13
P2 O5 0.05
SO3 3.08
L.O.I. 4.00

2.2. Testing Methods

2.2.1. Selecting Cement Dose and Sample Preparation
The testing program involved initial trials to investigate the possible concentrations of
cement and calcium chloride that were likely to provide good results and were economical
to use. Cement is a well-known stabilizer, but the addition of high amounts of cement will
make the soil so rigid and it is non-reusable material, apart from being expensive. The
initial addition of 1% cement led to minor improvements. The addition of 2% was selected
based on previous studies [34]. This amount will not significantly affect the stabilization
cost, and it will be sufficient to enhance the stabilization using calcium chloride. The clay
samples were oven dried for 24 h and mixed with different proportions of calcium chloride
powder to form mixtures of 4%, 6%, and 8% by dry weight of the sample. A further
2% cement by the dry weight of clay was added to each sample. The prepared samples
were mixed with distilled to achieve a 32% water content and placed in an oedometer ring
in three layers by hand tamping, to achieve a dry unit weight of 12 kN/m3 . The water
content and dry unit weight were selected to be close to the optimum values of Al-Qatif
clay. Samples were then kept in plastic bags for curing. A curing time of 3, 7, and 28 days
was considered for this study.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 5 of 16

2.2.2. Oedometer Tests

A one-dimensional swelling test was carried out using a conventional oedometer
equipped with displacement sensors and semi-automatic loading control. The tests were
conducted in accordance with ASTM D4546-03 [35] (method A). Samples were prepared as
given Section 2.2.1. In this method, the sample was allowed to become wet and allowed to
swell vertically at a seating pressure until the primary swell was complete. The sample was
then loaded in increments and the compression was noted until it was brought down to its
original height. The test was then completed as a consolidation test. This method was found
to give higher swelling pressure values than the constant volume method [36]. All samples
were prepared at an optimum moisture content of 32% and a maximum dry density of
12 kN/m3 . All samples tested included 2% cement and the addition of calcium chloride of
4%, 6%, or 8%. As all samples include 2% cement, the curing time was important, and all
samples were subjected to curing times of 3 days, 7 days, and 28 days.

2.2.3. Soil Suction

Suction pressure is closely related to swelling and expansion; hence, suction tests were
conducted using the selected stabilization mixtures at the three curing times stated above.
The samples were prepared as given in Section 2.2.1. The suction tests were carried out
using dew point testing equipment (WP4C). This device measures water potential using
the humidity of the air above a sample in a sealed chamber.

2.2.4. Unconfined Compression

Unconfined compression tests with stress-strain measurements were conducted for
all samples at the selected curing times. The samples were prepared as described in
Section 2.2.1 and placed in molds 38 mm in diameter and a 76 mm height. Using hand
tamping to achieve the selected dry density. A universal frame attached with displacement
and load sensors connected to a data logger was used.

2.2.5. Scanning Electron Microscope

To view the fabric forms of the clay mixed with calcium chloride and cement, five
micrographs were examined using an SEM equipped with EDX. The samples prepared
for SEM testing were cut into small pieces to fit a specific mold size. To maintain the
intact fabric, the saturated samples were dried using the freeze-drying technique. The
SEM was employed to observe the microfabric features under different magnifications.
The experiments were conducted on the JOEL apparatus (Model JSM-7600F) operated
at 5–10 kV with a resolution of 3.00 nm. The SEM images recorded the existing spread
of environmental-pollution diseases due to Portland cement industries: green nano clay
applications at 1000× and 10,000× magnifications. The first magnification of 1000× is
aimed at viewing the repeated features of pores within a selected area, while the higher
magnification of 10,000× is aimed at viewing the particle shape and edge-to-edge contact
features. Figure 13 shows the SEM micrographs of all the mixtures of clay with calcium
chloride and cement.

2.2.6. X-ray Diffraction

Two samples were examined for X-ray diffraction. The first one is an oven-dry Al-Qatif
clay with 2% cement and the second one is an oven-dry Al-Qatif clay including both cement
and calcium chloride (2% cement and 8% calcium chloride). The samples were mounted in
aluminum frames, before being subjected to radiation. This study was only qualitative and
reflected typical peaks with variations in the peak intensities. The radiation was produced
using a Cu target at a voltage of 40 kV and a current of 30 mA. Clear peaks were not
observed in the 2 θ region of 5 to 15 θ, but the smectite group and clay minerals present
were affected by high-intensity peak located at 2 θ value of less than 5 θ.
 Two  samples  were  examined  for  X‐ray  diffraction.  The  first  one  is  an  oven‐dry 
Al‐Qatif clay with 2% cement and the second one is an oven‐dry Al‐Qatif clay including 
both  cement  and  calcium  chloride  (2%  cement  and  8%  calcium  chloride).  The  samples 
were mounted in aluminum frames, before being subjected to radiation. This study was 
only qualitative and reflected typical peaks with variations in the peak intensities. The ra‐
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 6 of 16
diation was produced using a Cu target at a voltage of 40 kV and a current of 30 mA. Clear 
peaks were not observed in the 2  θ region of 5 to 15 θ, but the smectite group and clay 
minerals present were affected by high‐intensity peak located at 2 θ value of less than 5 θ. 
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion 
The swell potential is a direct measure of the effect of calcium chloride with cement on
The swell potential is a direct measure of the effect of calcium chloride with cement 
the behavior of naturally expansive clay, which is well demonstrated in Figures 1 and 2. A
on the behavior of naturally expansive clay, which is well demonstrated in Figures 1 and 
short curing period of 3 days was not sufficient to afford the required reduction in the swell
2. A short curing period of 3 days was not sufficient to afford the required reduction in 
potential of clay with calcium chloride contents of 4% and 6%. Notably, the curing period
the  swell  potential  of  clay  with  calcium  chloride  contents  of  4%  and  6%.  Notably,  the 
was crucial for the clay with the added 2% cement. An improvement in swell behavior
curing  period  was  crucial  for  the  clay  with  the  added  2%  cement.  An  improvement  in 
due to the addition of calcium chloride with cement is expressed as a reduction in the
swell behavior due to the addition of calcium chloride with cement is expressed as a re‐
swell
duction potential. An potential. 
in  the  swell  8% reduction
An  8% is reduction 
observedis for clay with
observed  for  4%
clay calcium
with  4% chloride
calcium  and a
25% reduction is observed with 8% calcium chloride. Samples prepared and cured for
chloride and a 25% reduction is observed with 8% calcium chloride. Samples prepared 
28 days were found to be not better than those cured for 7 days. Typically, a curing period
and cured for 28 days were found to be not better than those cured for 7 days. Typically, a 
of 7 days for concrete produces greater than 75% of the 28-day strength. Factors other than
curing period of 7 days for concrete produces greater than 75% of the 28‐day strength. 
curing can cause such conditions, which include the non-uniform distribution of additives
Factors other than curing can cause such conditions, which include the non‐uniform dis‐
or non-identical placement conditions. Generally, for the addition of up to 8% of calcium
tribution of additives or non‐identical placement conditions. Generally, for the addition 
of up to 8% of calcium chloride with cement, the higher the calcium chloride in the clay, 
chloride with cement, the higher the calcium chloride in the clay, the higher reduction in
the higher reduction in the swell potential. 
the swell potential.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811  7  of  17 

 
 
Figure 1. The variation of the swell potential versus the percentage of2CaCl
Figure 1. The variation of the swell potential versus the percentage of CaCl 2 (2% cement added).
 (2% cement added). 

 
Figure  2.
Figure 2.  The
The swell
swell  potential
potential  of  clay  treated
of clay treated  with
with  CaCl
CaCl22  (2% 
(2% cement 
cement added) 
added)at 
at different 
differentcuring 
curing times.
times. 

Reduction  in  the  swelling  pressure  by  37.4%  and  28%  was  observed  in  the  clay 
samples cured for 28 days for clay including calcium chloride and cement at 8% and 4%, 
respectively (Figures 3 and 4). 
  
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 7 of 16
Figure  2.  The  swell  potential  of  clay  treated  with  CaCl2  (2%  cement  added)  at  different  curing 
times. 

Reduction inin the
Reduction the  swelling 
swelling pressure 
pressure by  37.4% 
by 37.4% and was
and 28% 28%  was  observed 
observed in  the 
in the clay clay 
samples
samples cured for 28 days for clay including calcium chloride and cement at 8% and 4%, 
cured for 28 days for clay including calcium chloride and cement at 8% and 4%, respectively
respectively (Figures 3 and 4). 
(Figures 3 and 4).

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811  8  of  17 

 
 
Figure 3. The variation of the swell pressure versus the percentage of CaCl22 (2% cement added). 
Figure 3. The variation of the swell pressure versus the percentage of CaCl (2% cement added).

 
Figure 4. The swell pressure of clay treated with CaCl22 (2% cement added) at different curing times. 
Figure 4. The swell pressure of clay treated with CaCl (2% cement added) at different curing times.

The 2 was investigated for Al-

The compression
compression indexindex estimated
estimated  atat 
a stress of 200
a  stress  kN/m
of  200  kN/m 2  was  investigated  for 
Qatif clayclay 
Al‐Qatif  treated with with 
treated  4%, 6%,
4%, and6%, 8% calcium
and  chloride
8%  calcium  and 2%and 
chloride  cement. The compression
2%  cement.  The  com‐
index is decreased with the increase in the calcium chloride content. This result
pression index is decreased with the increase in the calcium chloride content. This result  indicated
that a higher strength is observed for the clay due to the cement and calcium chloride
indicated that a higher strength is observed for the clay due to the cement and calcium 
(Figures
chloride 5(Figures 
and 6). 5 It and 
is worth
6).  It noting that
is  worth  whenthat 
noting  adding
when anadding 
accelerator or a retarder
an  accelerator  tore‐
or  a  a
cement mixture, the time to develop the strength may not be uniform and depends
tarder  to  a  cement  mixture,  the  time  to  develop  the  strength  may  not  be  uniform  and on the
hydration taking place in the mixture.
depends on the hydration taking place in the mixture. 
 The  compression  index  estimated  at  a  stress  of  200  kN/m2  was  investigated  for 
Al‐Qatif  clay  treated  with  4%,  6%,  and  8%  calcium  chloride  and  2%  cement.  The  com‐
pression index is decreased with the increase in the calcium chloride content. This result 
indicated that a higher strength is observed for the clay due to the cement and calcium 
chloride  (Figures  5  and  6).  It  is  worth  noting  that  when  adding  an  accelerator  or  a  re‐
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 8 of 16
tarder  to  a  cement  mixture,  the  time  to  develop  the  strength  may  not  be  uniform  and 
depends on the hydration taking place in the mixture. 

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811  9  of  17 

 
 
Figure 5. Variations of the compression index versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added).
Figure 5. Variations of the compression index versus the percentage of CaCl2 (2% cement added). 

 
Figure
Figure  6. The compression 
6.  The  compression index 
index of 
of the
the  clay
clay  treated
treated  with
with CaCl (2% cement
CaCl22  (2%  cement  added)
added)  at
at  different
different 
curing times.
curing times. 

Increased
Increased  suction
suction  is
is  developed
developed  by the addition of
by the addition  of calcium
calcium  chloride, and suction
chloride, and  suction  is
is 
directly proportional to the percentage of the added calcium chloride (Figures 7 and 8).
directly proportional to the percentage of the added calcium chloride (Figures 7 and 8). 
Generally, a high suction is associated with high swelling clays, but the increases in suction
Generally, a high suction is associated with high swelling clays, but the increases in suc‐
do not necessarily causecause 
tion  do  not  necessarily  more more 
swelling. This isThis 
swelling.  due is 
todue 
the addition of cementing
to  the  addition  agents,
of  cementing 
which maintain strong particle-to-particle bonds [11]. The expansion will be arrested
agents, which maintain strong particle‐to‐particle bonds [11]. The expansion will be ar‐ even
at a high suction pressure. In some cases, a sulfate heave was reported to take place
rested even at a high suction pressure. In some cases, a sulfate heave was reported to take in clays
rich in sulfate and sulfide (>3000 ppm) by the stabilization of clays using calcium-based
place in clays rich in sulfate and sulfide (>3000 ppm) by the stabilization of clays using 
additives [11,37].
calcium‐based additives [11,37]. 
 directly proportional to the percentage of the added calcium chloride (Figures 7 and 8). 
Generally, a high suction is associated with high swelling clays, but the increases in suc‐
tion  do  not  necessarily  cause  more  swelling.  This  is  due  to  the  addition  of  cementing 
agents, which maintain strong particle‐to‐particle bonds [11]. The expansion will be ar‐
rested even at a high suction pressure. In some cases, a sulfate heave was reported to take 
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 place in clays rich in sulfate and sulfide (>3000 ppm) by the stabilization of clays using  9 of 16

calcium‐based additives [11,37]. 

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811  10  of  17 

 
 
Figure 7. The variation of suction versus the percentage of CaCl22 (2% cement added). 
Figure 7. The variation of suction versus the percentage of CaCl (2% cement added).

 
Figure 8. The suction of the clay treated with CaCl22 (2% cement added) at different curing times. 
Figure 8. The suction of the clay treated with CaCl (2% cement added) at different curing times.

Stabilizers containing calcium can increase the pH, leading to the dissolution of
Stabilizers containing calcium can increase the pH, leading to the dissolution of clay 
clay minerals and the formation of Ettringite minerals as a result of the combination of
minerals and the formation of Ettringite minerals as a result of the combination of sulfate 
sulfate minerals,
minerals,  water,
water,  and  and calcium.
calcium.  This mineral
This  mineral  can
can  swell  swell
more  more
than  two than two
times  its times its
original 
original
volume.  volume.
From the investigation of the compressive strength and the stress–strain behavior, the
From the investigation of the compressive strength and the stress–strain behavior, 
unconfined compressive strength is slightly reduced by the addition of a high content of
the unconfined compressive strength is slightly reduced by the addition of a high content 
calcium chloride. The loss of strength is expected because calcium chloride is a soluble
of calcium chloride. The loss of strength is expected because calcium chloride is a soluble 
salt and can slowly dissolve in water. As a result, voids can form within the soil mass,
salt and can slowly dissolve in water. As a result, voids can form within the soil mass, 
which can provide room for the soil to swell, and this phenomenon is reflected as an overall
which  can  provide  room  for  the  soil  to  swell,  and  this  phenomenon  is  reflected  as  an 
reduction in the heave. The slight reduction in strength is not a serious issue compared
overall  reduction  in  the  heave.  The  slight  reduction  in  strength  is  not  a  serious  issue 
to swelling and expansion. With cement, only the strength of the clay was increased, and
compared to swelling and expansion. With cement, only the strength of the clay was in‐
it reached its maximum at a curing period of 28 days, but with the addition of calcium
creased, and it reached its maximum at a curing period of 28 days, but with the addition 
chloride, the compressive strength was lower (Figures 9 and 10). The influence of 7- and
of calcium chloride, the compressive strength was lower (Figures 9 and 10). The influence 
28-day curing periods on the stress versus axial strain is shown in Figures 11 and 12.
of 7‐ and 28‐day curing periods on the stress versus axial strain is shown in Figures 11 
and 12. 

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811  11  of  17
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 
 
which  can  provide  room  for  the  soil  to  swell,  and  this  phenomenon  is  reflected  as  an 
overall  reduction  in  the  heave.  The  slight  reduction  in  strength  is  not  a  serious  issue 
compared to swelling and expansion. With cement, only the strength of the clay was in‐
creased, and it reached its maximum at a curing period of 28 days, but with the addition 
of calcium chloride, the compressive strength was lower (Figures 9 and 10). The influence 
of 7‐ and 28‐day curing periods on the stress versus axial strain is shown in Figures 11  10 of 16
and 12. 
 
11  of  17 
Figure 9. Variations of UCS versus the percentage of CaCl22(2%
Figure 9. Variations of UCS versus the percentage of CaCl cement added).
 (2% cement added). 
Figure 10. UCS of the clay treated with CaCl2 and 2% cement at different curing times. 
Figure 10. UCS of the clay treated with CaCl
Figure 10. UCS of the clay treated with CaCl22 and 2% cement at different curing times. 
and 2% cement at different curing times.
Figure 11. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 7 days.
Figure 11. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 7 days. 
Figure 11. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 7 days. 
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811   11 of 16
Figure 11. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 7 days. 

 
Figure 12. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 28 days.
Figure 12. Stress versus axial strain at a curing period of 28 days. 
The EDX chemical estimates for the points viewed by SEM indicated that the chloride
content (computed as KCl) increases with the calcium chloride content. The other chemical
compositions varied slightly. Table 4 summarizes the EDX results and the chemistry of clay
at the points viewed. The SEM images with 1000× and 10,000× magnification for clays
with cement and calcium chloride indicated typical flakes and particle-to-particle contact.
The Al-Qatif dry clay particles are shown as twisted flakes and voids shown in black are
dominant. With the increase in the calcium chloride content, the crinkled particle nature
of clay with cement becomes flatter, and the pore intensity decreased (Figure 13). Square
marks are added to some images to highlight the twisted and flattened flake conditions.

Table 4. Chemical composition of Al-Qatif clay with 2% cement and different % CaCl2 .

Chemical MgO Al2 O3 SiO2 KCI CaSiO3 FeS2 Fe2 O3 CaCO3

Compound (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
0% CaCl2 4.23 6.79 22.8 0.31 5.91 0.6 5.63 -
4% CaCl2 3.65 6.48 22.07 2.27 6.04 0.86 4.72 3.16
6% CaCl2 3.92 6.43 21.53 2.97 6.48 0.9 5.21 -
8% CaCl2 3.63 5.83 19.5 3.6 6.21 0.67 4.58 -

The mineralogy as detected by the XRD patterns shown in Figure 14 indicated the
similarity of peaks for treated and untreated clay. The pozzolanic compounds formed
due to cement were not reflected in Figure 14, but the peaks expected at a 2 θ value of
35 may be affected by a neighboring high-intensity peak. Notably, the background intensity
in Figure 14 increased at 2 θ values ranging from 5 to 15, and reduced at 2 θ, ranging
from 20 to 40 compared to Figure 14. The intensity corresponds to quantities, and the
addition of the calcium chloride affects the mineral concentrations, leading to different
peak intensities. The peaks corresponding to chlorite, illite, mica, and quartz were visible.
The peaks corresponding to newly formed pozzolanic compounds were not detected. The
mineralogy remained unchanged for all of the different mixtures. Figure 14 shows the
typical charts indicating the detected peak intensities.
Using calcium chloride and cement together can help in controlling the moisture and
stabilizing the mix. The cement provides additional strength and stabilization. This combi-
nation of materials can be particularly effective in improving the stability and performance
of soils in construction projects, such as light structure foundations, roadways, and other
structures built on hazardous expansive soils.
 The EDX chemical estimates for the points viewed by SEM indicated that the chlo‐
ride  content  (computed  as  KCl)  increases  with  the  calcium  chloride  content.  The  other 
chemical  compositions  varied  slightly.  Table  4  summarizes  the  EDX  results  and  the 
chemistry of clay at the points viewed. The SEM images with 1000× and 10,000× magni‐
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 fication  for  clays  with  cement  and  calcium  chloride  indicated  typical  flakes  and  12
parti‐
of 16
cle‐to‐particle  contact.  The  Al‐Qatif  dry  clay  particles  are  shown  as  twisted  flakes  and 
voids shown in black are dominant. With the increase in the calcium chloride content, the 
crinkled particle nature of clay with cement becomes flatter, and the pore intensity de‐
The practical implication of this study includes a new choice for the treatment method
creased (Figure 13). Square marks are added to some images to highlight the twisted and 
that is likely cheaper and more effective compared to a single additive approach. The
flattened flake conditions. 
future directions can be fine-tuned to obtain the optimum combination that is suitable for
each region of different mineralogy. The optimum calcium chloride content for use in the
Table 4. Chemical composition of Al‐Qatif clay with 2% cement and different % CaCl
stabilization of expansive soils is dependent on many factors, including the2.type  
of soil,
mineralogy, and
Chemical  MgO  the desired level of stabilization.
Al2O3  SiO2  KCI    CaSiO3  FeS2  Fe2O3  CaCO3 
The treatment
Compound  (%) methods
(%) conducted
(%)  to (%) 
improve(%) 
the quality
(%)  of construction
(%)  materials
(%) 
in 0% CaCl
general 2has
 
been
4.23 
an active
6.79 
continuing
22.8 
research
0.31 
area
5.91 
in recent
0.6 
years
5.63 
[38,39]. Recent
‐ 
studies also included the works of Dafalla [40], covering the effect of fluid chemistry on the
4% CaCl2  3.65  6.48  22.07  2.27  6.04  0.86  4.72  3.16 
hydraulic properties of clays. It is worth mentioning that the initial addition of 1% cement
6% CaCl2  3.92  6.43  21.53  2.97  6.48  0.9  5.21  ‐ 
led to minor improvements. The addition of 2% was selected based on previous studies.
8% CaCl2  3.63  5.83  19.5  3.6  6.21  0.67  4.58  ‐ 
The more cement added, the more the improvement in strength and rigidity. Adding higher
amounts of cement will cause the paste to be more rigid and stiff and it will not be easily
 
compacted on site.

a 

Flaky Particles 

   

b 

   
Figure 13. Cont.
 Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 13 
13of 
of 17 
16
 

c 

   

d 

   

e 

Flattened Particles 

   
Figure 13. The SEM images of samples (a) for Al-Qatif clay pure, (b) with 2% cement, (c) for 2% cement
Figure  13.  The  SEM images of samples (a) for Al‐Qatif clay pure, (b) with 2% cement, (c) for 2% 
+4% CaCl2 , (d) for 2% cement +6% CaCl2 , (e) for 2% cement +8% CaCl2 .
cement +4% CaCl2, (d) for 2% cement +6% CaCl2, (e) for 2% cement +8% CaCl2. 

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811
in  Figure  14  increased at 2  θ  values  ranging  from 5 to  15, and  reduced  at  2  θ,  ranging 
from  20  to  40  compared  to  Figure  14.  The  intensity  corresponds  to  quantities,  and  the 
addition of the calcium chloride affects the mineral concentrations, leading to different 
peak intensities. The peaks corresponding to chlorite, illite, mica, and quartz were visible. 
The  peaks  corresponding  to  newly  formed  pozzolanic  compounds  were  not  detected. 
The mineralogy remained unchanged for all of the different mixtures. Figure 14 shows  14 of 16
the typical charts indicating the detected peak intensities. 

Figure 14. The XRD profile for Al-Qatif natural clay compared with the addition of 2% cement and
Figure 14. The XRD profile for Al‐Qatif natural clay compared with the addition of 2% cement and 
8%
8% CaCl22.. 
CaCl

The costcalcium 
Using  of cement is also and 
chloride  highcement 
compared to other
together  additives.
can  help  in  These findings
controlling  the were also
moisture 
quoted by Mutaz et al. [41] and Dafalla et al. [42]. The long-term strength
and stabilizing the mix. The cement provides additional strength and stabilization. This  provided by
calcium chloride is not necessarily permanent. Therefore, the addition of stronger
combination  of  materials  can  be  particularly  effective  in  improving  the  stability  and  binders
such as cement is advised. Choi [43] stated that the addition of calcium chloride has little
performance of soils in construction projects, such as light structure foundations, road‐
effect on soil sensitivity; Table 5 is presented to demonstrate that the use of 4% calcium
ways, and other structures built on hazardous expansive soils. 
chloride
The ispractical 
of lower cost than using
implication  of athis 
6% cement stabilizer.a The
study  includes  estimates
new  are based
choice  for  on 2022
the  treatment 
average prices in the United States.
method that is likely cheaper and more effective compared to a single additive approach. 
The future directions can be fine‐tuned to obtain the optimum combination that is suita‐
Table 5. The estimated cost of cement and calcium chlorides stabilizers for a 1000 m3 road section.
ble  for  each  region  of  different  mineralogy.  The  optimum  calcium  chloride  content  for 
Item
use  in  the  stabilization 
Unit
Unitof  expansive 
Price for Cement soils Unit
is  dependent  on  many Estimated
Price for Calcium factors, Cost
including  the 
per Ton in USD Chloride
type of soil, mineralogy, and the desired level of stabilization.  per Ton in USD of the Stabilizer in USD
1000 m3
Quantity of road volume to be stabilized The treatment methods conducted to improve the quality of construction materials 
-
in  general 
Weight of cement required for 2% stabilizer has kg
36,698 been  an  active  continuing  research  area  in  recent  years  [38,39].  Recent 
5504.7
studies also included the works of Dafalla [40], covering the effect of fluid chemistry on 
Weight of cement required for 4% dose 73,396 kg 150 110 11,009.4
the  hydraulic 
Weight of cement required for 6% dose properties 
110,094 kg of  clays.  It  is  worth  mentioning that the 16,514.1
initial addition  of 1% 
cement led to minor improvements. The addition of 2% was selected based on previous 
Weight of calcium chloride for 4% dose 73,396 kg 8073.56
studies.  The  more  cement  added,  the  more  the  improvement  in  strength  and  rigidity. 
Adding higher amounts of cement will cause the paste to be more rigid and stiff and it 
The use of calcium chloride alone or in combination with cement to stabilize expansive
will not be easily compacted on site. 
soil has been found to be effective in many cases. However, there are limitations and
The difficulties
practical cost  of  cement  is  also with
associated high these
compared  to  other 
treatments thatadditives. 
need to beThese  findings 
considered. were 
These
also quoted by Mutaz et al. [41] and Dafalla et al. [42]. The long‐term strength provided 
include the long-term effects, which are not yet understood. Calcium chloride, if used in
by  calcium 
high chloride can
concentrations, is  not  necessarily  permanent. 
be hazardous. Therefore, 
Practical difficulties the  addition 
include mixing, of  stronger 
which can
binders such as cement is advised. Choi [43] stated that the addition of calcium chloride 
be difficult for large-scale projects. The control of moisture content may be critical for the
has little effect on soil sensitivity; Table 5 is presented to demonstrate that the use of 4% 
treatment effectiveness and very challenging to achieve in areas with high rainfall.
calcium  chloride  is  of 
The parameters lower 
that cost  than 
influence using  a  6%  process
the stabilization cement  include
stabilizer. 
theThe  estimates and
mineralogy are 
based on 2022 average prices in the United States. 
type of soil, the selected dose of the stabilizer, the mode of mixing, and the compaction level
applied on site in addition to curing time. The moisture content during the construction
process needs to be controlled.

4. Conclusions
The stabilization of expansive soil is investigated using two combined additives,
namely, calcium chloride and cement. Calcium chloride and cement as single chemical
additives are known to be successful but each has its limitations. Excessive calcium chloride
can reduce swelling, but it causes the strength to decrease sharply due to the soluble nature
of the salt. Cement is an excellent binder, but it causes the material to be rigid and stiff and
not reusable if added in high concentrations. This study encourages the use of 4–8% of
calcium chloride with the addition of 2% cement. The results presented herein indicated
a significant improvement in the swell potential, swell pressure, and compressibility. A
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 15 of 16

reduction in the swell potential by 8% to 25% and a reduction in the swelling pressure by
28% to 37.4% were observed for 4% to 8% calcium chloride with a cement addition of 2%.
Cement was found to add sufficient bonding to clay particles and maintain an intact
structure, and the calcium chloride will be less affected by leaching. The use of calcium
chloride with cement can make crinkled clay particles flatter, and the pore intensity can
decrease. This study presents a new choice for an expansive soil treatment that is likely
cheaper and more effective compared to single additive approaches.

Author Contributions: A.A.: Supervision, funding acquisition, review, and editing—writing original
draft and final version; M.D.: conceptualization, review, and editing—writing original draft and final
version; A.A.S.: methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, review, and editing. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by King Saud University through the Researchers Supporting
Project, grant number [RSP 2023/279] and The APC was funded by the same project.
Data Availability Statement: All data related to this manuscript are available upon request.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the Researchers Supporting Project number
RSP-2023/279, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for their financial support for the research
work reported in this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. McDowell, C. Stabilization of soils with lime, lime-fly ash, and other lime reactive materials. High. Res. Board Bull. 1959, 231,
60–66.
2. Sherwood, P. Soil Stabilization with Cement and Lime. State of the Art Review; Transport Research Laboratory, HMSO: London,
UK, 1993.
3. Liu, Z.Y.; Xue, Y.G.; Wang, X.J. Experimental study on mechanical behaviours of lime-stabilized soils with small lime content.
Adv. Mater. Res. 2012, 374, 1823–1826.
4. Wang, D.; Abriak, N.E.; Zentar, R. Strength and deformation properties of Dunkirk marine sediments solidified with cement, lime
and fly ash. Eng. Geol. 2013, 166, 90–99. [CrossRef]
5. Barman, D.; Dash, S.K. Stabilization of expansive soils using chemical additives: A review. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 2022, 14,
1319–1342. [CrossRef]
6. Eades, J.L.; Grim, R.E. A Quick Test to Determine Lime Requirements for Lime Stabilization. Highw. Res. Rec. 1966, 139, 61–72.
7. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Soil Stabilization for Pavements; Technical Manual, TM 5-822-14; Department of the Army and Air
Force of United States: Washington, DC, USA, 1994. Available online: https://wbdg.org/ffc/army-coe/technical-manuals-tm/
tm-5-822-14 (accessed on 1 April 2023).
8. Bell, F.G. Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils. Eng. Geol. 1996, 42, 223–237. [CrossRef]
9. Puppala, A.J.; Mohammad, L.N.; Allen, A. Engineering behavior of lime-treated Louisiana subgrade soil. Transp. Res. Rec. 1996,
1546, 24–31. [CrossRef]
10. Puppala, A.J.; Wattanasanticharoen, E.; Hoyos, L.R. Ranking of four chemical and mechanical stabilization methods to treat
low-volume road subgrades in Texas. Transp. Res. Rec. 2003, 1819, 63–71. [CrossRef]
11. Puppala, A.J.; Talluri, N.S.; Chittoori, B.S.; Gaily, A. Lessons learned from sulfate induced heaving studies in chemically treated
soils. In Proceedings of the Proceedings of the international conference on ground improvement and ground control. Res. Publ.
2012, 1, 85–98.
12. Miller, G.A.; Zaman, M. Field and laboratory evaluation of cement kiln dust as a soil stabilizer. Transp. Res. Rec. 2000, 1714, 25–32.
[CrossRef]
13. Morse, J.W.; Arvidson, R.S.; Lüttge, A. Calcium carbonate formation, and dissolution. Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 342–381. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
14. Shon, C.-S.; Saylak, D.; Mishra, S.K. Combined use of calcium chloride and fly ash in road base stabilization. Transp. Res. Rec.
2010, 2186, 120–129. [CrossRef]
15. Belabbaci, Z.; Mamoune, S.M.A.; Bekkouche, A. Laboratory Study of the Influence of Mineral Salts on Swelling (KCl, MgCl2 ).
Earth Sci. Res. 2013, 2, 135. [CrossRef]
16. Sasanian, S.; Newson, T.A. Basic parameters governing the behaviour of cement-treated clays. Soils Found. 2014, 54, 209–224.
[CrossRef]
17. Moghal, A.A.B.; Dafalla, M.A.; Elkady, T.Y.; Al-Shamrani, M.A. Lime leachability studies on stabilized expansive semi-arid soil.
GEOMATE J. 2015, 9, 1467–1471.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 4811 16 of 16

18. Zumrawi, M.M.E.; Mahjoub, A.M.M.; Alnour, I.M. Effect of some chloride salts on swelling properties of expansive soil. Univ.
Khartoum Eng. J 2016, 6, 35–41.
19. Zumrawi, M.M.E.; Eltayeb, K.A. Laboratory investigation of expansive soil stabilized with calcium chloride. Int. J. Environ. Chem.
Ecol. Geol. Geophys. Eng. 2016, 10, 223–227.
20. Saylak, D.; Mishra, S.K.; Mejeoumov, G.G.; Shon, C.-S. Fly ash-calcium chloride stabilization in road construction. Transp. Res.
Rec. 2008, 2053, 23–29. [CrossRef]
21. Murty, V.R.; Hari, K.P. Stabilisation of expansive clay bed using calcium chloride solution. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Ground Improv.
2008, 10, 39–46. [CrossRef]
22. Suresh, R.; Murugaiyan, V. Microstructural behavior of expansive soil using calcium chloride and alccofine. Mater. Today Proc.
2021, 46, 8397–8403. [CrossRef]
23. Legas, S.K. Stabilization of Expansive Soil Using Cement Blended Pumice. Master’s Thesis, Addis Ababa Science and Technology
University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2020.
24. Al-Jabban, W.J. Soil Modification by Adding Small Amounts of Binders a Laboratory Study. Ph.D. Thesis, Luleå University of
Technology, Luleå, Sweden, 2019.
25. Abduljauwad, S.N. Characteristics and chemical treatment of expansive clay in Al-Qatif, Saudi Arabia. Eng. Geol. 1991, 31,
143–158. [CrossRef]
26. Azam, S. Influence of mineralogy on swelling and consolidation of soils in eastern Saudi Arabia. Can. Geotech. J. 2003, 40, 964–975.
[CrossRef]
27. Shamrani, M.A.; Mutaz, E.; Puppala, A.J.; Dafalla, M.A. Characterization of problematic expansive soils from mineralogical
and swell characterization studies. In GeoFlorida 2010: Advances in Analysis, Modeling & Design; Fratta, D.O., Puppala, A.J.,
Muhunthan, B., Eds.; American Society of Civil Engineers: Reston, VA, USA, 2010; pp. 793–802, ISBN 9780784410950.
28. Moghal, A.A.B.; Abbas, M.F.; Al-Mahbashi, A.M.; Shaker, A.A. Effect of structure anisotropy and compaction method on the
swelling behavior of Al-qatif soil. Int. J. Geomate 2016, 11, 2600–2605. [CrossRef]
29. Dafalla, M.A. The compressibility and swell of mixtures for sand-clay liners. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2017, 2017, 3181794. [CrossRef]
30. Elkady, T.Y.; Shaker, A.A. Role of Cementation and Suction in the Swelling Behavior of Lime-Treated Expansive Soils. J. Mater.
Civ. Eng. 2018, 30, 04018073. [CrossRef]
31. Abbas, M.F.; Elkady, T.Y.; Aldrees, A.A.; Shaker, A.A. Impact of stress path on hydraulic and mechanical behavior of compacted
Al-Qatif clay. Transp. Geotech. 2021, 26, 100417. [CrossRef]
32. C150/C150M–16; Standard Specification for Portland Cement. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2015.
33. Azmee, N.; Abbas, Y.M.; Shafiq, N.; Fares, G.; Osman, M.; Iqbal Khan, M. Enhancing the Microstructure and Sustainability
of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Using Ultrafine Calcium Carbonate and High-Volume Fly Ash under Different Curing
Regimes. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3900. [CrossRef]
34. Mutaz, E.; Dafalla, M.A.; Shamrani, M.A. Stabilization of Al-Ghatt Clay Shale by Using a Mixture of Lime and Cement. In Road
Materials and New Innovations in Pavement Engineering, Proceedings of the GeoHunan International Conference 2011, Changsha, China,
9–11 June 2011; American Society of Civil Engineers: Reston, VA, USA, 2011. [CrossRef]
35. D 4546–03; Standard Test Methods for One-Dimensional Swell or Settlement Potential of Cohesive Soils. ASTM International:
West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2003.
36. Fathih, E.; Ali, M.; Muawia, A.D.; Elturabi. Comparison of Two Methods for the Measurement of Swelling Pressure. Barton, ACT.
1984. Available online: https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.826800240387612 (accessed on 1 April 2023).
37. Hunter, R.D. The Geochemistry of Lime-Induced Heave in Sulfate-Bearing Clay Soils; University of Nevada: Reno, NV, USA, 1989;
ISBN 9798207684307.
38. Ren, J.; Xue, Y.; Zhang, J.; Liu, B.; Luo, S.; Xu, S.; Xing, F.; Liu, M. Pre-treatment of reclaimed concrete slurry waste for substituting
cementitious materials: Effect of treatment approach and substitution content. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 380, 134987. [CrossRef]
39. Ren, J.; Zhou, Q.-Z.; Yang, C.-H.; Bai, Y. Performance and interaction of sodium silicate activated slag with lignosulfonate
superplasticizer added at different mixing stages. Cem. Concr. Compos. 2023, 136, 104900. [CrossRef]
40. Dafalla, M. Effect of Fluid Chemistry on the Consolidation and Hydraulic Conductivity of Sand-Clay Liners. Sustainability 2021,
13, 11213. [CrossRef]
41. Mutaz, D.E.; Shamrani, M.A.; Puppala, A.J.; Dafalla, M.A. Evaluation of chemical stabilization of a highly expansive clayey soil.
Transp. Res. Rec. 2011, 2204, 148–157. [CrossRef]
42. Muawia, D.; Mutaz, E.; Al-Shamrani, M. Compressive strength variations of lime-treated expansive soils. IFCEE 2015, 2015,
1402–1409.
43. Choi, H.J. Soil Stabilization Using Optimum Quantity of Calcium Chloride with Class F Fly Ash. Master’s Thesis, Texas A&M
University, College Station, TX, USA, 2005.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.