Journal of the American Institute for Conservation

ISSN: 0197-1360 (Print) 1945-2330 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/yjac20

Literature Review: The Use of Paraloid B-72 as a

Surface Consolidant for Stained Glass

Sasha Chapman & David Mason

To cite this article: Sasha Chapman & David Mason (2003) Literature Review: The Use of
Paraloid B-72 as a Surface Consolidant for Stained Glass, Journal of the American Institute for
Conservation, 42:2, 381-392, DOI: 10.1179/019713603806112813

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/019713603806112813

Published online: 18 Jul 2013.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 54

View related articles

Citing articles: 2 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=yjac20

Download by: [University of Pennsylvania] Date: 10 April 2016, At: 02:52

 LITERATURE REVIEW: THE USE OF PARALOID B-72 AS A
SURFACE CONSOLIDANT FOR STAINED GLASS
SASHA CHAPMAN AND DAVID MASON
ABSTRACT-This paper was originally commIS-
sioned by English Heritage, the government's statu-
tory adviser on archaeology and the historic
environment in England, in the mid-1990s following
concerns over the suitability of Paraloid B-72 for
consolidation of loose paint in stained glass conserva-
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
tion. Paraloid B-72 has regularly been utilized for the
re-adhesion of loose paint. But in spite of its many
advantages (ease of use, reversibility, good aging prop-
erties, stability, and miscibility with several types of
solvent),legitimate questions have been raised over its
limitations (poor resistance to humidity, relatively
weak bond with vitreous substrates, and solvent
hazards).
This article begins with a description of the
chemistry and characteristics of Paraloid B-72 and its
application in the conservation of historic painted
glass. There follows a review of the current state of
research on and practical experiences in the use of
Paraloid B-72 and related systems. The article incor-
porates a summary of the known and tested proper-
ties of Paraloid B-72 in comparison with alternative
materials currently under scrutiny for use in stained
glass conservation and discusses the longer-term
effects of treatment and the need for continued
assessment of their efficacy.
TITRE-Une revue de la litterature concernant
1'utilisation du Paraloid B-72 en tant que consolidant
de surface pour Ie vitrail. RESUME-Cet article a
d' abord ete commande au milieu des annees 1990 par
English Heritage (la commission britannique sur les
edifices et monuments historiques) qui sert comme
conseiller statutaire pour Ie government sur
l' archeologie et l' environnement historique en
Angleterre. La raison etait que des reservations avaient
ete soulevees au sujet de 1'utilisation du Paraloid B-72
lors de la consolidation des couches picturales sur les
vitraux. Le Paraloid B-72 est regulierement utilise
pour consolider les couches picturales qui se
soulevent. Mais malgre ses nombreux avantages
(facilite d'utilisation, reversibilite, bonnes proprietes
de vieillissement, stabilite, et solubilite dans plusieurs
types de solvant), des questions legitimes ont ete
soulevees a propos de certains de ses points faibles
(pietre resistance a l'humidite, faible adherence aux
substrats vitreux et risques causes par les solvants).
Cet article debute avec une description de la
chimie et des caracteristiques du Paraloid B-72 et de
son application dans la conservation du verre
historique peint. On y trouve ensuite une revue de
l' etat actuel de la recherche sur 1'utilisation du
Paraloid B-72 et de systemes semblables, et des
traitements couramment pratiques. L'article presente
aussi une synthese des proprietes actuellement
connues et testees du Paraloid B-72 et les compare
avec celles d' autres materiaux qui font presentement
l' objet d' examens pour leur utilisation dans Ie
traitement du vitrail. L'article se termine avec une
discussion des effets a long terme du traitement et
souligne Ie besoin de faire des suivis pour verifier si
les traitements demeurent efficaces au fil du temps.
TITULO-Revisi6n de literatura: El uso de Paraloid
B-72 como un consolidante de superficie para el
vidrio de color. RESUMEN-Esta investigaci6n fue
encargada originalmente por la English Heritage a
mediados de la dec ada de los anos 1990, a causa de la
preocupaci6n existente sobre si es adecuado 0 no el
uso de Paraloid B-72 como un consolidante de
pintura suelta en la conservaci6n de vitrales. Paraloid
B-72 se ha usado comunmente en la re-adhesi6n de
pintura suelta. Sin embargo, a pesar de sus muchas
ventajas (facilidad de uso, reversibilidad, buenas
propiedades de envejecimiento, estabilidad y facilidad
de mezclarse con diferentes tipos de solventes), han
surgido algunas preguntas legitimas con respecto a sus
limitaciones (poca resistencia a la humedad, agarre
relativamente pobre a substratos vidriosos y riesgos
inherentes al solvente).
Este articulo comienza con una descripci6n de la
quimica y caractensticas del Paraloid B-72 y su apli-
caci6n en la conservaci6n de vidrios pintados hist6ri-
cos. A continuaci6n se hace una revisi6n del estado
actual de la investigaci6n del Paraloid B-72 y de las
experiencias practicas con el uso de este producto y
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
 382
SASHA CHAPMAN AND DAVID MASON
sistemas relacionados. El articulo incorpora un
resumen de las propiedades conocidas y probadas del
Paraloid B-72 en comparaci6n con materiales alter-
nativos, actualmente bajo escrutinio para su uso en la
conservaci6n de vitrales. Se examinan los efectos a
largo plazo de su uso en tratamientos y la necesidad
de una continua evaluaci6n de la eficacia de estos
productos.
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
TITULO-Revisao de textos tecnicos: uso de Paraloid
B-72 como urn consolidante de superficie para vidro
colorido. RESUMO-Este artigo foi encomendado
originalmente pelo English Heritage, que e 6rgao
governamental consultor para arqueologia e ambiente
hist6rico na Inglaterra, em meados da decada de 90
decorrente de questionamentos sobre a utilizac;:aode
Paraloid B-72 na consolidac;:ao de pintura solta em
tratamento de conservac;:ao de vidros coloridos.
Paraloid B-72 tern sido utilizado habitualmente para a
re-adesao de pintura desprendida. Apesar das suas
muitas vantagens (facilidade de uso, reversibilidade,
durabilidade, estabilidade e miscibilidade em varios
tipos de solventes), existem questoes legitimas sobre
suas limitac;:oes (baixa resistencia a umidade, liga
relativamente fraca com substratos vitreos e perigos dos
solventes).
Este artigo comec;:acom uma descric;:aoda quimica
e das caractensticas do Paraloid B-72 e sua aplicac;:aona
conservac;:ao de objetos hist6ricos em vidro pintado.
Segue-se uma revisao da situac;:aoatual da pesquisa nesta
area e experiencias praticas no uso do Paraloid B-72 e
sistemas correlatos. 0 artigo inclui urn resumo das
propriedades conhecidas e testadas do Paraloid B-72
em comparac;:aocom materiais alternativos atualmente
em estudo e usados na conservac;:aode vidro colorido.
Tambem discute os efeitos a longo prazo do tratamento
e a necessidade de avaliac;:aoconstante de sua eficacia.
1. INTRODUCTION
This review looks at published sources of informa-
tion regarding Paraloid B-72 and its role in consoli-
dating stained glass, with particular reference to
reattaching lifted or unstable paint layers. The aim is
to comment on and evaluate recent trends in stained
glass conservation practice. Paraloid B-72 has
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
commonly been used to consolidate glass, either
alone or in combination with other resins, since the
early 1980s. In the museum environment, it is highly
regarded as an adhesive for its strength, stability, and
reversibility (Koob 1986; Horie 1987; Koob 2000).
The ease with which the properties of the resin can
be adapted to suit different circumstances by the
addition of different types and quantities of solvent
has made it a popular choice with conservators. It
may, however, be more harshly tested in an architec-
tural situation, where it may be subject to greater
extremes of humidity, temperature, and UV radiation,
and the resin may possess additional practical limita-
tions as far as the treatment of stained glass is
concerned. This study attempts to review and assess,
based on sources available in the literature, the suit-
ability ofParaloid B-72 for the treatment of architec-
tural stained glass.
The application of advanced scientific techniques
to the study of the behavior of consolidants for
different types of stained glass under artificial aging
conditions has been largely a Franco-German
endeavor. The last 10 years have seen a proliferation
of literature on this subject and on the development
of new materials specifically suited to the consolida-
tion of glass (Romich et al. 1993; Programme
Franco-allemand 1999; Wolff 2000), the salient
features of which are reported here. The outcomes of
these important and extensive studies-in particular
the potential for development of new inorganic and
hybrid consolidation products such as silicon-zirco-
nium alkoxides (SZA) and ORMOCER-remain to
be tested and observed in the practical domain.
By contrast, empirical approaches to the treat-
ment of objects on-site or in the laboratory, work-
shop, or studio, practical experiences with
consolidant products, and reviews of previous treat-
ments are rarely reported in the literature of stained
glass conservation. Wherever possible, provision
should be made to disseminate this documentation
more widely. This move would greatly assist
researchers of the future, whose task it will be to eval-
uate past treatments, optimize existing systems, and
enhance the properties of new products.

LITERATURE REVIEW:THE USE OF PARALOID B-72 AS A SURFACE
CONSOLIDANT FOR STAINED GLASS
2. DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS
OF A CONSOLIDANT FOR STAINED
GLASS
In general terms, an appropriate consolidation treat-
ment for stained glass may be required to improve the
adhesion of the paint or painted layer to the glass
substrate; improve cohesion of corroded layers of
glass paint or stain; be able to cope with thermal and
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
humidity conditions present at the site; possess excel-
lent light-aging characteristics; be resistant to chemi-
cal attack; have minimal visual impact on the glass
(i.e., not change the color, opacity, or refractive index
of the painted layer); possess flow properties that
enable it to penetrate the areas ofloose paint (i.e.,low
viscosity and high surface tension); be chemically
neutral, and remain so over time; be resistant to
biodegradation; possess good application and
handling characteristics; and be reversible (or at least
not impede retreatment).
In practice, the deterioration of paint on stained
glass may involve different kinds of physical and
chemical processes, depending on the way in which
the stained glass is colored and fired. These processes
can range from disaggregation of a fired surface layer
and detachment from the glass substrate to lifting of
flakes of applied paint. The consolidant must there-
fore be responsive to the particular nature of the glass
in question and its degradation. This requirement
makes it difficult to prescribe a single treatment that
will work for all situations.
2.1.THE CONSOLIDANTS
Polymers used as consolidants can be divided
into two main groups: natural and synthetic. Some
natural polymers are relatively stable and have been
used in the past for glass repair (Davison 1984). There
has been some recent interest in and comparative
studies of the potential of natural wax mixtures
(beeswax, carnauba wax) for the consolidation of
glass paint, and the suitability of these is being moni-
tored in situ (Muller 1984; Forberg and Bornschein
1996). However, synthetic polymers are generally
preferred in conservation on account of the large
body of data, acquired over many decades of experi-
383
mental and laboratory research, that support their
stability and other favorable properties. Some
synthetics, notably the acrylics, show good aging
characteristics. Other synthetic resins-for example,
soluble nylon and polyvinyl acetate-are unsuitable,
as they can attract dust, which is an undesirable char-
acteristic in a consolidant. In the case of polyvinyl
acetate, which has a low glass transition point (Tg) of
28°C, there is also a tendency for the material to cold
flow (Newton and Davison 1989).1
For the consolidation of historic stained glass,
two broad types of synthetic resin system have been
chiefly reported in the literature: epoxies and acrylics.
Other materials, such as polyurethanes, have also
been used experimentally.
2.1.1. Epoxies
Following early concerns about yellowing and
degradation of the resin over time, tests reported the
availability of epoxy resin systems that possess accept-
able lightfastness and clarity (Tennent 1979; Down
1986). A number of epoxies have been successfully
employed, chiefly as adhesives and gap fillers for
broken glass fragments (Notman and Tennent 1980;
Jackson 1982; Davison 1984; De Henau and
Fontaine-Hodiamont 1991). Less successful has been
the use of epoxy resins dissolved in solvents such as
acetone, or low-viscosity room-temperature-curing
epoxies such as Ablebond 342-1, as consolidants for
painted glass and grisaille (Weintraub and Greenland
1984; Cole 1989; Femenella 1994; Strobl 1999).
2.1.2 Acrylics
The monomers from which acrylic polymers are
made fall into two groups: acrylates and methacry-
lates. Polymethacrylates were among the first
synthetic resins used to coat glass (Bettembourg
1976; Newton and Seddon 1999) and as consolidants
are still among the most popular. The Paraloid
(formerly Acryloid in the U.S.) resins, discussed more
fully below, are perhaps the best known.
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
 384
SASHA CHAPMAN AND DAVID MASON
2.1.3 Other Materials
A third class of materials, polymers formed by
reaction of a polyisocyanate with a polyacrylate, and
sometimes categorized In the literature as
polyurethanes, has been used experimentally. Systems
based on the acrylate resin Viacryl SM564 +
Desmodur N75 (an isocyanate) were developed and
tested during the 1970s (Bettembourg 1976; Newton
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
and Seddon 1999), but these particular resins were
shown to be unsuitable for the situations in which
they were used and are no longer employed in
stained glass conservation. However, these kinds of
polymer remain potentially useful materials for the
protective coating of glass (Newton 1987). Recent
research on consolidation of stained glass has also
shown that two-part acrylate-isocyanate systems
(Desmophen A160-Desmodur N75) perform very
well in terms of adhesion, optical stability, and dura-
bility when compared to other materials, including
methacrylates (Jagers et al. 2000). These systems are,
however, irreversible. Limited application has also
been found for ethyl silicates, which are theoretically
interesting as they enrich the glass with silica, but are
also irreversible (Fontaine 1999).
2.2. PARALOID (ACRYLOID) RESINS
There are several types of Paraloid available,
including B-44, B-66, B-67, and B-72. They are all
thermoplastic acrylic resins available as solution grade
or as solid grade acrylic resin (Table 1).
2.2.1 Paraloid B-44
Paraloid B-44 is used in conservation and is
slightly harder than B-67. It has a Tg of 60°C and
is a methyl methacrylate copolymer (MMA). The
manufacturers say that in its solute form, Paraloid
B-44 is often blended with other Paraloid resins to
adjust those resins to the balance of properties
required for a particular application.
2.2.2. Paraloid B-66
Paraloid B-66 is a general-purpose resin with
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
very fast solvent release. It is somewhat softer than B-
44 but harder than B-72.
2.2.3 Paraloid B-67
Paraloid B-67 is the most water-resistant of
Paraloid resins. It provides a coating that is hard and
fast drying and imparts good gloss and color reten-
tion. It has a Tg of 50°C and is an i-butyl methacry-
late polymer (IBMA). It has been used as a picture
varnish and is soluble in less polar solvents2 (such as
white spirit) than B-72.
2.2.4 Paraloid B-72
Paraloid B-72 is a copolymer of ethyl methacry-
late and methyl acrylate (70 : 30) manufactured by
Rohm and Haas. Paraloid B-72 is a very stable resin
with a Tg of 40°C and a refractive index3 of 1.49.
The popularity ofParaloid B-72 owes as much to
its versatility as to its apparent stability.It is sold either
in solution or in solid pellet form. The pellets can be
dissolved with a compatible solvent to the desired
concentration, so that the conservator can vary the
viscosity of the resin to suit the application.
As mentioned above, Paraloid B-72 is an ethyl
methacrylate: methyl acrylate P(EMA-MA) with a
molar ratio of 70 : 30. Some concern was expressed
about the use of Paraloid B-72 in conservation after
the manufacturer changed its composition in 1978.
The resin originally had a molar ratio of 68 : 32 ethyl
methacrylate: methyl acrylate P(EMA-MA) with a
lower molecular weight and was soluble in slightly
less polar solvents. De Witte and coworkers (1978)
carried out a variety of tests to confirm the difference
in chemical makeup and concluded that the change
would probably not affect the stability of the resin but
that long-term aging tests should be considered.
2.3 LIMITATIONS OF PARALOID
RESINS FOR STAINED GLASS CON-
SOLIDATION
The inherently weak chemical bond between the
organic consolidants generally used in conservation
and the inorganic and weathered gel layer has been
 385

LITERATURE REVIEW: THE USE OF PARALOID B-72 AS A SURFACE

CONSOLIDANT FOR STAINED GLASS

Table 1. Types of Paraloid Available as Solution-Grade or Solid-Grade Acrylic Resin

Paraloid % Solids Solution Grade Is Supplied in TgOC Composition

B-44 (hardest) 40 toluene 60 MMA

Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016

copolymer

B-66 51 toluene 50 M/BMA

copolymer

B-67 45 VM&P 50 IBMA polymer

naptha

B-72 (softest) 50 toluene 40 EMA copolymer

remarked upon by numerous authors (Errett et al.
1984; Weintraub and Greenland 1984; Miiller 1996).
This limitation applies to all synthetic and natural
polymer resins. It is one of the particular difficulties
involved in finding effective systems for the consoli-
dation of unstable glass paint.
The chief limitation in terms of durability of
acrylic resins such as Paraloid B-72, on the other
hand, has to do with their poor water resistance and
the problem of permeability in plastics.The degree to
which Paraloid resins are susceptible to these
phenomena depends to some extent on the form and
concentration in which the resin is applied.
Accordingly, authors have been rightly circum-
spect about the wisdom of using acrylic resins in situ-
ations of unbuffered exposure to weathering agents
(Sloan 1995). But these limitations have not inhibited
the widespread use of Paraloid B-72 in cases in
which objects or treated surfaces are not subject to
high humidities (and to a lesser extent temperatures).
In the case of ancient stained glass in an architectural
setting, it is common practice to install protective
glazing. Removal of the impact of exterior weather-
ing factors and stabilization of internal temperature
and humidity conditions can create an environment
that is better suited to preventive conservation of
glasspaint. Where protective glazing is to be installed,
tests and field studies have reported on the suitability
ofParaloid B-72 in toluene or another solvent for the
consolidation of glass paint and grisaille (Triimpler et
al. 1996). Nonetheless, accurate microc1imatic evalu-
ations are required to assess the likely impact of
temperature and humidity ranges on proposed
conservation-restoration products, and the properties
of a given resin formula must be known.
The question of permeability concerns the risk
of water vapor's penetrating a resin film, where over
time salts or pollutant compounds trapped beneath
may attack the glass substrate. The difficulties
involved in creating an effective moisture barrier in
the surface treatment of ancient glass using organic
resin coatings have been appreciated for many years
(Newton 1974; Moncrieff 1975). Both resin concen-
tration and solvent type can significantly influence

JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
 386
SASHA CHAPMAN AND DAVID MASON
the properties of a resin film in terms of vapor
permeability, photochemical stability, and water
resistance.
Additional practical limitations, also concerning
resin concentration and solvent type, do give cause
for concern in the context of architectural stained
glass. By mixing Paraloid B-72 with a solvent at
concentrations typically between 2.5% and 7.5%, a
low-viscosity material capable of penetrating
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
corroded glass surfaces can be manufactured easily.
An experienced conservator can modify the charac-
teristics of the resin to ensure the best result: too low
a concentration, and the resin lacks adhesive strength
and can be difficult to control; too high, and penetra-
tion of the porous glass matrix may be inadequate,
while darkening of the surface may be more
pronounced.
The solvents most commonly used in association
with Paraloid B-72 are acetone, toluene, xylene, ethyl
acetate, and diacetone alcohol. The correct choice of
solvent and the solvent-solid ratio are important
factors in obtaining a resin with suitable workability
and flow characteristics. For stained glass this choice
must be based, among other things, on the type and
condition of the glass paint. For Paraloid B-72 as an
adhesive, Koob (1986) has outlined the advantages of
acetone, which in addition to being less toxic than
some of the others, is released more quickly. Acetone
has often been selected as the solvent in the case of
stained glass treatments (Learner and Bettembourg
1991), although for consolidation of corroded
pigment layers or poorly fired glass paint, some
conservators have found that acetone evaporates too
quickly. Penetration capacity is reduced, and the ratio
of solvent to resin is more difficult to control (Strobl
1999).4
Hence the less volatile solvents have been consid-
ered more suitable for use as a consolidant for stained
glass,toluene often giving good results.The experience
ofTriimpler and coauthors (1996) indicates that where
a grisaille surface is relatively porous, use of toluene has
the advantage of securing loose particles relatively
quickly and permitting the removal of excess resin
before curing takes place. Similarly, Mueller-
Weinitschke (1996) reports on the superior properties
of toluene over the more volatile alternatives.
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
Health and safety risks of some of these solvents
are well understood. But the handling and applica-
tion difficulties that these authors comment on may
have a direct impact on the effectiveness of the resin
consolidant. Most important, because Paraloid resins
cure by solvent evaporation, reliable consolidation
depends on the ability of the resin solution to pene-
trate the weakened glass matrix effectively before the
resin cures. De Henau (1996) has noted that where
Paraloid B-72 is used with a pure solvent, the evapo-
ration rates of the solvent may be too high to ensure
adequate consolidation in the depth of a porous
body. The faster the solvent evaporates, the more
rapidly its viscosity increases and the greater the risk
of inadequate penetration of the resin through the
porous material.
Choosing the solvent most suited to the particu-
lar case in question is thus no less important than the
choice of resin. Even the use of a slower-evaporating
solvent is not without potential risks. Slow solvent
release can mean longer setting times and solvent
retention after the initial cure. For refixing of enamel,
De Henau (1996) has carried out controlled tests
using 10% B-72 in p-xylene and demonstrated how
such shortcomings manifest themselves where the
evaporation surface of the consolidant is small in rela-
tion to the volume of resin applied.
For some types of loose or corroded glass paint,
repeated application of the consolidant is sometimes
necessary. Some authors have considered that for
badly corroded and granular glass paint with very
poor cohesive strength, the use of acrylics such as
Paraloid B-72 is inappropriate. The increase in gloss
and darkening of the surface resulting from the
multiple applications needed to secure areas of severe
decay are unacceptable (Weintraub and Greenland
1984). Using simulated grisaille panels, Mueller-
Weinitschke (1996) has demonstrated the effect,
showing that multiple applications of Paraloid B-72
in toluene at 5-7.5% are needed in order to
adequately secure the less well-fired areas of grisaille.
The degree of darkening is a function of the percent-
age concentration of resin and the number of appli-
cations required.
The light- and heat-aging properties of acrylates
have been extensively studied, especially in relation to

LITERATURE REVIEW:THE USE OF PARALOID B-72ASA SURFACE
CONSOLIDANT FOR STAINED GLASS
their use as stone consolidants and coatings (Horie
1987). The effects of artificial light-aging appear to
have the most impact in terms of water resistance,
though the degree of degradation of the film depends
on the substrate type, degree, and conditions of expo-
sure, type of solvent, and concentration of resin.
Moderate UV exposure is believed to have low
impact on acrylic resins, but higher levels of radia-
tion-such as those encountered in a stained glass
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
panel in situ-may indeed give cause for concern
over time.
It is clear, therefore, that the very adaptability of
Paraloid resins imposes a greater need for careful
scrutiny of the variation of effects observed in differ-
ent conditions, and on different substrates, using
different resin concentrations, solvent types, and
methods and numbers of applications.
3. NEW MATERIALS
There has been much focus III recent years on the
potential application in the stained glass field of two
newly developed materials: ORMOCER (heteropoly-
siloxane compounds) and silicon-zirconium alkoxides
(SZA). ORMOCER, developed originally as protective
coatings, have been found to have some potential appli-
cation in hybrid treatments, though they adhere poorly
to glass (Mueller- Weinitschke 1996) and are therefore
not suitable as consolidants.
SZA, however, appeared to offer some promise
during early tests (Romich et al. 1995). Though not
reversible, SZA treatment, which relies on sol-gel
chemistry rather than mechanical adhesion to bind
together friable particles, is chemically more suited to
the consolidation of silicate materials than the "film-
forming" synthetics. After application, the silicon and
zirconium alkoxides react with moisture in the air to
form an inorganic gel. SZA appears to have no
impact on the optical properties of treated glasses, and
it has good penetration properties. Practical experi-
ence of SZA, however, has been discouraging
(Mueller- Weinitschke 1996). It has been found to be
very sensitive to humidity, not hydrolyzing fully
unless relative humidities exceed 50%, and difficult to
control owing to its very low viscosity. It is less effec-
tive as an adhesive, so loose :flakes or detached parti-
387
cles-i.e., those areas of a corroded glass surface that
are most at risk-cannot be effectively re-adhered. In
short, SZA appears to offer some potential but lacks
the ease of handling and versatility of B-72. Further
comparative studies are being undertaken, and obser-
vations on the field trials, begun in 1990, are awaited.
3.1 OPTIMIZATION OF PARALOID-
BASED TREATMENTS
Examples in the literature report some of the
recent attempts to refine one or more of the proper-
ties of Paraloid-based consolidants. They typically fall
into three categories:
silane coupling agent pretreatment to improve
contact between the substrate surface and the
consolidant or adhesive
• Paraloid-ORMOCER combination systems (in
which improvements to the mechanical properties
of the resin or in the protective properties of resin
films are enhanced by using it in combination with
an organic-inorganic hybrid polymer)
• solvent chemistry (in which the mechanical and
functional properties of the resin are altered by
using solvent-diluent mixtures that are responsive
to the particular subject material).
3.1.1 Silane Coupling Agents
The adhesive bond of polymers to glasses can be
improved by the use of coupling agents. The
performance of silane coupling agents in several stud-
ies in the 1980s indicated the conservation benefits
that may be derived from their use in combination
with Paraloid resins for the consolidation of loose
paint. Errett et al. (1984) described the process of
silane pretreatment and, to examine the effectiveness
of the silane in promoting wetting and spreading,
treated a number of slides with a methacrylate func-
tional silane in methanol, then applied a solution of
B-72 on the following day. On average, the consoli-
dant :flowed twice as far in the silane-treated interface
as in the untreated interface.
Reviewing the approach to the treatment of
stone using similar methods, Jones (1988) adapted the
technique for the treatment of remaining unstable
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
 388
SASHA CHAPMAN AND DAVID MASON
paint on 14th-century stained glass panels at the
Victoria and Albert Museum. A number of tests were
carried out using a pretreatment of 5%
methyltrimethoxysilane, 5% water, and 90%
methanol, followed by 10% B-72 in acetone (B-72
was ultimately rejected in favor of B-44, a harder
resin, which was felt to provide a firmer cushion for
the paint layer).
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
3.1.20RMOCERS
Like silanes, ORMOCER, which as
heteropolysiloxane compounds are well-suited to
bonding chemically with silicate surfaces, offer signif-
icant potential as additives to Paraloid resin consoli-
dants. Trumpler and coworkers (1996) are among
those who have found a 50 : 50 mixture ofORMO-
CER Or-G and 10% Paraloid B-72 in ethyl acetate
to possess good characteristics in terms of both
handling and penetration power. The ORMOCER-
Paraloid combination is also being tested for the
treatment of flaking enamel (Muller et al. 2000). Pilz
(1999), meanwhile, has reported on the positive
outcome of laboratory tests on simulated medieval
glassesin which the combination of SZA as consoli-
dant and 50 : 50 ORMOCER-Paraloid B-72 as a
protective film, applied after the glass samples have
been subjected to hypercritical drying, have been
deployed on glass darkened as a result of manganese
oxidation. The transfer of the technique to the studio,
however, remains problematic.
3.1.3 Solvent Chemistry
The third approach, which seeks to improve the
wetting properties and penetration of the solution
and also to control more finely the evaporation rate
of the solvent, has yielded interesting results on some
types of glass (De Henau 1996). Fontaine has
described the treatment of corroded archaeological
glass using 10% Paraloid B-72 in a 3 : 2 solvent: dilu-
ent mixture of methanol and ether (Fontaine-Hodi-
amont 1993).
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
4. CONCLUSIONS
It is widely accepted that minimum intervention is
desirable in the treatment of any object, and where
uncertainties exist about the long-term suitability of
treatments, this maxim is especially important. The
duty of the conservator is to consolidate loose and
friable surface layers only where there is a risk of loss
of valuable historic material and to employ any
consolidating technique with restraint and sensitivity.
Increasingly, the value of preventive conservation is
becoming evident, and protective glazing systems will
continue to playa primary role in the preservation of
historic glass paint.
However, consolidation of glass paint remains a
necessary and important undertaking, and the choice
of consolidant system is one of the most important a
conservator can make. The chemical composition of
the glass,glasspaint, and their corrosion products, the
type and degree of alteration of the surface layers, the
presence of earlier coatings or treatments, the nature
of any associated interventions (re-assembly, crack
repair, cleaning, surface treatment), the environmen-
tal conditions to which the treated panel will be
subjected-all playa part in determining which, if
any, are the most suitable consolidants.
To date, Paraloid B-72 has shown itself to be
versatile and effective as well as stable under moder-
ate conditions. There are certain practical limitations
to its use as a consolidant, notably the nature of the
adhesive bond with inorganic materials and the abil-
ity of the resin and its carrier to both penetrate and
consolidate effectively the fine pores and fissures of a
silicate matrix. A review of the literature illustrates
some of the ways in which Paraloid B-72 can be
optimized to reduce some of the inherent shortcom-
ings. Paraloid B-72 possesses two singular advantages
over its chief rivals: first, it has been around for many
decades and has shown itself to be reliable if used in
an appropriate context. Second, it is readily reversible
and miscible with a wide range of solvents and can be
easily combined with other materials to enhance its
properties.
Reversibility, which may be crucial in an adhe-
sive, can be an overestimated virtue in a consolidant,
where the removal of the consolidant would entail

LITERATURE REVIEW:THE USE OF PARALOID B-72 AS A SURFACE
CONSOLIDANT FOR STAINED GLASS
significant, if not unacceptable, risks to the object and
where it is re-treatability that is arguably the more
viable principle. Inorganic gel treatments,
polyurethane systems, or other forms of consolida-
tion treatment may yet show that, in spite of their
irreversibility, they can offer significant advantages
over Paraloid B-72, but they have yet to demonstrate
their value, practicality, and re-treatability over time.
The literature indicates that systematic reviews of
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
the long-term performance of Paraloid-treated glass
surfaces in the field are rare. While laboratory aging
studies continue, these must be corroborated by
surveys of treated panels ill situ. More data are also
needed from pilot studies on panels treated with
alternative materials and on modified Paraloid-based
systems. Techniques and methodologies for this
research should be developed to enable a more
comprehensive picture of the comparative perform-
ance of various treatments to be built up.
NOTES
1. Tg or glass transition temperature is measured as
that temperature at which the available thermal
energy is smaller than the forces holding molecules
together. At lower temperatures, very little molecular
adjustment is possible. Below its Tg, an amorphous
polymer is brittle and hard; above its Tg, it is softer
and can be dissolved more easily.
2. Polar is descriptive of a molecule in which the
positive and negative electrical charges are perma-
nently separated, as opposed to nonpolar molecules
in which the charges coincide. Polar molecules ionize
in solution and impart electrical conductivity. Water,
alcohol, and sulfuric acid are polar in nature; most
hydrocarbon liquids are not. Carboxyl and hydroxl
groups often exhibit an electric charge. The forma-
tion of emulsions and the action of detergents are
dependent on this behavior.
3. Refraction is the change in direction (apparent
bending) of a light ray passing from one medium to
another of different density, as from air to water or
glass.The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence
to the sine of the angle of refraction is the index of
refraction of the second medium. Index of refraction
of a substance may also be expressed as a ratio of the
389
velocity of light in a vacuum to its velocity in the
substance. It varies with the wave length of the inci-
dent light, temperature, and pressure. The usual light
source is the D line of sodium, the standard temper-
ature being 20°C. The expression of refractive index
is nD20.
4. Horie (1987) describes the chemistry of p-xylene,
which evaporates more slowly during the initial wet
stage of drying but is released freely during the later
stages. This characteristic is ascribed to the difference
in polarity in the solvents.
REFERENCES
Bettembourg, J.-M. 1976. Protection des verres de
vitraux contre les agents atmospheriques: Etude des
films de resines synthetiques. In lierre et rifractaires.
Actes du IX colloque international du Corpus
Vitrearum Medii Aevi, Paris, 1975.87-91.
Cole, F. 1989. Stained glass conservation at Canter-
bury Cathedral. In Conservation if stained glass. United
Kingdom Institute for Conservation Occasional
Papers 9. London: UKIC. 3-4.
Davison, S. 1984. A review of adhesives and consoli-
dants used on glass antiquities. In Adhesives and consol-
idants, ed. N. S. Brommelle et al. London:
International Institute for the Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works. 191-94.
De Henau, ~ 1996. Le Paraloid B-72 pour fixer la
grisaille ou l' email? In Grisaille, jaune d' argent,
sanguine, email et peinture a froid: techniques et conserva-
tion. Forum pour la conservation des vitraux, Liege.
Liege: Commission Royal des Monuments, Sites et
Fouilles. 139-42.
De Henau, ~, and C. Fontaine-Hodiamont. 1991.
Aspects de la conservation de vitraux en Belgique. In
Les arts du verre: His toire, technique et conservation.
Journees d'etude de la SFIIC (Section Francaise of
the International Institute for Conservation). Nice:
SFIIC. 59-63.
De Witte, E., M. Goessens-Landrie, E.]. Goethals, and
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
 390
SASHA CHAPMAN AND DAVID MASON
R. Simonds. 1978. The structure of old and new
Paraloid B-72. ICOM Committee for Conservation
preprints, 5th Triennial Meeting, Zagreb. Paris:
ICOM. 1-9,3,16,78.
Down, J. 1986. The yellowing of epoxy resin adhe-
sives:Report on high intensity light aging. Studies in
Conservation 31: 159-70.
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016
Errett, R. F.M. Lynn, and R. Brill. 1984. The use of
silanes in glass conservation. In Adhesives and consoli-
dants, ed. N. S.Brommelle et al. London: International
Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Artis-
tic Works. 185-90.
Femenella, A. J. 1994. Restoring stained glass paint.
Stained Glass 89(1):43-48.
Fontaine, C. 1999. Conservation of glass at the Insti-
tut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique (Brussels): From
the earthquake in Liege to the stained glass of
Loppem. In Conservation of glass and ceramics: Research
practice and training, ed. N. H. Tennent. London: James
& James. 199-207.
Fontaine-Hodiamont, C. 1993. Quatre-vingt neuf
verres tres fragmentaires provenant du site de Khirbet
Qumran (Cisjordanie, Ier siecle ap. J-C). Bulletin de
l'Institut Royale du Patrimoine Artistique 25: 277-80.
Forberg, H.-D., and Bornschein, F. 1996. Vitraux
medievaux de la Cathedrale d'Erfurt: Deteriorations
et solutions pour la conservation du patrimoine. In
Grisaille, jaune d' atgent, sanguine, email et peinture a
froid: Techniques et conservation. Forum pour la conser-
vation des vitraux, Liege. Liege: Commission Royal
des Monuments, Sites et Fouilles. 169-74.
Horie, C. V. 1987. Materials for conservation. London:
Butterworths.
Jackson, l? R. 1982. Resins used in glass conservation.
In Resins in conservation, ed.J. O.Tate et al. Edinburgh:
Scottish Society for Conservation and Restoration,
10.1-7.
JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
Jigers, E., H. Romich, and C. Mueller- Weinitschke.
2000. Konservierungsmaterialen und Methoden. In
Restaurierung un Konservierung historischer Glasmalerein:
Bin Forderprojekt des Budesministeriums fur Bildung,
Wissenschcift, Forschung und Technologie, ed. A. Wolff.
Mainz:Verlag Philipp Von Zabern. 129-66.
Jones. S. 1988. The conservation of three fourteenth
century stained glass lancets. In Conservation today:
Papers presented at the United Kingdom Institute for
Conservation. London: UKI C. 86-97.
Koob, S.P 1986.The use ofParaloid B-72 as an adhe-
sive: Its application for archaeological ceramics and
other materials. Studies in Conservation 31:7-14.
Koob, S. l? 2000. New techniques for the repair and
restoration of ancient glass.In Tradition and innovation,
ed. A. Roy and l? Smith. London: International Insti-
tute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works.
92-95.
Learner, E. and J.-M. Bettembourg. 1991. Restaura-
tion et conservation des vitraux fran~ais de Wilton
(GB). Vitrea 7:43-53.
Moncrieff,A. 1975. Problems and potentialities in the
conservation of vitreous materials. In Conservation in
archaeology and the applied arts. London: International
Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic
Works. 99-104.
Mueller- Weinitschke, C. 1996. Experiences de
consolidation des traits de contour: Une etude
comparative de plusieurs substances utilisees pour la
fixation des traits de contour. In Grisaille, jaune d' ar-
gent, sanguine, email et peinture a froid: Techniques et
conservation. Forum pour la conservation des vitraux,
Liege. Liege: Commission Royal des Monuments,
Sites et Fouilles. 85-89.
Muller,W 1984. Untersuchungen zur Schutzwirkung
organischer Beschichtungen auf simulierten mittelal-
terlichen Glasern. Neue Museumkunde 27(4):273-75.
Muller, W 1996. Le probleme de la fixation du
 391

LITERATURE REVIEW: THE USE OF PARALOID B-72 AS A SURFACE

CONSOLIDANT FOR STAINED GLASS

grisaille du point de vue des sciences naturelles. In Programme Franco-allemand/Deutsch - Franzosisches

Grisaille, jaune d' atgent, sanguine, email et peinture a Forschungsprogramm. 1999. Monuments historiques et
froid: Techniques et conservation. Forum pour la conser- environnement: Recherches franco-allemands sur la conser-
vation des vitraux, Liege. Liege: Commission Royal vation de la pierre et du vitrail 1988-1996/Baudenkmaler
des Monuments, Sites et Fouilles. 69-76. und Umwelt: Deutsch-Franzosische Forschungen zur
Erhaltung von Natursteinen un Glasmalereien
Muller, W, D. Kruschke, C. Kocher, M. Pilz, H. 1988-1996. Programme Franco-allemand de
R6mich, and C. Troll. 2000. Welches Festigungsmittel recherche pour la conservation des monuments
eignet sich? Experimentelle Forschungen an der historiques, colloque final, Strasbourg 1997. Paris:
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016

BAM und am ISC. Restauro 106(6):442-46. Exe Productions.

Newton, R. 1974. The deterioration and conserva- Romich, H., M. Pilz, and D. R. Fuchs. 1993.
tion of painted glass:A critical bibliography and three Konservierung Historischer Glaifenster. Internationale
research papers. Corpus Vitrearum Medii Aevi, Great Untersuchungen neue Methoden. Fo~schungsbericht
Britain Occasional Papers 1. London: Oxford Teil 2. Research report on the Umweltforschungs-
University Press. plan (UFOPLAN) n.10807 005/03 of the German
Federal Ministry of the Environment. Berlin:
Newton, R. 1987. What do we really know about Umweltbundesamt.
protective coatings? ICOM Committee for Conservation
preprints, 8th Triennial Meeting, Sydney. Los Angeles: Romich, H., M. Pilz, and D. R. Fuchs. 1995. A new
ICOM.1009-12. material for glass conservation: Perspectives for
ceramics heritage. In The ceramics heritage, ed. :Po
Newton, R., and S. Davison. 1989. Conservation of Vincenzini. Proceedings of the CIMTEC 8th World
glass. London: Butterworths. Ceramics Congress and Forum on New Materials,
Florence, Italy. Faenza, Italy:Techna. 613-20.
Newton, R., and A. B. Seddon. 1999. Organic coat-
ings for medieval glass. In Conservation of glass and Sloan, J. 1995. The restoration of stained glass
ceramics: Research practice and training, ed. N. H. windows at Memorial Hall, Harvard University: A
Tennent. London: James & James. 66-71. case study. APT Bulletin (Association for Preservation
Technology) 26:2-3.
Notman,J. H., and N. H. Tennent. 1980. The conser-
vation and restoration of a seventeenth century Strobl, S. 1999. Paint consolidation at Canterbury
stained glass roundel. Studies in Conservation Cathedral. CV.MA Newsletter (Corpus Vitrearum
25:165-75. Medii Aevi) 46:37.

Pilz, M. 1999. Traitements de conservation pour les Tennent, N. H. 1979. Clear and pigmented epoxy
vitraux alteres et brunis. In Monuments historiques et resins for stained glass conservation: Light ageing
environnement: Recherches franco-allemands sur la conser- studies. Studies in Conservation 24:153-64.
vation de la pierre et du vitrail 1988-1996/Baudenkmaler
und Umwelt: Deutsch-Franzosische Forschungen zur Triimpler, S.,J.James, and S. Gentile. 1996. Le traite-
Erhaltung von Natursteinen un Glasmalereien ment des grisailles alterees. In Cathedrale de Lausanne:
1988-1996. Programme Franco-allemand de Colloque du 31 Mai 1996. Restauration des verrieres
recherche pour la conservation des monuments medievales de la Rose: Documentation preparatoire.
historiques, colloque final, Strasbourg 1997. Paris: Lausanne: Etat de Vaud Departement des Travaux
Exe Productions. 330-46. Publics, de l'Amenagement et des Transports. 23-28.

JAIC 42 (2003):381-392
 392

SASHA CHAPMAN AND DAVID MASON

Weintraub, S., and M. Greenland. 1984. Field applica-

tion of stained glass conservation techniques. In Adhe-
sives and consolidants, ed. N. S. Brommelle et al.
London: International Institute for the Conservation
of Historic and Artistic Works. 199-201.

Wolff, A., ed. 2000. Restaurierzmg un Konservierung

historischer Glasmalerein: Ein Forderprojekt des
Budesministeriums fur Bildung, Wissenscheift, Forschung
Downloaded by [University of Pennsylvania] at 02:52 10 April 2016

und Technologie. Mainz: Verlag Philipp Von Zabern.

SASHA CHAPMAN originally trained as an archae-

ologist specializing in recording of buildings. She
joined English Heritage (the government's statutory
advisor on archaeology and the historic enviornment
in England) in 1993 and was involved in coordinat-
ing research and technical advice in several areas,
particularly graffiti removal. She is a former chair of
the United Kingdom Institute for Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works, Stone and Wall Paintings
Section.

DAVID MASON trained in fine art, worked as a

stone conservator, and gained a Ph.D. from De
Montfort University in Leicester, England, where he
specialized in the history and theory of conservation.
He joined the Building Conservation and Research
Team at English Heritage in 1997. He has coordi-
nated BCRT technical research and was editor of
English Heritage Research Transactions from 1999 to
2001.

Received for review on April 16, 2002. Revised

manuscript received October 4, 2002. Accepted for
publication October 10,2002.

JAIC 42 (2003):381-392