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Sales Force Effectiveness: A Framework for

Researchers and Practitioners

Article in Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management · April 2008

DOI: 10.2753/PSS0885-3134280201

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 SALES FORCE EFFECTIVENESS: A FRAMEWORK FOR
RESEARCHERS AND PRACTITIONERS
Andris A. Zoltners, Prabhakant Sinha, and Sally E. Lorimer

This paper presents a Sales Force Effectiveness Framework that organizes the complexities of sales organizations, pro-
viding a holistic approach to defining and assessing sales force effectiveness. Sales practitioners can use the framework
to diagnose sales force issues and develop multidimensional solutions, either when responding to external and internal
events or when striving to improve. Sales researchers can use the framework to discover ways to expand their research
focus to benefit practitioners. The framework is supported by an inventory of sales force effectiveness issues from sales
leaders and recent academic publications.

The sales force represents a significant investment for most
businesses. By current estimates, there are at least 20 million
people involved in sales in the United States. About 3.6 million
salespeople are involved in business-to-business selling (Bureau
of Labor Statistics 2006), another 4.3 million are involved in
retail sales (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2006), and over 15 mil-
lion participate in direct-to-consumer sales for organizations
such as Avon and Amway (“America’s 500 Largest Sales Forces”
2006, p. 73). This sales force investment can be as high as 40
percent of sales, with the average company spending about
10 percent (Heide 1999). In total, the U.S. economy spends
conservatively $800 billion on sales forces each year—close to
three times the $285 billion that Robert J. Coen, Senior Vice
President of Forecasting for Universal McCann, estimates was
spent on advertising in 2006 (Johnson 2006).
The significance of the sales force goes beyond its cost. The
sales force is perhaps the most highly empowered organiza-
tion within many companies. Usually working alone and
unsupervised, salespeople are entrusted with a company’s most
important asset—its customers. Because of the sales force’s
critical impact on customer relationships, its effect on top-line
performance is significant. Sales leaders agree that every sales
force has the opportunity to improve sales revenues through
enhanced sales force effectiveness—projected increases of at
least 10 percent are common. Most companies take a keen
Andris A. Zoltners (Ph.D., Carnegie Mellon University), Profes-
sor of Marketing, Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern
University, Cochairman, ZS Associates, andy.zoltners@zsassociates
.com.
Prabhakant Sinha (Ph.D., University of Massachusetts), Cochair-
man, ZS Associates, prabha.sinha@zsassociates.com.
Sally E. Lorimer (M.M., Kellogg School of Management), North-
western University, Consultant and Business Writer, ZS Associates,
slorimer@comcast.net.
interest in maximizing the effectiveness of their sales organi-
zations. Corporate initiatives aimed at increasing sales force
effectiveness, with labels such as “sales force effectiveness
review—winning for the customer,” “global sales force effec-
tiveness benchmarking,” and “sales effectiveness and growth
initiative,” are common.
Despite a strong level of corporate attention, the concept of
“sales force effectiveness” is not well defined, having different
meanings for different people. A vice president of sales might
view effectiveness as “adding value to the customer beyond the
product by changing the sales process from transactional to
consultative.” A sales compensation analyst might view it as
“increasing sales force morale and motivation through better
incentive compensation programs.” A sales training manager
might view effectiveness as “increasing salesperson competency
through innovative training programs.” A finance manager
might view it as “increasing sales per salesperson” or “holding
sales force costs below a benchmark percentage of sales.”
As sales leaders struggle to define sales force effectiveness
and make improvements that increase the bottom line, there is
considerable opportunity for research. Surprisingly, there has
historically been less academic focus on sales than one might
expect. The Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management is
the only academic journal focusing primarily on sales force
issues. An electronic search of articles published in this journal
between 2001 and 2006 reveals that over 82 percent of the
articles are directly related to sales. An electronic search of
other scholarly marketing journals for the same time period,
including Marketing Science, Journal of Marketing, and Journal
of Marketing Research, shows that less than 4 percent of articles
are sales related. Sales-related articles were identified by search-
ing on relevant subject key words, such as “salespeople,” “sales
management,” and “personal selling.”
Emphasis on sales in graduate-level business education has
historically been less than one might expect as well, although
that situation seems to be changing. Among the 2007 U.S.

Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, vol. XXVIII, no. 2 (spring 2008), pp. 115–131.
© 2008 PSE National Educational Foundation. All rights reserved.
ISSN 0885-3134 / 2008 $9.50 + 0.00.
DOI 10.2753/PSS0885-3134280201
116 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
News & World Report top 25 ranked graduate business schools,
almost half currently offer MBA elective courses in sales man-
agement or business-to-business marketing with a sales force
component. In 2002, only about one-quarter of these schools
offered such courses.
There are three major reasons that academic focus on sales
has not matched the level of practitioner interest. First, sales
force research is difficult because it cuts across many differ-
ent disciplines. Because sales forces rely on people to deliver
marketing messages, the linkage between a sales force and its
customers is unpredictable and difficult to model (sales force
investment and strategy → salesperson behavior and activ-
ity → customer response → company revenue and profit).
Organizational behavior and psychological theory become
intertwined with economic theory and quantitative methods,
requiring a wide range of research perspectives. The diversity
of sales force issues is very high, ranging from the activities of
salespeople to the salespeople themselves, and to the manage-
ment decisions that influence the people and their activities.
Second, many consider the sales function to be somewhat
of an art and a mystery. Best-selling books on sales are filled
with anecdotes and tips on how to be successful in sales,
yet rarely does the popular press portray sales as a discipline
backed by research, data, or frameworks. Finally, academics
generally have poor access to sales organizations. Companies
are reluctant to let researchers experiment with salespeople,
most of whom are highly action oriented and preoccupied
with achieving their revenue goals.
This paper is a first step toward identifying and closing the
gap between practitioner interest in sales force effectiveness
and the focus of academic research. The paper proposes a
Sales Force Effectiveness Framework that organizes the many
components and complexities of the selling world and the
sales system and provides a consistent approach to view sales
force effectiveness. An initial version of the framework was
published previously (Zoltners, Sinha, and Zoltners 2001),
and the framework has been enhanced and adapted continu-
ously as it has been evaluated and challenged through our
interactions with sales leaders at over 400 sales organizations
that we have personally worked with, and also through class-
room discussions with over 1,000 executive-level students.
The framework is further vetted using two recently developed
inventories. The sales executive issue inventory reflects the
practitioner view of sales and consists of data gathered from
721 sales leaders. The sales academic research inventory reflects
the academic view of sales and consists of data gathered by
reading and analyzing abstracts of recent sales-related articles
in leading academic journals.
The Sales Force Effectiveness Framework together with the
results of the two inventories contribute to sales force theory
and practice in three ways. First, the framework organizes
the complexities of the sales function, presenting a holistic
view of sales and providing a consistent way for researchers
and practitioners alike to view the selling world and the sales
system. The framework defines and articulates the numerous
components and linkages that exist within sales organiza-
tions, highlighting the interdependencies of different sales
management decisions and demonstrating the need to achieve
compatibility across the decisions and consistency with sales
and marketing strategies. Often, the operationalization of sales
force effectiveness efforts, both by practitioners and academics,
focuses on a single sales management decision, such as sales
training, sales incentive compensation, or the use of technol-
ogy in the sales force. By providing a comprehensive picture
of the sales function and of the boundary between sales and
the rest of the organization, the framework highlights the
need for alignment and integration across sales management
decisions and encourages multidimensional solutions for
improving sales effectiveness.
Second, the framework helps sales practitioners diagnose
and address sales force issues and concerns covering a wide
range of themes. Sometimes, the focus is on external events—
“our customers are consolidating,” “the economy has weak-
ened,” or “a competitor just launched a major new product.”
Other times, the focus is on results–“we are not making our
numbers,” “our cost of sales ratio is too high,” or “our customer
satisfaction scores have declined.” Other times, the focus is
on sales activities—“we are not spending time with the right
types of customers” or “face time with customers is too low.”
Still other practitioners focus on the salespeople—“turnover
of good salespeople is too high” or “the sales force lacks the
skills necessary for success.” Finally, some practitioners focus
on the decisions, processes, systems, and programs that they
are accountable for—“our incentive compensation plan is
broken,” “our CRM system is too complex,” or “our training
program is not aligned with strategic priorities.” The frame-
work organizes the issues that sales organizations face; specifies
the lines of causality; and helps practitioners see solutions to
difficult problems, discover ways to avoid future problems,
and understand the impact of change throughout the sales
organization.
Finally, the framework helps researchers identify opportuni-
ties for additional research that will advance the field. Much of
the sales-related research to date has focused on the outcome
of a single sales management decision, process, system, or
program. The Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Special Issue of the
Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management (Brown and
Jones 2005) provided many innovative ideas for future direc-
tions in sales research, yet the majority of articles published in
that issue focused on either a single sales effectiveness driver
such as customer relationship management (CRM) (Tanner
et al. 2005) or leadership (Ingram et al. 2005); or on a subset
of closely related drivers such as salesperson selection, training
and development (Cron et al. 2005), or motivation, control,

Figure 1
The Selling World
and compensation (Brown et al. 2005). By broadening the
sales perspective, the framework helps researchers expand the
focus of their research beyond a narrowly focused decision area
to potentially solve some of the most challenging and complex
sales force issues faced by today’s practitioners. For example,
what is the best way to motivate a sales organization that
has grown complacent? How does a sales organization adapt
effectively to selling process change? How does a company
prevent its best salespeople from leaving and taking business
to competitors? The framework highlights a need for multi-
disciplinary studies that can capture the complex relationships
that exist within sales organizations in order to solve these and
other salient and challenging sales management issues.
THE SALES FORCE EFFECTIVENESS
FRAMEWORK
The Sales Force Effectiveness Framework has been used to
successfully diagnose problems, recognize opportunities, and
adapt sales forces appropriately. In developing the framework,
we have balanced a desire to create a simple picture that is
understandable and memorable with the need to be complete.
Hence, although the framework does not contain every nuance
that exists in every selling organization, the major components
and relationships evident in most sales organizations have
been captured.
The framework is presented in two views. First, the Selling
World provides a broad view that describes the role of the sales
force within the context of the business. Second, the Sales
System provides a detailed, decision-oriented view of the sales
force and its role in driving results.
Spring 2008 117
The Selling World
The sales organization is affected by forces and decisions
that originate within the company, as well as by forces that
originate externally. Forces external to the company help to
shape company strategies, which, in turn, affect marketing
and sales strategies, which affect choices that determine what
the sales force looks like. At the same time, companies hunt
for effectiveness improvement opportunities within their sales
organizations. Together these forces and decisions influence
customer and company results. The Selling World shown in
Figure 1 illustrates the role of the sales force within the context
of the larger company, industry, and business environment.
The components of the Selling World are described here,
moving from left to right in the figure.
External forces include customers, competitors, and the
environment. Opportunities can arise, for example, when
new customer segments emerge, competitors go out of busi-
ness, helpful technologies appear, or a booming economy
creates new possibilities. On the other hand, companies can
be threatened, for instance, when sales strategies become dated
as customers change their buying processes, competitors at-
tack profitable market segments, or an economic downturn
reduces customer demand.
Company strategy includes decisions such as the setting
of company business goals and objectives; product portfolio
strategies such as the launching of new products, redesign and
relaunch of existing products, and entry into new markets; and
decisions to merge with or acquire other companies.
A marketing and sales strategy defines who the company
sells to, what the customer offering is, and how the selling is
done. Sales and marketing teams are primarily accountable for
118 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
these decisions. Marketing and sales strategies are developed
and continually fine-tuned through four primary activities
(Zoltners, Sinha, and Lorimer 2004). First, the market is
segmented into meaningful, actionable customer clusters.
Second, the company determines the best product and service
offering and value proposition for each segment. A successful
marketing and sales strategy focuses the company’s resources
on customers and product/service offerings that have strategic
importance and good long-term profit potential. Third, the
most appropriate process for selling the right product/service
offering to each market segment is defined. This process
includes the activities required to sell, deliver, and service
the company’s offerings. Finally, a go-to-market strategy is
developed that specifies which sales and marketing channels
are best suited for delivering the sales process. This includes
defining the role that the sales force plays in executing the sales
process. Marketing and sales strategy decisions influence what
the sales force should look like.
The sales force implements the marketing and sales strategy.
The sales force consists of an organizational structure with
salespeople in defined roles performing selling activities that
enable the company to meet customer needs and achieve
financial goals. The sales structure, salespeople, and activities
are an outcome of a set of basic decisions, processes, systems,
and programs that we call the sales force effectiveness drivers.
The sales organization has primary accountability for these
drivers. Examples of drivers include the sales force size and
structure, the sales force recruiting process, the performance
management system, and the sales force incentive compensa-
tion program. A more complete list of drivers is provided later
within the Sales System view of the framework. Together, the
drivers determine the sales force structure and roles and the
composition and personality of the selling team, and influence
the activities and behaviors of salespeople.
An additional force that affects sales organizations origi-
nates within the company: the effectiveness hunt. The best
sales organizations seek constant and consistent performance
improvement. Many familiar performance challenges do not
require immediate attention, but if left alone, they can escalate
into bigger problems. This includes issues such as “the turnover
of the best salespeople is too high,” “sales are not growing
fast enough,” “we are not developing enough new accounts,”
or “the sales force is too complacent.” In addition, new op-
portunities may arise. For example, new sources of customer
value may be discovered that can be incorporated into the
sales process or sales leaders may conclude that upgrading
their sales force quality has substantial positive impact on
performance.
Results are the outputs of the sales force’s efforts. Company
financial metrics such as sales, profits, market share, or return
on investment are examples of results measures. Results can
also be measured at the customer level, using metrics such
as customer satisfaction or retention rates. Results measure-
ment is discussed further in the Sales System view of the
framework.
When analyzing the Selling World, sales organizations
focus on those components of the framework relevant to
their particular circumstances and set of issues. For example,
company strategy changes occur not only in response to ex-
ternal events but they can also originate within the company,
as organizations seek better strategies and shareholders push
for higher performance. An external event, such as customer
consolidation, may affect sales and marketing strategy without
requiring change to overall company strategy. We represent
the components of the Selling World linearly and aligned with
the major lines of causality, yet the issues that sales organiza-
tions face can originate within any framework component or
in multiple components simultaneously.
Some companies have a sales force that includes not only
salespeople who are employed by the company but also selling
partners. Selling partnerships can take many forms. Depend-
ing on the industry, a selling partner can be an agent, a broker,
a distributor, a manufacturers’ rep, an independent contractor,
a wholesaler, a dealer, a value-added reseller, or another type
of independent selling organization. Some selling partners
sell a company’s products and services exclusively, whereas
others also sell complementary or competitive products from
other manufacturers. In the framework, an exclusive partner
is viewed similarly to a company’s own sales force. The partner
organization is part of the company’s sales force. The company
and the partner work together to make sales effectiveness driver
decisions that create a sales structure, attract and retain sales-
people, and drive sales activities that are right for the company’s
products and services. When selling partners also sell products
and services of other manufacturers, the dynamics get more
complex. As illustrated in Figure 2, the company’s sales force
works in tandem with the partner’s sales force. The partner
makes sales force effectiveness driver decisions that optimize
performance across its entire product and service portfolio.
The company can influence those decisions and affect how
sales time and other assets are used by the partner to support
the company’s products and services. The company might use
partner incentive programs, marketing programs, or partner
managers who are skilled at assuring contract compliance or
the meeting of company goals by providing encouragement,
sales process assistance, sales analytics, and end-user pull-
through. The company and partner sales forces work together
to create customer and company results.
The Sales System
The Sales System view within the Selling World breaks down
the sales force and the results it creates into components to
enhance decision making regarding sales effectiveness. The

Figure 2
The Selling World in a Company That Uses Nonexclusive Selling Partners
dynamics are shown in Figure 3. The major components of
the Sales System are represented by the shaded shapes and
arrows. The components affect one another in a largely se-
quential fashion. Sales force activities affect customer results,
and customer results have an impact on company results.
Meanwhile, the skills, capabilities, values, and motivation
of the salespeople influence their behavior and activities.
Salespeople work within a given structure and defined sales
roles. The sales force effectiveness drivers define the sales force
structure and roles and help to shape the salespeople and
influence their activities.
The components of the Sales System are described here,
starting with the results components and working backward
(right to left) within the framework. Company results are the
company financial outputs of the sales force’s efforts. They
can be measured in many different ways, using metrics such
as sales, profits, market share, and return on investment. They
can be measured in terms of absolute levels, percent of goal at-
tainment, or growth over last year. It is useful to evaluate these
statistics from both a short-term and a long-term perspective,
because sales force decisions affect both time frames. Customer
results affect company results. Companies assess customer re-
sults using measures such as customer satisfaction scores and
customer retention rates or repeat sales.
Sales force activities drive customer results. Salespeople’s
activities are typically organized into a sales process that in-
cludes steps such as lead generation, needs analysis, solution
development, proposal presentation, negotiation, installation,
customer service, and account maintenance and expansion.
Salespeople execute the sales force activities. Hence, companies
seek to employ competent, motivated salespeople and to estab-
lish a success culture so that salespeople demonstrate the right
behaviors and engage in the right activities. An organizational
structure and defined sales roles encourage salespeople to work
Spring 2008 119
effectively and efficiently to perform the right activities that
will drive results.
The nonshaded boxes in the bottom half of Figure 3
summarize how a successful sales system functions, creating
customer and company results. Environmental and company
factors outside the sales force are also shown in the framework
(top right corner), because these factors also affect results.
The sales force effectiveness drivers are the final components
of the Sales System. As described previously in the Selling
World view of the framework, they are the basic decisions sales
organizations make and the processes, systems, and programs
they use to influence the structure, makeup, and the behavior
of the selling team. The drivers fall into five categories. The
definer drivers determine sales force structure and roles; the
shaper drivers influence the salespeople who are part of the
organization; and the exciter, enlightener, and controller drivers
affect sales force activities.
The five sales force effectiveness driver categories were
developed using two approaches that produced similar re-
sults. The first approach involved observing salespeople and
sales organizations to understand what salespeople need to
be successful. Five major categories of needs for success were
identified; these needs are shown in the first column of Table
1. The second approach to developing the driver categories
involved listing the various decisions that sales leaders are
responsible for and clustering those decisions based on the
nature of their impact on the sales force. The clusters parallel
the five needs identified through the first approach and are
shown in the second column of Table 1. The third column of
the table shows the five driver categories that emerged from
this process.
The definer category of sales force effectiveness drivers
contains decisions that define the sales job by clarifying roles
and territories. Good definer decisions are consistent with, and
120 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
Figure 3
The Sales System
therefore reinforce, company marketing and sales strategies.
Generally, the definer decisions precede decisions about the
other sales force effectiveness drivers. Consequently, decisions
regarding subsequent driver categories should be compatible
with, and therefore reinforce, the definer decisions. The shaper
category of sales force effectiveness drivers has an impact on
the salespeople. These drivers consist of the processes that
influence the skills, capabilities, and values of the sales team.
The remaining categories of sales force effectiveness drivers
primarily affect sales force activities. The enlightener category
includes processes that provide the sales force with customer
knowledge, enabling salespeople to understand the market-
place, prioritize opportunities, solve customer problems, and
use their time more effectively. The exciter category of drivers
affects the selling organization’s inspiration and motivation.
The controller category includes the drivers that direct sales
force activities and performance.
Note that some of the drivers are included in more than
one category. For example, compensation and incentives have
been placed in three categories. They are an exciter because the
right compensation and incentive plan motivates salespeople
to work hard to achieve challenging goals. Compensation and
incentives are also controllers because by placing incentives on
the right products or customer segments, the company influ-
ences how salespeople spend their time. Finally, compensation
and incentives are shapers because an effective compensation
plan attracts the right type of person to the sales job. The in-
fluence of most of the drivers cuts across multiple categories;
however, for simplicity, we have listed drivers only in categories
where they have significant effect.
TWO SALES-RELATED INVENTORIES:
COMPARING PRACTITIONER AND
ACADEMIC VIEWPOINTS
In order to better understand how researchers and practitioners
view sales and selling organizations, we developed two sales-
related inventories. One inventory focused on the practitioner
view of sales (the Sales Executive Issue Inventory), and the
other focused on the academic view (the Sales Academic
Research Inventory). The results of the two inventories were
organized according to the Sales Force Effectiveness Frame-
 Spring 2008 121

Table 1
Two Approaches Leading to the Development of the Five Sales Force Effectiveness Driver Categories

Approach 1 Approach 2 Sales Force

What Salespeople Clusters of Sales Management Effectiveness
Need Decision by Impact Driver Category

Clear roles and territories Sales force design Definers

Structure and roles
Sales force size
Territory alignment
Skills, capabilities, and values Recruiting Shapers
to succeed Training
Coaching
Culture formation
Leadership
Sales managers
Compensation and incentives
Customer knowledge Customer research Enlighteners
(know-how) necessary Targeting
to succeed Data and tools
Customer relationship management
To be motivated and Culture Exciters
inspired to succeed Leadership
(incentives) Compensation and incentives
Motivation programs
Meaningful work
To have their activities Culture Controllers
directed in appropriate Sales managers
ways (control) Compensation and incentives
Performance management and measurement
Goal setting and forecasting
Coordination and communication

work for the purpose of comparing and contrasting the two
viewpoints and identifying research gaps.
The Sales Executive Issue Inventory: The Practitioner
Point of View
The Sales Executive Issue Inventory consists of data gathered
from 721 sales leaders who attended our Accelerating Sales
Force Performance executive education program at North-
western University’s Kellogg School between 1995 and 2005.
The participants were upper- and upper-middle-level sales and
marketing executives who came from over 400 different com-
panies in over 20 countries, in a wide range of industries, and
with varying sales force sizes. Prior to attending the program,
the executives were asked to complete a short questionnaire.
Included on that questionnaire was an open-ended question
asking, “What sales productivity issues are you currently faced
with?” The executives identified 2,051 sales productivity is-
sues (many reported facing multiple issues). These issues were
organized and analyzed by a researcher who categorized each
response according to the components of the Sales Force Effec-
tiveness Framework. Figure 4 shows the percent of responders
mentioning issues related to each Selling World component,
along with some examples of the responses. Because the sales
executives who participated in the inventory have primary
accountability for the Sales Force component, the majority of
responses fall within that category. These responses are further
broken down into the various components of the Sales System
in Figure 5 and Table 2.
The Sales Academic Research Inventory: The Academic
Point of View
The Sales Academic Research Inventory consists of data gath-
ered by reading and synthesizing abstracts of 143 sales-related
articles published between 2001 and 2006 in four academic
journals—Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research,
Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, and Market-
ing Science. A researcher categorized each article according to
the various sales force effectiveness drivers mentioned in each
article’s abstract. Articles were included in zero, one, or mul-
tiple driver categories, depending on their scope and content.
122 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management

Figure 4
Sales Executive Issue Inventory Responses and the Selling World

Note: 1 Percentages sum to over 100 percent because many respondents provided multiple responses.

Figure 5
Sales Executive Issue Inventory Responses and the Selling System
 Spring 2008 123

Table 2
Sales Executive Issue Inventory Responses and the Sales Force Effectiveness Drivers

Percent of
Responders* Example Response

Sales Force Design/Structure and Roles 12 “Should we have product specialists?”

“We have changed our structure five times in two years.”
Sales Force Size 8 “I suspect our team is not large enough.”
“We need to reduce headcount.”
Territory Alignment 8 “Large differences in territory potential create unfairness.”
Recruiting 5 “How to recruit top sales talent.”
“Ensuring that we hire the ‘right’ person.”
Training 6 “How to train the sales force over time.”
“Need better training for sales managers.”
Coaching/Culture Formation 3 “Blending two cultures after a merger.”
“How to create a success culture.”
Customer Research/Targeting 9 “Better target certain customer segments.”
“Need to improve ability to qualify leads.”
Data and Tools/CRM 14 “Need better information on competitor’s offers.”
“Informational gaps due to information technology
problems.”
Leadership/Sales Managers 5 “Inexperienced first-level sales management.”
“Company leaders need to reinforce sales force focus.”
Compensation/Incentives/ Motivation Programs 18 “The comp plan doesn’t reflect our business priorities.”
“Not enough opportunities for top performers.”
Meaningful Work 2 “Sales force turnover is high because salespeople face
considerable customer rejection.”
Performance Management and Measurement 13 “How to fix underperformers.”
“Can’t measure sales performance accurately.”
Goal Setting and Forecasting 6 “Low morale due to targets that are too high.”
”Hard to forecast sales of new products.”
Coordination and Communication 5 “Poor sales and marketing coordination.”
“Need to improve communication with technical staff.”

* 65 percent of responders mentioned at least one sales force effectiveness driver. Many responders provided multiple driver responses.

For articles in the Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Manage-
ment (87 percent of inventory articles), an online search of
the journal’s topical index was performed to augment and
check the researcher’s work. The results of the categorization
are summarized in Figure 6.
Comparing the Practitioner and Academic Viewpoints
Figure 7 compares the results of the practitioner and academic
inventories. For each sales force effectiveness driver, a percent-
age reflecting frequency of mention in the Sales Executive Issue
Inventory is plotted against a percentage reflecting frequency
of article publication in the Sales Academic Research Inven-
tory. The data on both axes are shown as percentages sum-
ming to 100 percent across the drivers; this allows the axes to
be shown on a consistent scale. Interestingly, the majority of
drivers that fall below the line, such as compensation, target-
ing, sales force size, territory alignment, and goal setting, are
typically studied using quantitative approaches, whereas many
of the drivers above the line, such as culture and training,
are studied more qualitatively. Sales force structure, the final
driver that falls below the line, can be studied using a mix of
qualitative and quantitative approaches. A caveat to consider
when interpreting the academic data is that the data reflect
only the number of articles written about each topic; no at-
tempt was made to assess the impact of the articles.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE
FRAMEWORK
The Sales Executive Issue Inventory along with our teaching
and work with companies reveal that sales force issues and con-
cerns arise in two different types of situations. The framework
can be applied in both. First, sales organizations are challenged
to respond quickly and appropriately as events, such as signifi-
cant environmental shifts or new product launches, require
them to take action. Events occur in the “external forces” and
“company strategy” components of the Selling World shown
in Figure 1. Second, successful sales organizations engage in
ongoing effectiveness hunts, seeking constant improvement in
124 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
Figure 6
Academic Articles Published January 2001–October 2006 and the Sales Force Effectiveness Drivers
Note: The percentages do not sum to 100 percent because some articles do not focus on any sales force effectiveness drivers and others focus on more
than one driver.
their performance even when there is no event requiring sales
force change. This is the “effectiveness hunt” component of
the Selling World shown in Figure 1. Although the dynam-
ics and challenges of initiating and implementing change
are quite different in these two types of situations, the Sales
Force Effectiveness Framework provides a structured way for
sales leaders and researchers in either situation to diagnose
problems, recognize opportunities, and develop effective
solutions. The remainder of this paper describes ways that
the framework can be used to fashion successful sales force
change when responding to events and when making constant
improvements.
Responding to Events
Major events compel companies to react. For example, when
a major new product is launched, a new government regula-
tion is enacted, or a merger or acquisition occurs, sales force
response is required. Some events lead to more gradual change,
for example, when customers begin to consolidate and alter
their buying processes or the economy slows down or picks
up. In such cases, the status quo can be maintained for a
while, but eventually the sales system begins to break down
and major change is needed to align sales force effort with
evolving customer needs and company strategies.
Two brief illustrations of events that created a need for sales
force response are presented here within the context of the
Selling World and Sales System. The Shell Energy example
shows response to an external event, and the Kinko’s example
shows response to a company strategy change.
Shell Energy Responds to Government Deregulation
Deregulation of the U.S. utility industry had dramatic impli-
cations for the industry’s sales forces. Utility companies that
were once regulated monopolies with captive customers had
to, for the first time, actively sell to customers in a competitive
marketplace. Prederegulation sales forces that were activity
oriented, risk averse, reactive, and technical had to transform
themselves into postderegulation sales forces that were sales
oriented, risk taking, proactive, and relationship focused. Fig-
ure 8 uses the Sales Force Effectiveness Framework to examine
how in 1999, Shell Energy responded to deregulation of the
natural gas industry in the State of Georgia by establishing a
 Spring 2008 125

Figure 7
Sales Force Effectiveness Driver Emphasis—Practitioners Versus Academics

Figure 8
Shell Energy Responds to Government Deregulation of the Natural Gas Industry in Georgia
126 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
Figure 9
Kinko’s Enters New Markets
corporate sales organization (Greene and Brooks 2001; Perin
1999; Quinn 1999).
Kinko’s Enters New Markets
In the late 1990s, management at Kinko’s, the provider of
document solutions and business services, made a strategic
decision to proactively seek out larger corporate customers
(Cohen 2000; Marchetti 1997). Historically, Kinko’s custom-
ers were mostly business travelers, college students, or employ-
ees of small businesses who periodically visited the company’s
24-hour copy and business service centers. Through the new
strategy, Kinko’s hoped to establish longer-term, profitable
partnerships with large corporations by providing comprehen-
sive printing and copy services. Figure 9 uses the Sales Force
Effectiveness Framework to examine how the Kinko’s sales
organization responded to this change in corporate strategy.
A PROCESS FOR RESPONDING TO EVENTS
The Selling World shown in Figure 10 suggests a process for
effective sales force response to events.
An event occurs within the “external forces” or “company
strategy” components of the framework. The way in which
the sales force should adapt to the event is determined by a
series of decisions suggested by moving logically from left
to right within the framework. Hence, assessment begins by
understanding the impact of the event on marketing and sales
strategies, with particular emphasis on how the selling process
may need to change. Once this determination has been made,
the impact on the sales force can be assessed, beginning with
sales force structure and roles, followed by salespeople’s skills
and capabilities, and finally, the drivers of sales force activity.
Figure 11 suggests a decision-making process consisting of
questions to ask while using the framework to develop a plan
for successful sales force adaptation.
Occasionally, companies feel pressure to implement change
quickly and do not have time to make all decisions in the ideal
sequence. This occurs often, for example, when two sales forces
merge. If merging companies already have sales forces in place,
there are usually redundancies in coverage, the companies seek
cost reductions, and downsizing is likely. There is pressure to
create a merged sales organization as quickly as possible to
minimize negative effects of the merger on customer percep-
tions, employee morale, and company profits. The need for
speed provides little time to reevaluate sales and marketing
strategies or to find the best sales force design. Decision mak-
ing moves quickly from the “sales force structure and roles”
component of the Sales System (how much do we downsize?)
to the “salespeople” component (who stays and who goes?).
Making Constant Improvements
Progressive sales forces establish processes for making constant
improvements and enhancing their performance, even when
there are no events that necessitate change. In time, a sales
force’s strength will slowly erode if the sales force effectiveness
drivers are not continuously adapted. Selling processes can
 Spring 2008 127

Figure 10
The Selling World and Event Response

Figure 11
A Decision-Making Process for Sales Force Adaptation to Major Events
128 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
become dated. Sales managers’ skills can atrophy. Recruit-
ment processes can fail to produce consistently high-quality
hires for a new selling environment. The sales compensation
plan can become misaligned with company priorities, causing
strategic products or valuable customers to receive too little
sales effort. Sales force issues that appear minor today, if left
alone can escalate into bigger problems in the future.
Most sales force issues, concerns, challenges, and opportu-
nities can be addressed by leveraging one or more sales force
effectiveness drivers. This can be accomplished by redesigning
an existing driver; initiating a new process, system, or program;
or executing a current driver more effectively. The process of
constant sales force improvement begins with diagnosis to
identify the driver or drivers that are at the root of any issue.
Because the list of driver candidates can be quite large, the
drivers will need to be prioritized according to their likely
impact on sales effectiveness. As the highest priority drivers
are revised, a check for compatibility and consistency with
company goals and strategies encourages the desired outcome.
Most companies make some sales force effectiveness driver
improvements intuitively every year. The best companies use
a structured approach for continually assessing sales force ef-
fectiveness and making driver enhancements.
The Novartis Approach for Constant Improvement
Novartis, a leading multinational manufacturer of pharmaceu-
tical products, uses a structured process supported by analytic
tools and approaches in an ongoing effort to enhance global
sales effectiveness. As of year-end 2006, the process had helped
drive six consecutive years of double-digit top-line growth in
the United States, well ahead of the industry average. The
company conducts an annual sales force effectiveness review
using a sales force performance scorecard (described in the next
section) to identify high-priority sales force effectiveness driv-
ers. An annual improvement plan is built around the highest-
priority drivers, the plan is executed, and progress is measured
year after year. Several initiatives have produced significant sales
force effectiveness enhancements. For example, an analysis of
customer targeting revealed that sales force time was scattered
across too many physicians. By strategically concentrating sales
activity on approximately 35 percent of the highest-valued
physicians, the company realized a significant sales increase and
a large sales productivity improvement. In another initiative,
high-performing salespeople (who were identified through a
combination of data analysis and sales manager input) were
observed on typical sales calls in order to identify the levers that
they used to influence the customer-buying process. Average
performers were observed on calls as well, and their behavior
was contrasted with that of the high performers. A set of
success principles differentiating top-performing salespeople
was identified, and these principles were incorporated into a
training program for the sales organization. At a presentation
to analysts in September 2003, the company showcased the
fact that the company’s salespeople who had been trained on
the behaviors of top-performing salespeople were chosen by
physicians as the best salespeople they see 46 percent of the
time, compared to only 22 percent of the time for salespeople
who did not complete the training. This preference among
physicians was also linked to better sales results.
Prioritizing Drivers Using the Sales Force Performance
Scorecard
Because diagnosis of sales force issues can lead to a large list of
driver improvement candidates, companies are typically most
successful at enhancing sales effectiveness if they prioritize the
drivers and focus their improvement efforts on a small number
of the most important ones first. The sales force performance
scorecard provides a mechanism for assessing the sales force
effectiveness drivers and prioritizing initiatives according to
their likely effect.
The sales force performance scorecard profiles each driver
in terms of two measures—performance and strategic impact.
A performance score reflects how competent or how capable
the selling organization is at each driver. Effective methods of
deriving performance scores include
• Quantitative approaches: Data analysis is used to mea-
sure driver effectiveness. For example, the territory
alignment driver is assessed by evaluating territory
workloads and comparing them against each salesper-
son’s capacity. Many quantitative approaches to assess-
ing performance have been developed (Zoltners, Sinha,
and Zoltners 2001);
• Qualitative approaches: Sales leaders provide a thorough
and consistent evaluation of each driver’s performance
using a questionnaire to assess current practices relative
to defined context-specific best-practice standards.
Strategic impact reflects the importance the driver has for
the organization’s ability to succeed. Most companies rely on
management judgment or outside experts to derive strategic
impact scores for the drivers.
The sales force performance scorecard provides a snapshot
of the organization’s performance on the various drivers and
the strategic impact of the drivers at a particular point in time.
An example scorecard is presented in Figure 12.
The position of each driver on the scorecard suggests an
action. For example, an effectiveness driver with low strategic
impact but high performance, such as sales force size in the
example, can be maintained at current levels for the time be-
ing. Effectiveness drivers with high strategic impact and high
performance, such as motivation programs in the example,
need to be monitored closely to ensure that their performance

Figure 12
A Sales Force Performance Scorecard
stays high. Those with low strategic impact and low perfor-
mance, such as indirect marketing support in the example,
can be monitored in case the impact of the driver increases
over time. Top priority for management attention goes to
effectiveness drivers with low performance and high strategic
impact, such as training, sales manager development, target-
ing, and sales force tools in the example. These areas present
the greatest opportunity for effectiveness gains.
The sales force performance scorecard is very specific to
the company and its condition at the time that the assessment
is conducted. Drivers move to the right as the sales force’s
performance increases or to the left as performance decreases
when changes in the environment render current practices
less effective. Drivers also move up or down as their strategic
impact changes due to changes in environmental conditions
and company strategy. Insights are gained when assessments
are conducted on a regular basis and changes are tracked over
time. Figure 13 compares the performance scores in Figure
12 to last year’s scores. The company has improved its per-
formance on several drivers, but performance has slipped on
some others.
SUMMARY AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
Sales practitioners and researchers alike benefit from a sys-
tematic and comprehensive approach to assessing sales force
effectiveness. By organizing the complexities of the Selling
Spring 2008 129
World and the Sales System, the Sales Force Effectiveness
Framework provides a holistic and consistent view of sales
organizations that sales practitioners and academics can use to
assess sales force effectiveness and diagnose and address sales
force issues and concerns.
The framework suggests three opportunities for additional
research. First, broader, issue-based research is needed to ad-
dress the issues that practitioners find to be most salient and
challenging. Several illustrative examples are
• What is the best way to motivate a sales force that has
grown complacent?
• How do you prevent the best salespeople from leaving
the company and taking business to competitors?
• How do you get a sales force to allocate time appropri-
ately across products and customer segments? When
are structure, incentives, or performance management
the most appropriate solutions?
• How do you create a culture of responsibility and ac-
countability?
• How do you overcome a weak sales management team?
• How do you manage poor performers effectively?
Research can help to establish theories and build practical
processes for adjusting the sales force effectiveness drivers to
address these and other critical sales management concerns. This
research can be particularly challenging and also very powerful
because addressing these issues requires multidriver solutions.
130 Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management
Figure 13
Changes in Sales Force Effectiveness Driver Performance from Last Year
Second, research is needed that helps companies better as-
sess and track sales force effectiveness driver performance and
measure the return on investment of different drivers. Analytic
tools can be improved and extended through research, result-
ing in more accurate sales force effectiveness assessment.
Finally, more research is needed that focuses on individual
sales force effectiveness drivers to define best practices or best
processes, to reveal what works and what does not, and to
develop driver improvement methods. Interestingly, the big-
gest effect is likely to come from blending the quantitative
and qualitative disciplines. The framework provides a starting
point upon which multidisciplinary studies can be built.
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