CARMELO BOSCO Ph. D. Strength assessment with the Bosco’s Test ITALIAN SOCIETY OF SPORT SCIENCE ROME 1999Preface to English edition of Jeunes 7. Are not so few the methods devoted to assess aerobic metabolism including cardio-circulatory and respiratory mechanisms. The metabolic process as well as the biochemical characteristics involved during muscle contraction have been extensively studied.Both qualitative and quantitative evaluation have been presented through scientific protocols and utilised extensively in the sport science community as well in the exercises physi- ology field. Unfortunately, only few protocols have been presented to eval- uate the neuromuscular mechanism involved in the muscle work. Generally sophisticated apparatus are required for evaluation on the neuromuscular functions through the utilisation of specific dynamometer as isokinetic apparatus, maximal isometric strength dynamometers etc. Through force platform apparatus it has been possible to assess neuromuscular behaviour of the leg extensor muscles, however these apparatus are generally settled in laboratories and therefore not available in field conditions. In this con- nection, Carmelo Bosco at beginning of the 1980, introduced a very simple but effective method “the contact mat” (Ergojump - Bosco System), con- nected to an electronic timer for measurements of jumping ability. Utilising the ballistic low,the method introduced by Bosco allows to evaluate the neurumuscular functions during different type of muscle activation, includ- ing stretch-shortening cycle, performed with large angular displacement, or with small angular changes (stiffness). An other interesting aspects is the evaluation of speed endurance and the assessment of anaerobic power or the index of fatigue. The work presented by Bosco gives the opportunity to have the results of more than 5000 athletes,which can be utilised as refer- ence values since are presented in organic and systematic form according to age, sex, sport discipline, and level of performances. It should be also men- $tioned that the protocol introduced by Bosco, 1980-83, can be adapted not only to contact mat but also to force platform. In this connection a new pro- tocol “Quattro Jump Bosco- Protocol” has been recently developed by Kistler Company (Wintherthur, Switzerland), who devoted a portable- force plate to the test introduced by Bosco. Budapest 06.06.1999 Prof. Dr, Tihanyi Joszef Rector of the Hungarian University of Physical Education————— Lt Introduction Physiological testing of athletes can not be limited to the assessment of maximum oxygen consumption (VOzmax) even if measured along with an estimation of the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds using blood analysis (lactate). Nevertheless, the importance of assessing cardiorespiratory func- tion and local aerobic and anaerobic metabolism can not be underestimat- ed. These analyses are fundamental to prescribe individualised training in, for example, long distance runners. But, on the other hand, the assessment of a jumper or alpine skier fitness without the diagnosis of neuromuscular behaviour and of the metabolic processes that influence the development of high mechanical power [velocity of ATP and phosphocreatine (PC) break- down and relative enzymes ATPase and Creatine Kinase (CK)] and lactic acid production is worthless. The anaerobic metabolism (alactic and lactic), the visco-elastic characteristics of skeletal muscle (stiffness), all strength expressions (maximal, isometric and explosive), speed, and the capacity to store and re-utilise elastic energy are very important factors in many sports. In the past, the functional evaluation of neuromuscular behaviour and anaerobic metabolism was studied by many physiologists and biomech- anists. LI Strength Testing ‘The functional evaluation of strength in all its forms and expressions recently and rapidly evolved thanks to adequate scientific information in the sport community.1.2 Assessment of Isometric Strength In the past, the use of cable dynamometers (Figure 1 and 2a) to mea- sure isometric strength using springs (Figure 2c) or strain gauges (Figure 2b) did not provide valid information on the dynamic behaviour of the mus- cles or muscle groups examined (see Clark, 1948). In fact, these tests mea- sure the neuromuscular processes specific to a certain muscle length and joint angle. acoot Force 0 200 400 600800 00«Z00 Time (ms) Fig. 1 - Example of isometric force development. Note that the maximum value cannot be reached before 800-900 ms. Fig. 2 - Example of different methods for evaluation of maximal isometric force.1.3 Isokinetic Dynamometers A major advance in the diagnostic assessment of muscle function was possible thanks to instruments able to measure dynamic muscle actions at constant movement speed: isokinetic dynamometers (see Pierrine, 1968; Hislop and Pierrine, 1967). There is no doubt that these instruments give useful information on the dynamic characteristics of muscle function even if in conditions rarely encountered in work of sport activities. The use of isokinetic dynamometer is recommended in clinical settings both for its reliability (r2 = 0.96) (Moffroid et al., 1969) and safety. For ath- letic assessment (with the exception of some sports like, for example, swimming and rowing), isokinetic strength testing is not specific and there- fore of limited interest. First of all, time dynamics of force development (e.g. quadriceps femoris) depends on the measuring instrument used. If the force develop- ment (Figure 5a) measured with the instrument in Figure 3 is analysed, it is foot Plate Fig. 3 - Schematic representation of an isokinetic apparatus (Komi, 1973). easy see that it presents completely different characteristics (Figure 5b) in comparison to the force development measured by the instrument described in Figure 4 that depends on knee joint angle. Furthermore, in most sport activities, muscles work involves pre-stretch. In other words, the stretch- shortening cycle (see Figure 6) is used because before concentric contrac- tion the muscle is actively stretched (eccentric contraction). During this period, a certain amount of energy is accumulated in the serial elastic com- ponents (Figure 7) and subsequently returned back as mechanical energy if eccentric contraction is immediately followed by concentric contraction (see Figure 6) as it happens during running, jumping and throwing. Thus, sa el ow Fig. 4 - Schematic representation of an isokinetic apparatus for evaluation of leg extensor muscles and relative recordings of the torque developed. Knee angle SIs De 1 2 a 6 Fig, 5 - Relationship between the force developed and the angular displacement of the knee dur- ing a pushing activity (A) and extension movement (B), realised by the same muscle group but with different motion and biomechanical pattern (Viitasalo, 1985). in all ballistic strength expressions, thanks to the stretch-shortening cycle, it is possible to develop force at angular velocities (15-18 rad/s) (Bosco 1982a; 1990) a lot higher than the ones possible during isokinetic contrac- tions (6 rad/s). 10Shortening Fig. 6 - Schematic representation of human locomotion. During the first contact with the ground the leg extensor muscle are actively stretched (A), until the centre of the mass of the subject is perpendicular to the ground (B), which is followed by a shortening (pushing) phase (C) (Cava- ‘gna, 1978). Active: Passive, ‘cross-bridges ‘Tendon myofibris| Connective tissue PEC ‘Muscle fascia. Connective tissue Sarcolemma Fig. 7 - Mechanical model of skeletal muscle. Contractile component (CC), series elastic ele- ments (SEC) and parallel elastic component (PEC). u1.4 Dynamometers with Inertial Rotatory Masses From a physiological and functional point of view, the best tests of muscular function are the ones using special dynamometers with inertial rotatory masses. Unfortunately these instruments cannot be easily found because they were built just for research purposes (see Kaneko, 1971, Figure 8, and Tihanyi, 1983, Figure 9). Fig. 8 - Schematic representation of a dynamometer with inertial load (Kaneko, 1971). Fig. 9 - Schematic representation of dynamometer with rotational load (Tihanyi et «al, 1992). 121.5 Computerised Isotonic Dynamometers Recently, an instrument to analyse natural movements against gravita- tional forces was developed (Bosco, 1981). If an electronic device able to measure space as a function of time is applied on regular strength training equipment (e.g. leg press, multipower, lat machine etceteras) it is possible to assess velocity, acceleration, force, power produced during the move- ment. These data allow the evaluation of biomechanical behaviour of involved muscles during natural activation such as ballistic or antigravity. First results are promising because the coefficient of variation is very low (high reliability) and the observed phenomena are strongly amplified, facil- itating the diagnostic evaluation process. 132s Global or Analytical Assessment? The physiological tests previously described permit the assessment of only one muscle or muscle group. In clinical setting this kind of analytical assessment represents a great advantage. On the contrary, in sport tests to assess fitness must involve the whole body with the exception of particular functional measurements (specific ergometers for rowing, cross-country skiing, target shooting etceteras). 2.1 Margaria Test Among all the global functional tests for general use, the test of maxi- mum anaerobic power developed by Margaria, Aghemo and Rovelli (1966) must be described first. This test consists in running upstairs (two steps at the same time) a stair of six steps at maximum speed while time to accom- plish this motor task is measured with electronic systems (Figure 10). Since subject body mass (bm), height of the stairs (d) and time (t) are known, mechanical power (W) can be calculated as follows: W = (bm x d)/t. Even it this test can be difficult to perform (it needs balance, co-ordi- nation etceteras) is widely used to determine the velocity of ATP-PC break- down and relative enzymes (ATPase and CK). The correlation coefficient (x) between two consecutive trials (test-retest reliability) is around 0.85 (Ayalon et al., 1974) and 0.90 (Sawka et al., 1980). 2.2 Test of Muscular Power on the Cycle Ergometer Another test used to measure maximum anaerobic power (Marechal et al., 1978) is done on cycle ergometers. It consists of producing the highest 15Fig. 10 - Schematic representation of Margaria test (Margaria et al, 1966). number of revolutions per minute (velocity) against a standard resistance (force) based on subject’s body weight and sex for a time period between 7 and 9 s. As well as the Margaria Test, this method gives only metabolic information. Test-retest reliability is good (r = 0.90) (Bar-Or et al., 1977). 2.3 Wingate Test ‘The Wingate Test is similar to the previous one but its duration is pro- longed to 30 s. With this test various parameters can be measured: anaero- bic power (mean power during the first 5 s), anaerobic capacity (mean power during the entire test) and fatigue index (ratio between the power produced between the 25th and 30th second and the one produced during the first 5 s) (Ayalon et al., 1974). Test-retest reliability is good (r = 0.90) (Bar-Or et al., 1977; Patton et al., 1985). 2.4 From Metabolic to Biomechanical Tests All the tests previously described permit a specific diagnosis of the var- ious metabolic processes utilised during exercise eliminating the mechani- 16; 4 E E cal influence of the stretch-shortening cycle in the involved muscles. In fact, muscular work during cycle ergometry tests and uphill running (Margaria Test) does not involve the storage and reuse of elastic energy (Cavagna, 1977). Therefore, the measured power represents exclusively the capacity to produce muscular work with the metabolic substrates used to produce high quantities of energy in short time (ATP-PC and glycogen). For a complete assessment of all the processes involved in maximum mechanical power production it is necessary to involve both the metabolic and visco-elastic capacities vf human skeletal muscle with maximal exer- cise involving the stretch-shortening cycle in various functional conditions. ‘Tests that significantly involve the metabolic, nervous and muscular sys~ tems have been used in the past both in biomechanics research and for prac- tical applications in sport. 45 30 TIME Fig. Il - Schematic representation of Wingate test (Ayalon et ab,1974)rRREAIMAN eR AEC a, Historical Evolution of Vertical Jump Performance Tests More than one century ago, Marey and Demeney (1885) analysed mus- cle behaviour during jumping using a platform sensible to vertical forces and a cinematographic method. 3.1 Sargent’s Test Later, D.A. Seargent (1921) proposed an easy to administer test to eval- uate vertical jump performance (Figure 12). An homonymous (L.W. Seargent, 1924) defined vertical jump performance as the general expres- sion of human muscle power. 3.2 Abalakov’s Test In 1938 a Russian scientist (Abalakov) introduced a practical method to measure vertical jump with arm movement height using a metric tape attached to the waist of the subject and the ground (Figure 13). 3.3 Force Plates and Piezoelectric Tables Vertical jump performance, as expression of human muscle power, has attracted not only the attention of coaches and athletes, but also of famous physiologists like Hill (1950a,b) and Fenn (1930a,b) and biomechanists like Hochmuth (1968). 19Fig, 12 - Schematic representation of Seargent test (Seargent, 1921). ° Fig. 13 - Schematic representation of Abalakov test (Abalakov, 1938). 20Aremarkable progress in the study of mechanical behaviour of muscles during vertical jumping was marked with the introduction of highly accu- rate and sophisticated instruments like force plates and strain gauges (avies and Rennie, 1968; Cavagna et al., 1972) (Figure 14) or quartz AMPLIFIER ‘TRANSIENT RECORDER Fig, 14 - Schematic representation of stair platform for drop jumps and the force plasform with its instruments for recording the vertical ground reaction force (Komi & Bosco 1978). dynamometric tables (Lauru, 1957), In fact, during jumps performed on a force plate (Figure 15) vertical ground reaction forces are registered and then analysed with mathematical processes (Figure 16). In general, the force during movement execution is not constant and it is the product of force and time (force impulse) that move the body upward. The area repre- sented in Figure 16 is calculated with mathematical processes as the inte- gration of the function of considered time intervals. Therefore, force impulse = quantity of movement variation NaC EE ta (SF (t) dt=m (V2- V)) Equation (1) tb During a vertical jump, force impulse (NI) divided by subject body weight gives the vertical velocity of the centre of gravity (COG) of the sub- ject at take-off (Vv). The vertical displacement of the COG (h) can be obtained with the equation (2): h = Vv? / 2g, where g is the gravity constant 9.81 m/s*, 21F(t) te Fig, 16 - Forcestime curve, the labelled area represents the net impulse developed by the ath- letes during the push up. 22In the past these calculations were automatically processed by a com- puter and used to assess vertical jump performance. Then two great physi- ologists and biomechanists had a brilliant idea and introduced a system to measure h during a vertical jump based on flight time (ft) (Asmussen and Bonde-Petersen, 1974a) where h = ft? x 1.266. Flight time is measured as the space between force at take-off and force at landing (Figure 17). This Q os 10 see TAKEOFF IMPACT] i 4 — o Os TO sec Fig. 17 - Example of force ~ time curves of the vertical ground reaction force in three different jumping conditions: (I) squatting jump (SJ); (2) counter movement jump (CMI); (3) drop jump (Di). Other symbols: weight of the subject; UN = unweighting phase in CMJ; (~) = phase of deceleration in eccentric phase (negative work),during which period the centre of gravity is still moving downward and the storage of elastic energy is assumed to take place; (+) = phase of concentric (positive) work during which the centre of mass move upwards. (Komi & Bosco 1978) 23interesting calculation was subsequently used in various studies (Bosco et al., 1982b; 1983a, b; Bosco and Viitasalo 1982; Viitasalo and Bosco, 1982). 3.4 Ergojump - Bosco System ‘The use of flight time to calculate h during vertical jumping strongly influenced the development of an instrument able to measure flight time without using the expensive and sophisticate force plates. The solution was the use of conductance platforms (contact mat) connected with an electron- jc timer. The circuit is automatically opened at take off and closed when the subject touch the ground (Bosco, 1980). First studies using this system were published in Italy (Bosco, 1980) and immediately after in the international literature (Bosco, 1981a, b; 1983a). ‘The first versions were able to measure only flight time. Subsequently, microprocessors were used to automatically calculate h, work time (time in contact with the ground) and mechanical power produced in wattke. Mathematical models and biomechanical procedures were applied to esti- mate total contact time, positive (concentric) and negative (eccentric) work using the formula developed by Asmussen and Bonde-Petersen (1974a). 3.5 Ergojump Fiber Counter - Bosco System Knowledge of the morphological and functional characteristics of knee extensors (in quadriceps femoris) is of fundamental importance to plan a training program based on scientific facts and objective goals. It is also important to individualise the training load both in its qualitative and quan- titative aspects. The hystological characteristics of knee extensors can be. investigated using an efficient but invasive method: the muscle biopsy. For obvious reasons, this method can not be applied to a large group of athletes. Therefore, all over the world alternative methods have been studied to find an indirect, non invasive measure of muscle composition (percentage of different fibres). In various studies, many different functional tests were correlated with the proportion of fast twitch (FT) fibres in the quadriceps femoris. Among these, the most studied parameter was the power decre- ment during prolonged, maximal efforts on isokinetic dynamometers (Thorstensson, 1976; Tesch et al., 1978), during continuous jumping for 60 seconds (Bosco et al., 1983b) or Wingate Test (Bar-Or et al. 1980). Unfortunately, the muscular power decrement could have been partially determined by aerobic metabolism (Katch and Weltman, 1979) and thus the validity of this measure as the criterion for indirect estimation of FT fibres proportion is uncertain (Vadewalle et al., 1987). 24A different, but still scientific, approach was proposed after many years of research by Bosco (1987). Mathematical models and some biological properties that distinguish FT from slow twitch (ST) fibres are the bases of this method. In fact, FT fibres are characterised by rapid force development due to higher concentration of ATPase (Barany, 1967), by bi neurons, and by higher nerve conduction velocity in comparison to ST (Burke, 1973). Therefore athletes with an high percentage FT fibres have perform better in vertical jumping in comparison to “slow” athletes. In fact, research with a large population of athletes and sedentary subjects shown a strong correlation between % FT in the vastus lateralis and vertical jump performance (Figure 18). Based on these observations, a mathematical model was derived to estimate % FT fibres measuring only vertical jump FT% Continous jump for 15s F=,85,p <0001 Mechanical power (watt x kg”) Fig. 18 - Relationship berween fast twitch fibres percentage in the m. vastus lateralis and mechanical power developed during 15s of continuos jumping performed with bent knee (angu- lar displacement of 90 degrees) (Bosco and Komi, 1979; Bosco et al 1983, 1986, 1987, and 1989)performance with different tests. The tests are 15s continuous jumping test, squat jump (SJ) and counter movement jump (CMJ). It is not necessary to do all three tests. For example based only on SJ and CMI performance and age, sex and type of physical activity it is possi- ble to estimate % FT with an error of about 5% thanks to a computerised program. 3.6 Kistler Force Plate Portable System It should be noted that recently, a very sensitive force plate, has been developed by Kistler Instrumnet AG, Wintherthur, Switzerland. The instru- ment measures the vertical jumps force which is analysed with a computer connected to the system. The system called “Quattro Jump Bosco Protocol” is an Hardware and Software dedicated for routine jump performance mea- surements devoted to utilise the test battery introduced by Bosco (1980, 1983). The apparatus is portable as well easy to use. Squat Jump i{nco = 43 cm Fig. 19 - Old model of Psion CM utilised for indirect eval: uation of FT % according to Bosco (1991).4, The Bosco’s Test Field tests (Seargent, Abalakow, standing long jump, quintuple jump, etceteras) have been always popular among coaches and athletes for gener- al assessment of power performance. Unfortunately, these tests cannot give data that can be rationally and specifically analysed. For example it is impossible to discriminate between legs and arms contribution during an Abalakov’s or a Seargent’s Test. These tests are performed with arms, trunk and legs. Therefore it is not correct to assume that the measured vertical jump performance reflects only to the capacity of the knee extensors to pro- duce high mechanical power. Vertical jump performance is based on a com- plex interactions of neuromuscular factors that involve not only the con- tractile component of the muscle, but also the serial elastic components (see Figure 7) that are able to store and return an high quantity of energy. Tt is also important to remember the influence of motor control of the upper and lower limbs and the contribution of the trunk. Therefore it is possible that two athletes with the same performance do not have the same characteris- tics of the leg extensors and that vertical jump was realised with different interventions of the various neuromuscular components. Accurate measures with sophisticated techniques (e.g. force platforms, strain gauges and piezoelectric quartz, high speed cinematographic analy- sis etceteras) can be done only in specialised biomechanics and physiology 2labs by scientists not always interested in practical coaching problems. The jntroduction of the Bosco’s Test with a contact mat was @ definitive turning point in functional strength assessment. In fact, it is possible to do these tests not only in the Jab but also on the field using both traditional (Bosco, 1981a, b; 1983a) of specific tests. Bosco tests were conducted on mountains at 3000 m altitude, on Soc- cer fields or in modern laboratories like the one at the Department of Biology of Physical Activity of the University of Jyvaskyla (Finland) and results were published on the best ‘ntemational journal in applied physiol: ogy and biomechanics (Acta Physiologica Svandinavica, International Journal of Sports Medicine, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, European Journal of Applied Physiology etceteras). 41 General Considerations on Physiological Testing without any doubt, knowledge of the athletes physiological character istics helps the rational planning of training programs. On the basis of test results and some general principles, itis possible to prescribe individualised training loads, monitor training-induced adaptations, control and verify fit- ness status, select and counsel young athletes for the sport activity best suit- ed to their characteristics. Nevertheless, during physiological testing it is necessary to follow some practical and logistical suggestions in order to avoid conclusions pased on artefacts or false results. 4.2 Standardisation and Control of Environmental Conditions The success of a test depends primarily on standardisation. This allows the comparison of the same subjects over time even if the operator is not the same. Without standardisation itis also impossible to compare mean values in different sports could be impossible. ‘With this purpose in mind, the Bosco’s Test was standardised after careful investigations conducted with sophisticated instruments like electromiography, electrogoniometry, high speed cinematography, force plates, biochemical analysis etceteras. The test battery introduced by Bosco consists in six different jump tests in which both conditions preceding the muscle contraction (static position ‘ys. counter movement Or continuous, rhythmic action) and specific muscle Characteristics (muscle length, lengthening and shortening velocity, with or without additional loads etceteras) are changed. 28In order to obtain best results: ‘Tests must be carefully executed with maximum effort. The athlete must be motivated to perform at his/her best. This can be easily obtained if ath- letes are previously informed on the nature and purpose of testing. Tests must be conducted without hurry because the first trials are usual- ly incorrectly executed and some time is necessary for the athlete to familiarise with testing procedures and techniques. Test results should be evaluated based on sex, age, sport activity, training experience, season phase (preparation phase, general training phase, spe- cific training phase, competitive phase), previous injuries etceteras. It is important to register locality, time and environmental conditions (outdoor, indoor, temperature and humidity). If all these indications are carefully followed, the diagnostic assess- ment can be assumed to be valid and reliable, and the results used with con- fidence. It must remembered that the validity of a fitness test is not only based on its reliability (test-retest correlation coefficients of Bosco’s Tests are between 0.94 and 0.97 as reported by Bosco and Viitasalo, 1982; Viitasalo and Bosco, 1982; Bosco et al., 1983a), but also on its specificity. In other word on its capacity to assess certain physiological capacities without uncontrolled external influences. The physiological differences between a sprinter, a middle-distances runner and a court games player can be detect- ed with different running tests (30 m, 100 m, 1500 m) but specific infor- mation should be obtained with tests other than sport specific tasks. 4.3 Operative Modalities Before testing it is necessary to warm up leg extensors especially in cold temperature conditions. Do not perform tests after strenuous physical activity because fatigue can influence performance. The tests must be ordered in such a way that the most strenuous test is performed last. * The time at which tests are conducted must be close to usual training time. Between trials and different tests, an adequate recovery period must be allowed (it must be not extremely long because fatigue is not usual except for the continuous 15-60 s jumping tests. Wear sport clothes and shoes with adequate soles. ‘The contact mat must be always covered with an anti-sliding surface. 294.4 Standard Bosco’s Test The following tests constitute the Bosco’s Test: 1, Squat Jump or vertical jump from a static position. 2. Squat Jump with additional loads (20-100 kg barbell on the shoulders) and in particular with a load corresponding to subject body weight (SJbw). 3. Counter Movement Jump or jump with a counter movement. 4. Drop Jump (DJ) or jump from a certain height (20-100 cm) or plyomet- ric jump. 5. Continuous Jumping like CMJ (bent leg) with a duration variable between 5 and 60 seconds. 6. Continuous jumps with straight legs for a duration of about 5-7s with or without mini-hurdles and with or without the use of arms. Jt should be remind that the Bosco’s test can be performed with both contact mat connected to a timer (Ergojump) or with force plat like the Kistler portable force-plat apparatus. 4.4.1 Squat Jump The SJ technique is shown in Figure 20. In this test the subject per- forms a vertical jump from a semi-squat position (knee angle = 90°), with trunk as vertical as possible and hands on hips. The subject must execute the test without counter movements (@). Squat jump is a test easy to learn and with high reproducibility. This test gives an index of lower limbs explo- sive strength (h). In fact, h is related to COG vertical velocity at take-off. This velocity depends on the acceleration that the lower limbs transmit to the COG. Since the angular displacement of the knee is known to be 90° (the knee angle at take off is 180°), this is standardised in all the subjects during a SJ. Since angular displacement on which the muscles exert force is the same for all subjects (90°), itis evident that the positive vertical accel- ration of the body is the product of a big muscular tension (strength) in a brief period of time (between 280 and 320 ms depending on subject % FT fibres). (@) It is possible that some subjects can not completely eliminate small counter movers tn thio case, the tester should push the subject downward with an hand on @ shoulder and then rapidly remove it. At this point the subject must forcefully jump upward. 30Fig. 20- To execute correctly the Squat Jump it is necessary to follow the following instructions: ‘A) Starting position B) Jump «a) Foot on the plasform b) Knee angle around 90 degrees c) Hand kept on the hips °) d) Knee angle during the ground contact after the flight phase around 180 degrees e) Foot in extension. 4.4.2 Squat Jump Characteristics Investigated capacities: explosive strength, neural recruitment ability (Figure 21), high % ft (Figure 22). Muscle action: concentric (positive work). Relationship with other parameters and functions: correlation with sprint performance (Figure 23a, b), with the Abalakov and Seargent Tests, with standing long jump, with the peak torque registered on the Cybex isoki- netic dynamometer at an angular velocity of 4.2 rad/s (Bosco et al., 1983c). 4.4.3 Training Methods to Develop Explosive Strength = « Resistance exercises with sub - maximal loads (20-30% of 1RM), pyra- mid loading or contrast method at maximum movement speed possible; * Resistance exercises with moderate loads (no more than 50% 1RM) at maximum movement speed possible (no more than 10-12 reps based on subject fatigability and % FT fibres); + Explosive exercises with just body weight or light loads such as standing long jump, triple jump, uphill sprints (10-20 m), runs and hops on stairs, and jumps in place. 31emo p mvastus_loteralis mrectus femoris m.vastus medialis 600 500 400 300 200 100 eee 1 © 1 © SJ OMS DJ 1c Sy cMJ DJ 1 CS) CMs DD Fig. 21 ~ Integrated electromyography (TEMG) of the mm. vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and Fig. “J medialis recorded during several muscle strength performances: I = isometric strength, Cetoncentric contraction during isokinetic performant® ‘S] = squat jump, CMJ = counter © 5 cont jump and DI = drop jump from 40 em (Vitasalo, 1982). 1500, J[% FT>60 1000 (h = 36.7cm) _ 0 200 300(ms) Fig. 2 -Forcectime relationship recorded in wo diferent mp4 one slow (FT < 40%) and the rig Past (FT> 60%) during SI performances (Bosco & Komi, 19792). Zi 100 32Time (s) 60m dash Raise of C.G. (cm) Fig. 23 a - Relationship between SJ and the time to sprint 60m (Bosco & Komi, 1981). is SeeuTiNG TIME IN 20M 6.00 3.80 15.0 = 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 VERTICAL JUMP (SJ) (em) Fig. 23 b - Relationship between SJ and the time to sprint 20m (Hakkinen, 1989). 3.As an example, some common general (Figure 24-30) and specific (Figure 31-34) exercises used to improve explosive strength are shown. + Barbell squat jumps with a load corresponding to 40-50% body weight (Figure 24) The trunk must remains vertical and leg flexed (knee angle = 130-140). The jump is executed with a rapid and simultaneous extension of knee and ankle joints. The emphasis in on full and active tension in the muscles around these joints. ‘Alternate jumps with a load corresponding to 30-40% body weight (Figure 25) The foot is placed on a bench with the knee angle at 90°. The exercise intensity can be increased changing the height of the bench or, for example, climbing stairs (knee angle = 120-130”). It is important to completely extend both mee and ankle. Fig. 25 Walking lunges (Figure 26) This exercise is executed pushing up and for- ward with the front leg. This exercise can substitute the alternate jumps. Scissors Jumps with a load corresponding to 20-30% body weight (Figure 27) This exercise consists in a simultaneous push with both feet. ‘The attention should be placed on pushing with the forefoot. Half Squat Jumps x 3-5 reps with a load corresponding to 40-50% body weight (Figure 28) From an half squat position jump upward maintain- ing an erect trunk position and fully extending the leg extensors. Straight Legs Vertical Jump with a load corresponding to 30-40% body weight (Figure 29) This jump consists of a bilateral and simultaneous push with both legs. Extend knee and ankle joints rapidly. 34Fig. 28 Fig. 29 Skip run with weights (Figure 30) Execute rapid leg skipping with light weights on the shoulders. Make sure to fully extend the weight bearing Jeg and pay attention to trunk position relative to the push point. This exercise can be done in place or with a slight forward movement. ‘The reps number during these exercises is determined by fatigue. If an = exercise is done in a fatigued state, there will be an improvement in endurance and not in explosive strength. It is also important to perform resistance exercise with a correct technique to prevent injuries. Exercises to develop muscle contraction velocity are: Long Jump (Figure 31); Multiple Jumps (Figure 32); Jumps over barriers of various kind (Figure 33); Jumps to touch overhead objects (Figure 34). 35Fig, 33 Fig. 344.4.4 Physiological Considerations on Explosive Strength Tt is difficult to find a comprehensive and rigorous scientific definition of such a complex phenomenon as explosive strength. Nevertheless, from a physiological point of view explosive strength can be identified and defined by the factors that contribute to its production. The mechanisms of explo- sive strength development are not fully understood, ‘but the most important are: 1. Frequency of neural inputs from brain to skeletal muscles; 2. Number of activated muscle fibres; 3. Influence of biofeedback from Renshaw cells, muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs (GTO) at spinal and supra-spinal level; 4, Muscle fibres type: FT, ST or intermediate (FTR) fibres; 5 Dimension and tension produced by each singular muscle fibre; they depend on mass and molecular weight of the proteins that constitute mus- cle fibres; FL FTR st Motor neurones: force time i single shock fatigue curve Fig, 35 - Three basic type of muscle fibres: FT (fast twitch), FIR (fast twitch intermediate) and ‘ST (slow twitch) (Edigion & Edgerton, 1976) 386. Physiological conditions of muscles before producing explosive strength (rest, active state); in other words if concentric contraction (positive work) is done after an active lengthening (eccentric work) or if it is pre~ ceded by a rest condition; 7. Neuromuscular and metabolic training status of muscle fibres. 4.4.4.1 The Neuromuscular System and its Basic Structure Force and velocity produced by human skeletal muscle are difficult to distinguish. Both are controlled by the same mechanism. Furthermore, muscle mechanics and external load determine force and velocity of a par- ticular movement. The force producing unit is just a part of the entire neu- romuscular system. In Figure 36 is shown the main structural parts of this system. Muscle spindle Fig, 36 - Schematic representation of the basic component determining the movement. Voluntary contraction of skeletal muscle starts in the brain motor area and then travels along the spinal cord and reaches the muscle where force is produced. In the spinal cord the descending motor neurone is connected with a synapsis to the anterior motor neurone that constitute, along with the muscle fibres it innervates, the motor unit. Muscle contraction is produced by the sliding of actin and myosin (the protein components of the sarcom- 39ere that is the functional unit of muscle) when the neural impulse reach them. This reaction is called cross-bridge cycle- Tension is then transmitted by tendons to the bones on which they act. In the muscle cell, the myofib- til is where contraction happens. In each muscle cells there are hundreds of myofibrils (Figure 37). Jn the picture representing @ longitudinal muscle section as it appears at the electronic microscope, it is possible to observe similar, repetitive transverse lines of approximately 2.5 micron Jength when the muscle is relaxed. These transverse lines give to the skeletal muscle its typical striat- ed appearance. In the picture, the most distinguishable lines are the Zilines and the zone between them is called sarcomere. The sarcomere is the func- tional unit of the myofibril. There two types of filaments in the sarcomere. One thin, called actin, and one thick called myosin. ‘The latter is the most interesting, It is composed by many molecules ‘of myosin and contains tails artanged at 90° to the myosin filaments during contraction. When the impulse arrives, these tails react with the actin filaments. This process is activated by the enzyme ATPase that catalyse ATP breakdown to provide energy for muscle contraction. 4.4.4.2 Origin of Force jn Muscle Contraction ‘The bridges between the actin and myosin filaments produce muscle force. One of the basis of muscle contraction is the myosin ability of break- ing down ATP thanks to its enzyme ATPase. ‘This is the reason why in cer- tain sarcomeres contraction and power produced are different from others. The whole muscle contraction results from the sum of forces produced by all the actomyosin bridges formed in a short period of time. The real mech- anism of contraction is still not known. In Figure 38 is shown an hypothesis about the interaction between actin and myosin filaments when a neural stimulus reaches them. When a neural, impulse arrives to the muscle cell membrane, calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Calcium reacts with troponin C, a protein inhibit- ing the connection between actin and myosin, and this allows cross-bridges formation. The actomyosin bridges transform chemical energy liberated by "ATP breakdown thanks to ATP-ase and transform it in mechanical energy. This is the movement of the actin filaments over the myosin filaments that pull the former. As it is shown ‘in the diagram, there is an elastic structure even if it has not been anatomically defined yet. Byvery muscle have @ certain number of motor units and each one is controlled by a different anterior motor neurone. ‘When a message from the brain is sent, through nerve ends, to a single muscle fibre, jt contracts and then relaxes (Figure 39a), If the stimulus frequency is increased, tension 40Muscle Linn Muscle fibres with capillaries 100 wm Myofibnt vetar 0.5 am Sarcomere overlap region of A-band o,e.e © © = Myosin filament Thick filament: myosin : e 0.025 um, ves oF — actin tiiament Thin filament: actin Fig. 37 - Schematic representation of muscle structure (di Prampero, 1985). 41 Cross section from=e Fig. 38 - Schematic representation ofthe sliding filament theory (H.E. Huxley, Nature, Vol. 253, 1961, modified). TENSION a | TENSION B | TENSION c | TENSION several messages one message two messages close together oe TIME TIME TIME many messages {Clonus) (Tetanus) TIME Fig, 39 - Tension time relationship during one stimulus (A), to stil (B), with severat stnrli (C) and with a train of stimuli (D). increases. This particular phase of muscle activation is called clonus (Figure 39c). Nevertheless, when the stimulus frequency is further increased, maximum tension is produced and it is called tetanus (Figure 39d). While the time needed to develop tension in a single contraction (Figure 39a) is only about 100 ms, time to maximal tension during tetanus is never less than 200-300 ms (Figure 39d). Once the nervous stimulus reaches the muscle fibres, actin and myosin react producing muscle contraction. The tension produced in the acto- myosin bridges is then transmitted to the bones through connective tissue 42ee (tendons). Tension is transmitted to the tendons with a delay. This is the time necessary to stretch the serial elastic elements (Asmussen et al., 1976; Bosco et al., 1982d) (Figure 40). It is necessary to emphasise that before tension developed by the con- tractile components of the muscle can be transmitted to the tendons, the ten- dons themselves must be stretched and this takes further time because they are very clastic. This is why tension is always transmitted with a certain delay, For this reason, tension transmission is more effective if preceded by negative work. In fact, the serial elastic elements are already stretched. ‘Another mechanism responsible of tension increase is neural activa- tion. Generally, an increased tension can be obtained in two ways: first recruiting a higher number of motor units and, secondly, increasing stimu- Jus frequency. The motor unit recruitment model has been debated in the last ten years: which are the motor units recruited first? The tonic units or the phasic units? ‘The tonic motor units are constituted by ST fibres. These are charac- terised by elevated endurance capacity, low peak tension and long contrac- tion time. They are small motor units and thus they react to weak neural impulses. The number of tonic motor units is much higher than the number A 8 (4 AB c 9 Zz a & 3 g a 8 2 P 2 {Load} TIME STIMULUS. Fig. 40 - Schematic representation of cardiac muscle structure, the contraction begins with an isometric activation which produces a shortening of the contractile component of the muscle (CC). This in turn acting on the series elastic element (SEC) (from A to B) determine a stretch- ing of them. The movement occur whenever the tension developed by the CC overpass the exter- nal load (from B to C) (Braunwald, 1967). 43of phasic motor units. The phasic motor units are constituted by FT fibres and depend on anaerobic metabolism. They produce high tension with a short contraction time (Figure 41). Henneman colleagues (1965) think ic motor_units are recruited during eful and not very précise- movements. Recently, Gollnick et al. (1974) underlined that tonic motor units have a low neural activation threshold and thus they are selectively recruited for “weak” jgometric contractions. More forceful muscle contrac- tions are produced thanks to a progressive recruitment of bigger motor units that include FT fibres. Furthermore, the motor units previously recruited can be activated at higher frequencies generating higher forces. On this spe- cific argument, Burke and Edgerton (1975) think that in most of the moye- jnents requiting less than 20% of maximum force production, the main actors are ST fibres. Activities like walking or running at low velocity are executed mainly activating the tonic motor units with help from the jntrafusal co -active fibres. The synaptic stimulus due to stretching travels from the afferent jntrafusal fibres to the motor neurons, and produces neural potentation. ‘This is very effective in activating the tonic motor units. —" Burke and colleagues (1973) think that, during voluntary muscle con- traction, a neural activation mechanism operates and jnhibits slow motor units in the same muscle ‘when the fast motor units are voluntary excited by the descendent pathways because slow motor units are more sensible to mayotatic reflex. Therefore, it seems that the recruitment of motor units do not follow rigid rules. In high speed movements, a selective recruitment of fast motor units can prevails in alternative to the normal recruitment order. ys : | 50 msec Fig. 41 - Comparison during a single vite perween afast (A) and slow fibres (B) (Erbstein & Be agoold, American J Physiol, 215: 535-541, 1986). SadIn this regard, many hypotheses have been advanced. The recruitment moves from the slow motor units to the intermediate, and then to the fast motor units during activities spanning on a wide range of power production like jogging and vertical jumping (Figure 42) (Stuart and Enoka, 1983). ‘The theoretical model developed by Stuart and Enoka (1983) is also pased on the results of Bosco and Komi (1979a) that observed superior ver- tical jump performance in subjects with high percentage of FT fibres. This correlation suggests that even if the force developed during a vertical jump js no more than 30-40% of the maximum isometric force (Bosco et al, 1982b), the intervention of the phasic motor units is predominant in com- parison to the tonic motor units. Vertical Jump Power (W) : Jogging 5 3 100 Motor-Unit Pool (%) Fig, 42 - Hypothetical model of motor units recruitment: S = slow twitch fibres, FTIR = (fast twitch intermediate) and FF = (fast twitch fibres) (Stuart & Enoka, the Clinical Neuroscience. Sec 5, Neurology, 471-517, New York, Churchill Livingstone, 1983). 4.4.43 Theoretical and Practical Considerations on Explosive Strength Observing basic movements in sport or general physical activity, it is easy to realise that the explosive expression of strength is the most common and natural. Kicking or hitting a ball, doing a long jump etceteras are com- mon skills and they are realised with ballistic and explosive muscular actions. It interesting to know that explosive strength, measured as SJ and CMJ performance, corresponds to maximum muscular power production of the knee extensors (Bosco et al., 1982b) (Figure 48). Maximum muscular power is produced at 35-40% of maximum velocity (Vmax) Gill, 1938). ‘The SJ and CMJ tests correspond to this point. This gives a scientific basis to the almost universal use of vertical jump tests. 4545 Barbell Squat Jump with Increasing Loads Until a Load Corresponding to Subject Body Weight or More « ‘The technique of the barbell Squat Jump with increasing loads (STioxg ~ STiookg ) or with a load corresponding to subject body weight (SJbw) is similar to the SJ (Figure 43) but it is executed with loads between 10 and 100 kg or more. Bucbell Squat Jump with increasing loads characteristics are: « Investigated capacities: maximal dynamic strength (MDS) with light ($130kg) and high (SJbw) loads; ‘Neural recruitment capacity (Bosco et 21, 1982a); morphological structure of knee extensor muscles (whole muscle cross-sectional area and FT and ST fibres dimension) (Bosco, 1985). Muscle action: concentric (positive work). Relationship with other parameters and functions: SJ10-40kg correlated with SJ and CMJ; SJbw correlated with maximum jsometric force. It is fundamental for the transformation of basic strength in speed-explosive strength and for the right balance between force and velocity. It is also correlated with speed-strength endurance. Training Methods for MDS development: Jsotonic exercises with near maximum loads; the number of reps an sets depend on the morphological ‘characteristics of the leg extensor muscles (% of FT fibres). Subjects with an percentage of FT fibres must do low reps and many sets, while “slow” subjects must do high reps and few sets (Bosco, 1985). 4.5.1 Practical applications The main goal of these tests is to give the opportunity to construct the relationship between force (barbell load) and vertical velocity at take-off or h (that depends on the former, see formula 2). This relationship between. force and velocity was discovered first in 1938 by the great physiologi; LV. Hill, Nobel Prize winner, working on jsolated muscles. After, a simi-' Jar relationship was found involving not only few muscle fibres, but also big muscle groups acting on three different joints like during barbell jumps with increasing loads (Bosco and Komi, 1979). With jncreasing loads ver- tical jump performance diminishes. Therefore, using this system (Figure 44) is possible to control training adaptations of leg extensors that, theoretically, should present a trend like (4) This test can be done only by subjects acquainted with weightlifting technique and that usually train with resistance exercises. 46Fig. 43 - Squat Jump performed with extra load. «@) Foot on the plasform b) Knee angle around 90 degrees c) Load 1d) Knee angle during the ground contact after the flight phase around 180 degrees e) Foot in extension. @ Fast twich fibres O Slow twich fibres Knee angular velocity (rad + s*) Fig. 44 - Hypotherical model of motor units recruitment: (0) = slow twitch fibres, and (@) fast ‘witch fibres during squat jump performed with and without loads (Bosco, 1985). 47the one shown in Figure 45a if loads were carefully selected. This means that the various points (e) representing the data registered during trials done with various loads, are not far away from an best fitting hyperbolic curve. If too much training with high loads was prescribed, it is possible to see an upward shift (Figure 45 b) in the J trial with high loads (0). In the oppo- site scenario, it would be possible to obtain a value similar to the one shown in Figure 45c. The values shown in Figure 45a, b and c are theoretical while the ones shown in Figure 46 and 47 were measured in high level athletes. ‘The pattern of the force/velocity relationship shown in Figure 46 is homo geneous and thus reflect correct and balanced training stimuli. On the con- trary, in Figure 47 is shown a tendency toward maximal strength, probably due to excessive use of maximal loads during training. A B c Fg TENSION fo TENSION Pog TENSION ‘VELOCITY No VELOCITY Yo VELOCITY Yo Fig, 45 - Force velocity relationship developed during sauct jump performed with and without loads (Bosco, 1985). Average foroe(N) e_Average force (N) 2 $8 Knee angular velocity (ra¢ 5) 0 bom 2 rok Knee angular velocity (od =") Fig. 46 - Force velocity relationship devel- Fig 47 - Force velocity relationship devel- oped by a female athlete during squat jump oped by a male athlete during squat Jump performed with and without loads (Bosco, performed with and without loads (Bosco, 1985). 1985). 48, A‘The relationship between force and velocity was used in the past to study the mechanical and electromyographical behaviour of the muscles in the Jab before and after training (Figure 49), its relationship with FT fibres percentage (Figure 50) and as a field test for athletes assessment in various sports (Figure 51) and ages (Figure 52 and 53). Without any doubt, the force/velocity relationship gives the opportunity to evaluate specific functional characteristics for each sport disciplines (Figure 51 and 53). Fig. 48 - Force and angular velocity relationship ‘and mechanical power obtained for the first time {i laboratory by a male athlete during squat jump performed with and without loads (Bosco & Komi,1979). Max SUAT-LIFT veo} 'Ka) 140 0 pet ceanine M.VASTUS MEDIALIS tex. sa ELE LE) 2 5 Fg sovar” 109 oul MAVASTUS LATERALIS is) 80 20 ra ° « M RECTUS FEMORIS. x 8 HEIGHT OF RISE OF CO ° © tem ua oe aes. Te 2 Te 9 W@ 0 #0 60 co 20 0 Max TaKE OFF VELOCITY MAX VELOCITY coAD IN sauar Jump Y=1OCHY (mes) (roa ee") (a) Fig. 49 - Force velocity relationship developed during squat jump performed with and without loads before and after a strength training period. Note the electromyography recorded in the leg extensor muscles. The asterisks denote the level of significance (Hakkinen & Komi, Scand J Sport Sci, 7, 2, pag. 58, 1985 ). 49BODY WEIGHT + EXTRA LOAD (FORCE) (KG) 180 Liso (MEAN #50) FT% fe f= Sprinters (20) — 9752107 % Jumpers (10) - 455283 120 A Throwers (23) = 447270 fe Distance runners (24)~ 283% 7.9 {109 POWER (WATT) ° 1 2 a 4 5 VERTICAL VELOCITY AT TAKE-OFF (mxs") Fig. 50 ~ The average values of force and power velocity relationship developed by several groups of male athletes, possessing different muscle type distribution in m yastis lateralis, dur- fag squat jump performed with and without loads (Bosco ¢t al, 1969), Furthermore, changes induced by explosive and maximal strength training can be easily assessed comparing pre- and post-test results. This contributes to evaluate the real efficacy of training but does not give the opportunity to know, before starting a conditioning program, which fs the physical capacity that needs to be developed more (e-8- explosive strength) in comparison to another (e.g. maximal strength). For this pur- pose, the functional parameters better representing the two most important mechanical aspects of muscle function (force and velocity) were individu- ated. These parameters are the SI for velocity and SJbw for force. In this way these parameters are useful to not only to assess maximal and explo- 50EXTRA LOAD (FORCE) 100 (kG) © Competitive walkers (10000-20000Km)(n=9) @ Long distance (5000 m) (n=15) 4 Middle distance (1500m) (n=10) & Sprint endurance (800m) (n=7) © Sprint resistent (400m) (n=8) © Sprinters (10 - 200m) (n=20) 80 60 40 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 RISE OF C.6. (em) Fig. 51 - The average values of force- velocity relationship developed by several groups of male athletes, possessing different muscle type distribution in m vastus lateralis, during squat jump performed with and without loads (Bosco et al, 1989). Raise of the centre of gravity (SJ) © Volleyball senior \ pas aS (cm y} ose aot Nos oe 20 10 Load (kg) Fig, 52 - The average values of the relationship between the load raised and the height jumped recorded in the Norwegian Junior and Senior Man National Volleyball Teams (Bahr et all. Testing av idretis - utvere, ed. Universtetforlaget, Oslo, pag 122, 1991). 51nce Jumping (m) ae i Volleyball Track ond field a Gos AO, pie 207 25, 28 Extra load (kg) Fig, 53 ~ The average values ofthe relationship between the load raised and the height jumped Fie or din several sport groups and young subjects (Vitasalo, Res Quart Exerc, and sport, vol 59, 1, pag 12, 1988). sive strength but also to determine the balance between force and velocity. In fact, both are functional expressions of the same anatomical structure (skeletal muscle). 4.5.2 Bosco’s Index At cellular level (muscle fibres) tension is correlated to the cross-sec- tional area, while velocity depend on length. If we consider muscle action jn situ (i.e. as a neuromuscular unit) the determining factors and related phenomena are far more complex because they are modulated by the cen- tral and peripheral nervous system. For this reason, it is very difficult to evaluate its force and velocity properties. Even the best scientist is con- fronted with the difficulty to compare force, expressed in N, and velocity, expressed in m/s. This problem was successfully solved by Bosco (1986) comparing SJ performance (as an expression of maximum contraction velocity of leg extensors muscles in natural conditions) with performance of the same muscles when they have to Tift a load equal to subject body weight (SJbw). The evaluation of these two main functional capacities of skeletal muscles (maximum speed and maximum force expressed dynami- cally) can be compared because data are recorded have the same unit of 52measurement such as h or take-off vertical velocity. This system has given the opportunity to study the relationship between force and velocity in the same muscle or muscle group. In this way, it is possible to compare and then evaluate the effects of various training programs and control if they have homogeneously improved all muscle functional capacities or, for example, if they have affected more strength than velocity. This phenome- non could induce a very dangerous internal muscle unbalance and it should be immediately corrected to return in a normal situation. ‘The balance, in other words the force/velocity relationship, is given by the ratio between the athlete SJbw and CMI performance. For example, if the SJbw performance is 15 cm and SJ performance is 45 cm, the force/ yelocity relationship is represented by SJbw/SJ (15/45 = 0.33). This means that the subject with a barbell equal to his/her body weight on the shoulders is able to produce 33% of vertical jump performance produced in optimal conditions. This relationship has been calculated in athletes from different sports and therefore it is possible to empirically determine the right balance in these athletes during different training periods. This new physiological assessment method gives the opportunity to decide when and how modu- late (increase or decrease) maximal strength training loads. In fact, if the balance is disrupted this can be individuated with the test that also suggests which functional expression of the muscle prevails. Based on these information corrections in the training program are made to ensure further improvements in performance. In this way the problem to decide when to stop high resistance training no longer exists because it is objectively suggested by the test. Therefore, specific training starts if there is a deficit in a certain capacity and stops when the balance is reached. After this, only periodical controls and maintenance stimuli are required. 4.5.3 Physiological Considerations on Maximum Dynamic Strength Contrasting with current theory of training, high levels of maximal strength (Fmax) or MDS are not essential prerequisites to obtain top level performance in many sports with the exception of few sport activities like weightlifting. Nevertheless, having an optimal level of Fmax or MDS is fundamental to develop high explosive strength (speed-strength, rapid strength). This is well known by coaches and strength and conditioning pro- fessionals. In fact, most strength training programs begin with exercises and methods that induce adaptations in the biological processes on which Fmax and MDS are based and then, in the last phases of the process, they concen- trate training on explosive and specific strength. In other words coaches try first to increase Fmax and MDS and then to convert them in explosive strength. These programs can be successfully realised because some of the biological bases of Fmax and MDS are similar to the ones of explosive strength. 53However, other aspects are completely different (e.g. the force/veloci- ty relationship) and training science must find the best ways to transform © G transfer the biological adaptations induced by maximal strength train- ing into high levels of explosive strength. - The old training methodology consists of an initial training period exclusively devoted to increase Fmax (2-3 months) and then explosive and specific strength training periods. The new concepts, supported by both practical experience and experimental studies, consist in concurrent maxi- mal and explosive strength training. In the first preparatory period more emphasis must be placed on Fmax and then, before the competitive period, on explosive and special strength. ‘An examination of the biological processes on which Fmax and MDS are based is useful to understand how a rational maximal strength training program can induce complex neuromuscular adaptations and improve Explosive strength. It is well known that the firs biological adaptations to strength training is neural (see Moritani and De Vries, 1980) and that mor- phological adaptations that Jead to muscle hypertrophy follow (Figure 54). 100. trained arm untrained arm Ord OS ae # heeded tt f 2 cee none nay, Lot 2 4 6 8 tb! training (weeks) Fig, 54 - Percentage contribution of improvement of strength due 10 neurogenic (0) or myogenic (e) factors in the trained and not trained arm for young (upper panel) and old lower panel (Moritani & de Vries, 1980). 54It is possible that neural factors act at different levels of the central and peripheral nervous system and finally result in a maximal activation of the various motor units involved. The important influence of the nervous sys- tem was also indirectly demonstrated by studies on electrical stimulation (see Mac Donagh and Davies, 1984; Davies and colleagues, 1985). These authors proved that 80 tetanic contractions of 10 s duration induced by elec- trical stimulation do not induce strength improvement. These results sug- gest that voluntary activation of the central nervous system is necessary to obtain substantial improvement in maximum voluntary strength. It necessary to remember that among various neural factors, the one that adapts first is the recruitment of new motor units. Later, temporal recruitment capacity increases (i.e. an higher number of motor units are recruited at the same time) followed by the capacity to produce high fre- quency stimuli. This last adaptation, in contrast with the long time neces- sary to obtain it, is lost rapidly after cessation of training (Sale, 1990). After the first period in which strength improvement is due to neural adaptations | Ginter- and intra-muscular co-ordination), adaptive processes consists in an increase of muscle cross-sectional area (hypertrophy) (Figure 55 from Sale, 1988). time Fig, 55 - Schematic representation of strength training improvement. In the first phase of resis- tance training the improvement of the strength can be attributed to neurogenic factors. As the training continue the morphological structure of the muscle is strongly involved inducing hyper- trophy (modified from Sale, 1988). 55Once reached the natural peak of strength development, only the use of. dangerous anabolic steroids can further improve strength. The increase in muscle cross-sectional area is usually seen in humans trained with weights and it is mainly due to an increase of the contractile component and inter- stitial connective tissue (Mac Dougall, 1986) (Figure 56). Therefore, until new scientific evidences will be presented, a significant increase in the number of muscle fibres (hyperplasia), as suggested by some authors, must be excluded except for cases in which necrotic fibres are substituted. (9) @ Training a Se 3 @|— 6) & Immobilization oe s g of Fig. 56 - Model showing the morphological variation induced by the resistance training and immobilisation. (Mac Dougal, 1986). Among all the adaptations induced by maximal strength training, the ones closer to the neuromuscular qualities necessary to develop explosive strength are particularly important. In fact, the capacity to develop maximal strength and explosive strength have many common characteristics. In Table 1 the basic mechanisms behind both strength expressions are pre- sented. The ones indicated with letter A, B, C, D, and E are in common. This suggests that an improvement jn these factors due to maximal strength training could positively influence explosive strength production. 56Neuromuscular characteristics Explosive power Maximal dynamic (SJand CMJ) strength (SJbw) ‘A) Motor units synchronisation ed am B) Frequency of stimuli from CNS cd ©) Inter and intra muscular co-ordination ve aan 1D) Ransbaw cell influence wee + E) Golgi Tendon Organs inhibition * ae F) Stretch reflex potentiation . H) Muscle section area see T) Muscle morphological structure (% FT ) said ‘able 1 - Main factors contributing to explosive force performances evaluated with squat jump (SJ) and counter movement jump (CMJ) and maximal dynamic strength (SJbw). The asterisks denote the level of influence (Bosco, 1985). 4.5.4 Practical Applications with the National Italian Track and Field Team Jumpers Phenomena related to both explosive and maximal strength were recently studied in a longitudinal research conducted on some athletes of the National Italian Track and Field Team. These athletes (six jumpers) were controlled with the Bosco’s Test for 135 weeks. They trained 3-4 hours a day for 8-10 times a week for the entire year. The training consist- ed in maximal, explosive and special strength exercises plus technique and speed work (Locatelli, 1986). In Figure 57 is shown that both SJ and SJbow performance significantly improved (p < 0.01) in 12 weeks. After, explo- sive strength capacity levelled off and remained constant or slightly decreased. On the other hand, MDS continued to improve until the end of the study. ‘A possible explanation is that neural adaptations influenced both Fmax and explosive strength. The plateau in explosive strength could suggest the achievement of maximum level of this functional capacity. On the contrary the progressive improvement in MDS could have been induced by an increase in leg extensor muscles cross-sectional area, However, these interpretations must be treated cautiously because no hystological data are available. On the other hand, many studies have shown an increase in muscle fibres cross-sectional area in subjects trained -with maximal and explosive strength exercises (Hakkinen, 1986; Figure 58). a7.RAISE OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY A ” reves March Wor. "86 waren Wevias wach Fig. 57 - Raise of the centre of gravity recorded in SJ and Jom performed by six jumpers belonging to Italian Track and Field National Team during 135 weeks (Bosco, 1990). 22s] (UA + SE) ee v i 300} lee hoes I~ If ‘éxplosive strenght average value in muscle fibres cross-sectional area 3 7 training (weeks) 7% Fig. 58 - Average values of the fibres area found in the slow and fast twitch fibres of m. yasnus laralis observed during 24 weeks of resistance training (70-100% of IRM) performed by one group of athletes (n= I) and another group (n = 10) performing explosive power training (Hakkinen, 1986). 58Different results were presented by Komi et al. (1982) that found an increase in both FT and ST fibres cross-sectional area in subject trained with maximal strength exercises, while subjects trained with explosive strength and plyometric exercises did not show any significant difference in muscle fibres cross-sectional area. Based on these results, it is reasonable to suggest that training must carefully prescribed to improve both explosive and MDS, Incorrect prescription (number of reps, loads, etceteras) induce negative morpho-functional adaptations that could hinder performance improvement (Bosco, 1985). 4.5.5 Data Collected on the National Finnish Volleyball Team These data were observed in members of the National Finnish Volleyball Team. In Figure 59, explosive force capacity (represented as SJ and CMJ with a run-up to simulate pre-smash actions) significantly improved after eigth months of specific training (P < 0.05 - 0.01) including RAISE OF C.G. mir /oH my with run-up Isometric Strenght Body Welgth Maren 1976 Woy 1976 Fig, 59 - Raise of the centre of gravity recorded during vertical jumps performed in counter movement after run up (CMJ with run up), in counter movement (CMJ) squat jump (SJ) and ‘maximal isometric force expressed in function of body weight (MIF /BW) observed in twelve vol- leyball players belonging to Finnish National Team (Bosco,1983). 59maximal strength training and explosive exercises. At the same time rela- tive maximum isometric force (maximum isometric force/body weight) diminished. This phenomenon demonstrates that high levels of Fax are not always necessary to express high levels of explosive strength. Tf maximal strength training is continued after the short period of time (8-10 weeks) in which neural adaptations and an increase in the FT/ST ratio are prevalent (Komi et al., 1982), there is even the possibility to induce hypertrophy of slow twitch fibres. An increase in ST fibres cross-sectional area and their recruitment (as in high loads-high repetitions exercises) can have a negative effect on explosive strength capacity. It is not still possible to prove this, but it is possible to advance an hypothesis. An example is ‘used to illustrate it. Consider two subjects pushing a cart (Figure 60) and assume that both subjects are connected to it. One subject is fast (it can run 10 m/s) while the other is slow (5 m/s). When they start to push (condition A) both produce the force necessary to start the movement (Figure 61a). In Bx... ie oe AS = v=ome vesme vee Fig. 60 - Example of force developed by slow (black) and fast (white) ovtch fibres during stat- ic und dynamic effort. In static condition both fibres type are contributing to the force develop- ment, as far the systems moves forwards (5 més) the contribution of the slow twitch fibres “Tecrcase until its effect becomes negative at greater speed (10 mis) (Bosco, 1983). Fig. 61 - Example of force velocity rela- tionship developed by slow (interrupt line) + and fast (continuos line) twitch fibres un veoaty(m x=") (Bosco, 1983).condition B, both subjects can produce propulsive force but the slow sub- ject can produce less force because it has reached its maximum velocity (Figure 61b). In condition C, only the fast subject can produce propulsive force (Figure 61c) while the slow subject is braking the cart. Now suppose that both subjects increase their muscle mass as it happens during heavy loads strength training. When they start to push, as seen in condition A, the two subjects propulsive force is increased. Unfortunately in condition C, even if subject A increased its force production at high velocities, the slow subject also increased its negative influence because its increased mass augments the load that the fast subject must push. Therefore the maximum velocity that can be developed by both subjects is not changed because the positive training effect on the fast subject is counteracted by the increased load rep- resented by the slow subject. The hypothesis of Bosco is also supported by the famous Russian strength training expert Jury Verkhoshansky (1981) who suggested that excessive maximal strength training is inappropriate in speed-strength sports because it can negatively influence the capacity of the subject to produce explosive strength, movement speed and their regulato- ry mechanism. Such negative effect can not be taken in account for cross- training of medium level athletes but becomes very important in high level athletes. If not avoided, it can lead with time to a plateau in performance. From a physiological point of view, this means that if heavy resistance training is done for a long time, it can induce an adaptations both in slow and fast fibres and both are recruited during both fast and slow movements. It is probable that this happens because during this kind of training both fibre types are involved. During slow movements there is no negative effect if both fibre types are recruited but during a fast movement the recruitment of slow fibres seems to have a negative effect. A possible explanation of the negative effect produced by the ST fibres during a fast, ballistic movement is that the long coupling time of the ST fibres result in slower shortening velocity (Barany et al., 1967). The actomyosin bridges can oppose resis- tance to a sustained contraction when shortening velocity is so high that they do not have enough time to break before new are formed (Woledge, 1968). Based on these considerations it must be kept in mind before starting a strength training program that heavy resistance exercises provides a pow- erful hypertrophic stimulus to both fibre types. Therefore even if the morphological adaptations of fast fibres could represent the ideal training effect, the concurrent hypertrophy of slow fibres can slow down muscle contraction at high velocities. This observation underlines the principle of training specificity and suggests that training stimuli should improve physiological capacities of athletes but also avoid a concomitant negative effect on other biological functions. 61orem 4.5.6 Observations on Data Collected from the Members of the National Ttalian Alpine Skiing Team The behaviour of MDS and explosive strength not always follows rigid models valid for each sport discipline ‘where these two qualities represent the bases on which specific technique is built. Surprising data were recent- ly collected in athletes of the National Italian Alpine Skiing Team (Bosco et al., 1990). As shown in Figure 62, explosive strength and MDS followed a trend parallel to maximal and explosive strength exercises used during the summer physical conditioning phase. In the first month of training there was a marked increase of SJ and SJbw (P< 0.01 - 0.001) (June-July) that ~ was followed by maintenance of these values until November. : Subsequently, when no systematic maximal strength training was done (ini- tial part of the competitive period), there was an ‘unpredictable increase of both SJ and SJbw. In absence of specific stimuli for Fmax, a plateau or even. a decrease in SJbw was anticipated. Therefore it seems that the stimuli jnduced by various technical exercises and competitions are strong enough to induce further biological adaptations influencing MDS and explosive strength. There is no doubt that mechanical stress sustained by the lower BOSCO’S TEST +g9-"90 MEN (SJ and BW) too 0 Fig. 62 - Raise of the centre of gravity recorded in SJ and SJbm performed by athletes belong- in to lalian National Alpine Ski Team during @ ‘competition season (Bosco et al 1990). 62 il alimbs during competition is extremely high (Figure 63). In addition inten- sity and duration of stimuli induced by competition are higher than those of maximal strength training in the gym. The period of time in which high neuromuscular stimuli are produced (90-120 s) is not inferior to the time necessary to lift 150 times a barbell of 150 kg (Bosco, 1985, 1992c). This means that technical exercises and competitions not only induce specific improvements (co-ordination, equilibrium, etceteras) but they can also improve levels of MDS and explosive strength. Fig. 63 - Ground reaction force recorded during a downhill race. The continuos line represents the lower limit which should not be crossed to avoid the occlusion of the leg extensor muscles. The broken line represents the improvement due to the resistance training (Bosco, 1992a, and Fez & Muller, 1991). 4.5.7 Physiological aspects and practical considerations on strength training As previously emphasised, the effective time in which neuromuscular processes are involved during maximal strength training is very brief. If execution time is measured during exercises with loads from 30 to 70% of Fmax, duration between 350 and 800-900 ms are obtained (Figure 64). In an entire training session this corresponds to 2-3 minutes of total work. Anyway, if the low load exercises (30-40% of Fmax) are executed at max- imum speed, the neuromuscular system is stressed as much as during a 100% of Fmax lift (Bosco et al., 1982a) (Figure 65). As shown, in Figure 66, it is difficult to produce maximum power for more than few reps. Even 63FORCE 500N Fig. 64 - Ground reaction force recorded 400 ms TIME — ‘squat jump (Bosco, 1978/79). EMG 28 64 Ex 0° eee om, 3 EMG rectus (es): 2 Bad a i 1 M ‘ qy % EMG vastus g R 1 1 all | \ ‘IL rt 1 Knee flection 80% fast 60% slow during several weight lifting conditions and during Fig. 65 - Example of EMG recorded during weight lifting condition (Kunz 1986). | E |