= Ne ee rs HYDRO DYNAMICS (For Honours and Post-Graduate Students of all Universities) cane DONATED BY Prof. M. K. Khera SD-121, PITAM PURA, Delbi-88, 27311723 By SHANTI SWARUP Department of Mathematics, N.A.S. College, Meerat, Krishna Prakashan Mandir . Subhash Bazar, Meerut ( U. P.) merOur Very Popular Mathematical Publications Dr. S.C. Mittal 1, Analytical Solid Geometry 2. Vector Analysis Dr, Mittal & Agarwal 3. Differential Geometry Dr. S.C. Mittal & Prof. Dharam Vira 4, Partial Differential Equations & Spherical Harmonics. 5, Functions of a Real Variable 6. Theory of Aggregates Dr. S. C. Mittal & J. N. Sharma 7. Integral Calculus 8. Differential Equations. 9, Theory of Equations. Prof. Dharam Vica & J. N. Sharma 22. Differential Calculus B.S. Tyagi, B. Nand & B. D. Sharma 23. Statics. 24. Dynamics of a Particle. P. P. Gupta 25. Rigid Dynamics I. 26. Rigid Dynamics II. 27. Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism. G. S. Malik 28. Spherical Trigonometry. A. R. 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Gupta 41, Integral Transforms, es Allama Iobal Li Sg mE. 531855 ay Published by Krishna Prakashan Mandir, Subhash Bazar, Meerut (U. P.) and Printed at Basant Printers, Meerut. i a anSD-121, PITAM PUFA, Delai-$ 8, 27511723 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION This book on Hydrodynamics has been specially designed to meet the requirements of the students preparing for Honour’s and Post-graduate classes of all Indian Universities. ach chapter of the book contains a fairly large number of examples. Ido not claim any originality. All standard books on the subject have been consulted during the preparation of the book. shall be grateful to the readers for pointing out the errors, inspite of all care, might have crept in. Thanks are also due to the publishers and printers for their effective co-operation. Any comment and suggestions for improvement by the readers of the book will be gratefully acknowledged. N. A. S. College, —S. Swarup Meerut. PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION In this second Edition the book has been revised thoroughly. Some new examples and topics has been added according to the latest syllabi and Question Papers of different Universities. Any suggestion for further impravement will be highly appreciated. N. A. S. College, —S, Swarup Meerut.CONTENTS Chapters Pages 1. Kinematics 1—40 Introduction (Eulerian and Lagrangian Method). 3 Velocity of a fluid particle at a point. 3 Relation between the local and individual time rates. 4 Acceleration. 5 Equation of continuity. 6 Equation of continuity (Alternative method). 8 0 Equation of continuity (Lagrangian Method). 1 Equivalence of the two forms of the Equation of continuity. ll Equation of continuity (Spherical Polar Coordinates). 13 Equation of continuity (Cylindrical Polar Coordinates) 15 General Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates 18 Equation to the conservation of mass in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates 19 Stream lines, Path lines. 29 Velocity potential. 29 Irrotational motion. 30 Boundary surface. 34 2, Equations of Motion. 41—106 The equation of motion of an inviscid fluid. 41 The equation of motion of a perfect fluid (Alternative method). 44 Conservative field of force 45 Integration of Euler’s Equation. 46 Integration of Euler’s Equation (Alternative method). 47 Bernoulli’s Theorem 48 Lagrange’s hydro-dynamical Equations 49 ‘Cauchy’s Integral. 51Chapters . Pages Some symmetrical forms of the Equation of Continuity. 58 Equation of motion under impulsive force. 89 Equation of motion under impulsive force (Alternative method). a1 Equation of energy. 93 Motion in Two Dimensions. : 107—170 Motion in two dimensions. . 107 Stream function. 108 Property of stream function. 108 Irrotational motion in two dimensions 109 Complex potential. : 110 Magnitude of the velocity. 1k Two dimensional Source. 112 Complex potential for a source. . 113 Complex potential for a source (Alternative method). 114 Doublet in two-dimensions. 115 Complex Potential for a Doublet. 11s Images in two-dimensions. 116 Image of a source with regard to a line. 117 Image of a source with regard to a plane (Alternative method). . 117 Image of a doublet in a straight line. 118 Circle Theorem. 118 Image of a source with regard to a circle. 119 Image of a source with regard to a circle (Alternative method). 120 Image of a doublet in a circle. 122 Image of a doublet in a circle (Alternative . method). 123 Three dimensional source. 124 Three dimensional Doublet 124 Velocity potential due to a three dimensional doublet. 124 Images in three-dimensions. 125 Image of a three-dimensional source with regard to a sphere. 125 Conformal representation. 149( iii ) Chapters Pages Mapping. 149 Application to Hydro-dynamics. 150 4. General Theory of Irrotational Motion. 171—208 Motion of a small fluid element. 171 Flow and circulation. 173 Stoke’s Theorem. 174 Deductions from Stoke’s Theorem. 176 Irrotational motion - 196 Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem. 177 Connectivity. 178 Acyclic and Cyclic Motion. 179 Green’s Theorem. 180 Kinetic energy of finite fluid. 182 Kinetic energy of infinite fluid. 183 Kelvin’s minimum energy Theorem, 184 Mean value of the velocity potential over a spherical surface. 185 Uniqueness Theorem. 187 5. Motion of Cylinders, Eliptic Cylinders. . 209—280 Introduction. 209 Boundary conditions for the stream function. 209 General motion of a cylinder in two dimensions. 210 Motion of a circular cylinder in a uniform stream. 211 Liquid streaming past a fixed circular cylinder. 213 Two Co-axial cylinders (Problem of initial motion). 225 Circulation about a circular cylinder. 229 Streaming and circulation for a fixed circular. cylinder. 230 Lift 234 Equation of motion of a circular cylinder. 234 Elliptic Coordinates. 240 Motion of an Elliptic cylinder. 241 The Joukowski transformation. 243. Streaming past a fixed elliptic cylinder. 243 Elliptic cylinder rotating in an infinite mass of(iv) Chapters Pages liquid at rest at infinity. 250 Kinetic energy of rotaing elliptic cylinder. 251 Kinetic energy when the liquid contained in a rotating elliptic cylinder. 252 Circulation about an elliptic cylinder. 269 Blasius Theorem. 270 The aerofoil. 272 Theorem of Kutta and Joukowski. 272 6. Irrotational Motion in Three Dimensions (Motion of a Sphere) 281—336 Butler’s Sphere Theorem. 281 Motion of a sphere through a liquid at rest at infinity. 283 Liquid streaming past a fixed sphere. 285 Concentric spheres. Initial motion. 286 Equations of motion of a sphere. 300 Motion symmetrical about an axis. Stoke’s stream function. 316 Property of stoke’s stream function. 318 Irrotational motion. 319 Polar coordinates. Irrotational motion. 319 Values of stoke’s stream function. 321 Solid of revolution moving along their axes in an infinite mass of liquid. 323 Motion of a liquid inside a rotating ellipsoidal shell. 330 Motion of an ellipsoid in an infinite mass of liquid. 333 ve Vortex Motion. 337—398 Introduction. 337 Rectilinear vortices. 341 Velocity components. 343 Centre of vortices. 344 A case of the vortex filaments. 344 Stream function when the strength of the vortex filaments are equal. 346(v) Chapters Pages Stream function for two vortex filaments of strengths K and —K. (Vortex Pair) 347 Vortex doublet. 348 Vortex inside an infinite circular cyclinder. 350 Vortex outside a circular cyclinder. 350 Image of a vortex filament in a plane. 360 Four vortices. 370 An infinite single row of parallel rectilinear vortices of the same strength. 376 Two infinite rows of parallel rectilinear vortices. 378 Ka’r ma’n vortex street. 379 Rectilinear vortex with circular section. 384 Steady motion. 389 Rankine’s combined vortex. 391 Rectilinear vortices with elliptic section. 392 Vortex sheets. 397 8, Waves. . 399—446 Wave Motion. 399 Standing or Stationary Waves. 401 Progressive-type solutions of wave equation, 401 (i) One-dimensional wave equation. 401 (ii) Two-dimensional wave equation. 402 Stationary type solutions of equation. 404 (i) One-dimensional wave equation. 404 (ii) Two-dimensional wave equation. 404 Types of liquid waves, 405 Surface waves. 405 Progressive waves on the surface of a Canal. 407 ‘Waves on a deep canal. 410 Energy of Progressive waves. 4i] Progressive waves reduced to a steady motion. 412 On deep water. 413 Stationary or standing waves. 414 On deep water. 416 Energy of stationary waves. 417 Waves at the common surface of two liquids, 418(vi) Chapters Pages Waves at an interface with upper surface free. 421 Group velocity. 424 Several Harmonic waves. 426 Dynamical significance of group velocity. 426 Long Waves. 428 Pressure. 430 Waves progressing in one direction only. 431 _ Energy of a long wave. 431 Long waves at the common surface of two liquids, bounded above and below by two fixed horizontal planes. 432 9. Viscosity. 447—496 Introduction. 447 Measurement of viscocity. 447 Strain analysis. 449 Rate of elongation. 451 Rate of shear. 452 Rate of strain tensor. 453 Rate of strain components. 454 Stress analysis 456 Stress tensor. 457 Tensor character of P. 459 Stress quadric. . 460 Properties of stress quadric. 460 Translation motion of fluid elements. 461 Isotropic fluid. 463 Relation between rate of strain tensor and stress tensor. - 464 Navier Stoke’s equations of motion of a viscous fluid. 467 Equation for vorticity and circulation. 468 Equation of motion in cylinderical polar coordinates. AT0 Energy dissipation due to viscosity. 471 Laminar flow between parallel plate. 475 I Plane Couette flow. AT6 II Plane Poiseuille flow. ATTChapters ( vii ) II Generalised plane Couette flow. Laminar flow between concentric rotating cylinders. Couette flow. Hagen-Poiseuille flow in a circular pipe. Steady flow between co-axial circular pipes. Steady flow in tubes of cross-section other than circular. (a) Elliptic section . (b) Equilateral triangle. Steady motion due to a slowly rotating sphere, Pages 478 479 481 483 484 485 486 4881 Kinematics The Science of Hydrodynamics may be classified into two different branches, viz. the motion of fluids and the motion of gases. Here we shall concentrate to the behaviour of the motion of fluids only. By the term fluid implies a substance that flows, it is defined to be an aggregation of molecules. A fluid is treated as an isotropic substance which means that the physical properties (viz. pressure, density, volume, temperature and viscosity etc.), are independent of direction. Fluid comprises both liquids and gases : Fluid (Liquids and Gases) | Newtonian Non-Newtonian Non-Viscous Viscous (Inviscid or Perfect or Ideal) The smallest lump of material having sufficient molecules to allow statistically of a continuum* interpretation is called a fluid particle. Actual fluids fall into two categories, e.g. liquids and gases. (i) Liquids : Which are incompressible i.e. their volume do not change when pressure changes or has a definite volume at constant temperature and pressure. Although all known liquids are compressible to some extent but most of the practical purposes liquids are regarded as an incompressible fluids. * Continuum’ means that the distance between fluid particles (or molecules) or the mean free path is small. By small we mean ‘small compared to any physical dimensions of the problem.’Hydrodynamics (ii) Gases: Which are compressible fluids, /.e. their volume change when the pressure changes. Hydrodynamics is often applied to t frictionless and incompressible fluid. An Inviscid or Ideal fluid is a exerting no tangential or shear stress between adjoining layers of fluid. The pressure at every point of an ideal fluid is equal in all directions, whether the fluid be at rest or in motion. Actual fluids (Real fluids) are viscous and com- both the tangential and normal forces hat characteristic of real fluid which is capable to offer resistance to shearing stress, ¢.§- the resistance is small comparatively for fluid such as water and gases, but for other fluid such as oil, Glycerine etc., resistance is quite large. Viscosity is also known as an internal friction. Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation. Consider two parallel plates placed at a distance yp apart. The space between in is filled with the fluid, Let. the upper plate is he Science of flowing continuous fluid substance In general, pressible. In viscous fluids, exist. Viscosity of a fluid is U moving relative to the lower one Uu=U with a velocity U by the appli- a cation of a force F correspond- 2 F é Be OY ing to some area A of the upper plate. The particles of fluid in x uso contact with each plate will adhere to the surfaces. The velocity gradient will be a straight line if the distance y, is not too great or the velocity U too high. From similar triangles we see that Uy, can be replaced by velocity gradient du/dy. Let p be the constant of proportionality, the shearing stress between any two thin sheets of fluid is aah (Force/unit area) U ee yo U Ol =p — * . ar da or. T= oy Which is known as Newton’s Equation of viscosity.Kinematics 2° (i) . * O= Guldy ity, Absolute Viscosity or Where p» is the coefficient of viscosi Dynamic Viscosity. (i) When <=0 then p=0 ie. on the X-axis. (i) When du_y then p= 00 dy (i) will represent an ideal fluid ¥ oe v id i.e. (i) will represent the elastic Haslic bodies along the Y-axis. (I) A fluid for which the constant of proportionality (viscosity) does not change with (Shear the rate of deformation is said Stress) ‘ Teal flatd to be a ‘Newtonian fluid’ and is Ol Sh £0 Flas represented by 4 straight line. ear strain du/dy (IV) In Non-Newtonian fluid viscosity varies with the rate of deformation. The motion of a fluid may be investigated by two different methods : The one is the Lagrangian method, and the other is the Eulerian method. 1. Lagrangian Method (Individual time rate of change): In Lagrange’s method, any particle of the fluid is selected and pursue it on its ‘onward course observing the change in velocity, density and pressure at each point and each instant or in other sense we determine the history of every fluid particle. If (x, ys 2) are the co-ordinates of a particle of fluid at any time then e, 2, a are the components of its velocity and ee, ee oe are the components of its acceleration along the axes. So. (x,y), Z) (a, 9, 4) and (x, ¥, #) are the functions of ¢ and of three independent parameters (initial co-ordinates) 4, b, ¢ (say) which states the position of a chosen particle at a particular instant. Thus x,y,z are the functions of four independent variable a, b,c and t. , ie. x=fi (abet), y=fe(abct)and z=fa (abet). 2, Eulerian method (Local time rate of change): In Euler’s method (flux method) the individual fluid. particles are not identified but a fixed position in space is considered. We select any4 Hydrodynamics point fixed in space occupied by the fluid, “and observe the change occurs in velocity, density and pressure as the fiuid passes through this point. As the fluid is studied at all of its points at every instant ¢, So x,y,zand?¢ are independent variables in this case 2 The expressions &, a etc., are meaningless in this method as x and tare independent. :+ 1:3. Velocity of a fluid particle at a point. Consider the particle is at P at any instant ¢, such that » OP=r (Where © is a fixed point) and P’ is the position of the particle at any instant f-+é8r, such that OP’=r+6r Let q be the velocity of the P fiuid particle at P. — Lt @+sr)—r Then 4=5,50 3 _Lt x P I 3105 a at So qis in general dependent . otnt on both r and f, then we can write 0 (f éxed b ) =qirt) If the co-ordinates of P are (x y z) referred to the fixed point O, then q=q (x, y, zt) Let u, v, w are the cartesian components of the velocity at P, then q=si+yj+wk dx ,, dy ,, dz a= FG iF i+ Gk a 4 & { Since r=xi+-yj+2k } — = ya =s. So w= ar at and w “it § 1:4. Relation between the Local and Individual time rates. Consider u, v, w be the components of the velocity along the a co-ordinate axes, then P q=ui--yj-+wk _"Coaahaneyarez) Let g=¢ (%, », Zt) : (where ¢ is a scalar (zyz) point function)Kinematics oo fh ee OF or aba. ute vB. w+ 2b o #-(i2 axtd aM #2). (ety tkw) +22 o or Bag. + a or + =(a. 9) $+ 7 So a =i 2449) This relation is ao true for ¢ as a vector point function The operator faz =i —+(q.V7) is known as the differentiation following the motion of the fluid or the substantive derivative. § 1:31. Acceleration. Cartesian Co-ordinates. In § 13, if > is replaced by the velocity vector q, then 4929, (9.7) a-F Gay) P {soe q. youd +r = a Tt, +a A q Let (u,v, w) be the compo- 4 nents of velocity. Thecomponents O of acceleration ( fo, fy i are oe i font pu ty a A= Bu ue tye Ye and a ow f= i att aes ee ; In this expression the first term is the rate at which the velocity increases at the point (x) z) with regard to a fixed point. We shall denote the operatorHydrodynamics é a a a D ate mt ay +W5 by the symbol Dt Cor: Let the motion be along the curve S. Consider q be the velocity at a point P, then q=s (S, 1) and q+q be the velocity at any time t+651, So q+5q=f (S+5S, +81), q+sq=f (S+98t, t+ér) {since 8S=q51} or or a+da=15.0+( q £42) Otbee Then (a+iq—a={ FS n+ ( q #42) atone f-F(S 1). Lt éq of r) or 8r>0 #-( V3gtar ) to Thus acceleration is given by dq_ Ff 244 4% ano 8s at + 18s § 1:4, Equation of Continuity. When a region of fluid contain neither sources nor sinks i.e. there is no creation or annihilation q of the fluid, then the amount of fluid n within the region is conserved in accordance with the principle of SS Now we conservation of matter. shall develope the above principle mathematically by means of so-called Equation of continuity or conserva- ‘Ss , tion of mass. Let ? be the density of the fluid at any point (x, y, z) in V at any instant. Consider a fluid particle of infinitesimal volume dv and density e (7,7) at any time ft. The mass of this fiuid particle cannot change as it moves about, therefore d a (e dv)=0 this is one from of the equation of continuity or conservation of mass. Consider a closed surface S in a fluid medium containing a volume V fixed in space. Let m is the unit outward drawn normal at a surface element 8S. Ifq be the fluid velocity at the element 5S, the normal component of q measured outward from V will be =n.qKinematics woe Rate of mass-flow across 5S per unit mass gee r o., Total Rate of med out of V across 6S ine =f, nq dS Total rate of mass-flow into V =- fan ds=—[,,7-(e) dv «(i (By Gauss Theorem) Also rate of increase of mass with in V =z [, e av} -f, & av ii) Since the equation of continuity is based on the principle that the rate of increase of the mass of fluid with in the volume V is equal to the excess of the mass that flows-in-over the mass that flows out. Then from (i) and (ii), we have J € av=—| Tew) av yor ae or ut [, ven ar=0 a i” or [GF +V.(Pq) }av—o oe ili) Since the surface Scan be replaced by any arbitrary closed surface drawn within it, we must have, at every point a it +7 .(eq)=0 «(iv) Which is known as equation of continuity, and is true at any point of a fluid free from sources and sinks. Equation (iv) can be written in the following manner also. Since V.(pq)=PV.a+4- Ve Then (iv) reduces to a seteV-ata.Ve=0 or 2 +e7.q=0 or 4 (log e) + 7-4=0 wa(v)8 Hydrodynamics { where 4 denotes the differentiation following the fluid motion d_a as =i +q.V7 I. Incase of Steady flow : the pattern of flow does not very with regard to time or the path of the fluid particle coincides with the stream line, So #0 then (iv) reduces to T-(eq)=0 +e(vi) Il. In case of non-homogeneous incompressible fluid ; the density of the fluid particle is invariable with time i.e. ep=constant through out the entire region or or axtiy The quantity V.q gives the rate of volume expansion of a fluid element. It may be called Dilatation or Expansion. Ill. Ifthe flow is of the potential kind, then there exist a velocity potential ¢ i.e. for an irrotational motion q=-Ve then from (II), we have V8 g=0. Which is a Laplace’s Equation. § 1:5. Alternative method : Equation of continuity, (Cartesian Coordinates) Consider p be the density of the fluid at P (x,y,z) and u,v, w be the components of the velocity parallel to the co- ordinate axes. Construct a small parallelopiped with edges of length 6x, éy, 6z parallel to the axes. Consider any closed surface drawn in the fluid then the increase in the mass of fluidKinematics 9 within the surface in any time 8 is equal to the excess of mass that flows in over the mass that flows out in the time St. Mass of the fluid that passes in through the face PORS. =p dy 6z.u per unit time . =f» 2) (let) Gi) Mass of the fluid that passes out through the opposite face P'O'R'S’. =f (x+8%, Ys 2) =f (xy pte Zfey at ii) (by Taylor’s Theorem) The excess of flow-in over flow out (in the direction of axis of X). =Mass that enters through the face PORS—Mass that leaves through the face PORS'. =f (xy z)—f (x y z)—8x . art xyzt.. =—8x rey z) a - =-%2{ pu dy 8z } { from (i)} —_—? (eu) Ox 5x dy 82 wii) Similarly the excess of flow-in over flow out through the faces QO'R'R and PP’S'S } : =- wf ev dx a} _ _9 (ev) =— ay 8x dy z wiv) and the excess of flow-in over flow out through the faces PP’Q'O and SS’R'R. 3 = —83 ew 8x by } __ 9 (ew) =-—3 8x dp 8z. iv) Thus the total excess of flow-in over flow out from all the faces ==— dx dy 82 ‘8 (pu) a(ev) | @ (ew) ax oy +e we l¥)Hydrodynamics Again total mass in the parallelopiped =p. dx dy bz Rate of increase in the mass of the parallelopiped é =a dx dy 5z) a : =édx dy beg per unit time. (vi) increase in mass=Total Excess of flow-in over Since flow-out through all the faces. From (v) and (vi), we have ee a @ a Sx by 6z a —dx dy bz fe (uta (ev) +ar ew} or 2 1 Boy 4 2-con * Owpe0 br tax) Fay (ev)+ gz (Pw)=0. wvii) Which is known as the equation of continuity in cartesian coordinates. Cor. (I) Equation (vii) can be written as op 7) ap op du av Ow\_, at ag t? ay TY ae +? ts wy *) ° De ‘du ay | aw — S44 |=0. on Dt + (+5 ta ) {Refer § 1. 31} Cor. (II) If the fluid be non-homogeneous and incompre- ssible, then. De _, ¢=cons., > =0 au av ow au a =0 So ax | ay th measures the rate at which the volume? of an element of fluid at (xp z) is expanding and known as dilatation or the expansion. § 1:6. Equation of continuity in the Lagrangian Method. Consider A be the region occupied bya fluid at the time eC 1=Oand B the region occupied by the same fluid at any time ¢ P g Let (a b c) be the initial co- A B ordinates of a particle P enclosed in this clement and ?’ be the density. Mass of the fluid element =e’ 5a 8b 8c.11 Kinematics Also the mass of the element enclosing the subsequent point is =p bx dy dz (where ¢ is the density of the fluid at Q). 1 to the total mass So the total mass inside the region 4 is equal inside the region B, we have ‘Sf. e’ da do de= (ff, e dx dy dz otxy2 \{\, ° ‘da do ae = (V2 . meber da db de or since 8x Sy s2=5 S 5 aT 8a 5b dc } sep 222) | da db de=0 “r (Mae ° orn} a Since the region 4 is an arbitrary, then top a(xy2) _ @ (abe) 1p PARP 2) or P= "a(a be) ax ax ax or pl=esy whereJ=| Ga Bb ac ay ey @a &b de da 9b ac which is called the equation of continuity in Lagrangian form. §1°7. Equivalence of the two forms of the equation of (Lagrangian and Eulerian form) continuity. ‘We know that the equation of continuity in the Lagrangian form is pJ=e" . (i) _ o(xyz) where J=5 (abe) Differentiating (i) w. r.“to t, we have wt de a: ae a7 wii) These tsa are variations due to the motion of a parti- cle or the variability of x,y,z. Now we shall change from the12 Lagrangian that Again Sine ae or FG Hydrodynamics form to the Eulerian form of variables. We know du__ 2 (ax i (i) ete; da aa\or } de i - _dy a {since ue > = and w= ay py yy — tus xt’ By ay +" 2 J a (xy 2). ax dy éz “atabe) éa @a Ga dx a ab ab «&b ax ay ae, ac 8c Ge eu éy a2 ||| ox a az ox ay aw 3a aa aa |*| aa ba da da ba | ay az | ax Oy az ax dy Ow | | $ 8| ab 0b 5b ab ab ib 3b (8b ae a ow ou ay Oz ax av az @c ac oe a ac 8 je Be de dJ_8 (uy 2) @ (xz) o(xyw) Gi) or Gmalabe) d(abe) O(abe) ue But and ou _ ou ax, Ou ay du oz da ox da | dy da az” da Ou _ ou Ox, Ou ay au 82 a6 Ox * ob ty “abt ae * du _Ou Ox , du oy oy you oz ac ox | 8c a “be 82 * a au By eliminating = +a we obtain or atuy ‘ "tera = ete. wiv)Kinematics 13 The relation (iii) reduces to with the help of (iv) ° ow ad _y ou wag ir dt ox ay a, (4% 42) or ds (F te +5, . Substituting the value of a in (ii), we have deg (24) Tate (@ ty +5 =0. de (e+ +2)—0, hal at? \ix ey "a or Pte div. q=0, which is the Equation of Continuity in Eulerian form. §1°8 Equation of Continuity in Spherical Polar Coordinates. r Let @ be the density of the fluid at the point P (r, 6, 4). Construct a parallelopiped with P as centre, the length of whose edges are dr, r dé and rsin 6 d¢. Let qr, J» and ge be the components of the velocity in the direc- tion of the element res- pectively. Mass of the fluid that passes through the face PORS =p (r80.r sin 8 84). gp =S (r, 8, #) (say) ry . ess of the fluid that passes through the opposite face =f (r+6r, 6, 6) S68 BIZ IF, 0, 80 Excess of m f flows ..(To first approximation). ass of flow-in over flow out th h PQRS and P’Q'R’S'. rough the faces14 Hydrodynamics f(r ASL DBE LU Blevveveee = ZF 64) = 3. eo {ep r 80-r sin 856. qe} per unit time --2 {or® qe) ar 80-sin 0 86. Similarly excess of mass of flow-in over flow out through the faces PSS’ P’ and - —=—r 0-5 7 (-8r° r sin 6 5p- go} per unit time a + =r {? ge sin 6} .8r- 180-78 and Excess of mass flow in-over flow out through the face PQO'P’ and SRR’S’ {ep dr-r 86 ge} per unit time =—rsin 0 5¢. a a @ 7a a gag fh -Or-r 80-7 sin 8 Od. Total excess of flow-in over flow out =-Zte 7? qr} Sr 80-sin 8 3h a : rary) {P ge sin 6}-8r-r 80-7.8b a . —ron 0 {e qg}.8rer 80-r sin 6 3, Total mass in side the parallelopiped =p &r-rd0-r sin 6 8p So increase in the mass inside the parallelopiped -2 {edr.r0-r sin 8 34} = gi at sin 6 Sr 86 Sp. By the principle of equation of continuity, we haye .15 Kinematics - mass of flow-in over flow out * a j zn sin 6 6r 58 3g=— 5, {p r® ge} sin 6 br 808d =2 nO} r® Br 808 re? % sin 6} r? 6r 80 5p Increase in mass=Excess of or ETH fe qa)-r? sin 6 dr 80 8 sin 9-2 tsin acer gntrn (ego sin 0) +r? sin @- miu eye : Zz (e Pat paao : a (e qe sin 8) + ria quation of continuity in Spherical polar or (e ga)=0 or (@ qe)=0 which determines the e| Coordinates. § 1:81, Equatio Let @ be the density of the fluid at the point P (r, 62). Construct a curvilinear para- llelopiped with P as centre, the length of whose edges are dr, rd) and dz. Let gr, qe and gs be the components’ of the velocity in the direction of the elements respectively. ms The mass of the fluid that passes through the face a ABCD n of continuity in cylindrical coordinates. =p (r50.8z) gr per unit time =f (r 62) (let) and mass of the fluid that passes through the opposite face A'BIC'D' =f (r-+8r, 8, 2) =f (6 4B fr Oa) bee ...(To first approximation).16 Hydrodynamics Excess of mass of flow-in over flow out through the faces ABCD and A'B’C'D' =s(ro ote 82) Br (0 Zane = —ir 5 or (r@z) @ or {e r ge}.dr 80 82. =-9.2 {0 r gr 80 Sz}= Similarly the excess of mass of flow-in over flow out through the other faces are é a =r 60. re {p dr 8z Go} =F Goer Br 80 8z a and == bee {0 87.180 gJ=— = (@ a).r Br 80 82. Total excess of flow-in over flow out =— {z (ergr) sitet g (P40) r8r808z +e 2. (eq) .rorsis | Total mass of fluid inside the parallelopiped =Por.7d0.8z. Rate of increase in the mass inside the parallelopiped a =a, {pdr, 786,52} ee =F r5r808z By the principle of equation of continuity, we have Increase in mass=Excess of mass of flow in over flow out. a a a or Fe s(rBr8082)=— {2 (org) +r. (a0) +r.Z(Ca) } araeae or (erg, +r ra (ear 2 (Pge)=0. nat sar ae ott ir 2 ceran)+t an 2 (eas) +2 (Pqs)=0 which is the Equation of Contiauity in Cylindrical Co-ordinates. §182. Method of writing the Continuity Equation. Consider p be the density of the fluid. Construct a parallelo- piped the length of whose edges are dx dy dz, then orKinematics (a) Cartesian Coordinates. Length of elements dx dy dz Components of velocity u v w Now to calculate the flux* along the co-ordinate axes respectively, take the negative derivative with respect to the co- ordinate axes respect of the product, density x velozity in the direction of axis of X etc. xproduct of the remaining length add them and equate this sum to the rate of increase of mass inside the region. . a @ ie. i (pudydz) dx— a (evdxdz) dy a @ a (ewdxdy) d= (Pdxdydz) (b) Spherical Polar Co-ordinates. Length of elements dr rd8—rsin 8 dp Components of velocity Gr qo Ge Then flux along the co-ordinates axes a . é =-3 {erdd.r sin 8 dp gz} dry fedr.r sin Od qq} rd0 _—? _ rsin 0 a equate this sum to th: rate of insrease of mass in side the region {edr.rd.gg}er sin 0 3p =p tedr,rdd.r sin 0 dé} (c) Cylindrical Co-ordinates. Length of elements dr rat dz Components of velocity Qe qo __2 3 Q =-F (eqrrdbdz) dr— 708 (egedrdz) rdd— 5 (Pg.dr rd) dz equate this sum to the rate of increase of mass inside the region a =5y (ede. rd dz) *Flox: In any case of motion of ao incompressible fluid the surface integral of the normal velocity taken over any surface, open or closed is known as the flux across the surface.18 Hydrodynamics § 1°83. General orthogonal curvilinear Coordinates. A generalised coordinate system consists of a three fold family of surfaces whose equation in terms of the rectangular coordinates are, &1 (x y z)=const.=A1, Ee (x y z)=const. and Es (x y z)=const.=)s3. Where x, y, z are the cartesian coordinates. The surfaces 4y=const., Az=const. and As=const. .--(ii) form an orthogonai system. The lines of intersection of these surfaces constitute three families of lines. A relation can be expressed in (i) and (ii). X=x (Ay Ag As), Y= (An Aa As), Z=z (A; Ag As) The surfaces Ay=const., Az=const., As=const. are called Coordinate surface. Consider r be the position vector of a point, then ror (Aa Az Aa) {Representation of relation (i) in vector form.} wai) Tangent vector at the point to the Ai—curve a aay So the unit tangent vector in the direction of the Ar—curve — Orlary or |= or 1 ara] ay [ht : sya or aya NE + au. az \* +(5) + Similarly the unit tangent vector in the direction of A3—curve and A3—curve is given by “er ar as =hy e, and ira where the quantity /1, 42, hs is known a Scale factor. Since F=r (A; Ay As) or or or then a= ay at ae eet ay dt=hydry..e1+ hada. Ca-thedAs. es and ds*=dr. dr shPdht+hatdd?+ hedas. =hy eyed Kinematics Gi) Volume of a curvilinear parallelopiped os edges are is gi Since dr=A,dAer Iyddy, Raddg and higdAs, is given by { “oe =hyhaha.ddadadds So ds=Indas The vector definitions (in curvilinear coordinates) are as follows + “(1a La, 1 at) Gi) erad. t=(5, ye and Tad 1 LB gH Tia Oa at det hs ons ws > 1 fa a (iii) div. 4 “Ft ta (qyhahs)-+ Du (gahahy) 3 = ti (aahsh} > (iv) curl. q hiya, heat higaa -1}a 2 2 falighs| OAs Ora aAs higy haga haqs : 1 2 (halts 2b), 8 (Roly 0% oy 9 ae fan (Ge a) a(n) 8 [hike ep +a an § 1:84. Equation to the conservation of mass in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. Consider A1=const., A2z=const. c ‘ and \s=const. be the three families c of surfaces that cut one another Lf orthogonally at all their points of D intersection (Ax, Aa, Aa Tepresent the functions of rectangular coordinates x,y,z). Construct a curvilinear yr A parallelopiped at O with edges ' OB=3S,, OA=3S, and OC=8s. 8 B Let qs, ga and gg be the components of velocity in the dircetion of Aa, Ag and Ag respectively. Mass of the liquid that flows through the face OAC’C ; =Pqi 582 583 per unit time Mass of the liquid that passes out through the face BB’D'D =Pq1 Sq Siti (gi 8S2 5S3) 8S120 Hydrodynamics Excess of rate of flow in over flow out per unit time through the faces OAC’C and BB’ ” =—55, is (0m 55a 855} 851 i) Similarly excess of rate of flow in over flow out per unit time through the other two opposite faces. 2 =— 3g, Pde 85: asi} 3S: wii and =—55, 5 Seas 35, 8829 Ss .. iii) Now total mass inside the parallelopiped =p 85, 582 8S3 Rate of increase of mass of fluid inside the parallelopiped a fe 3S, 8S2 asi} iv) Since by the principle of continuity, Rate of increase of mass inside the parallelopiped=total excess of rate of flow-in over flow out through the parallelopiped Then 2 $055, 5528S: }——-2 Jog, 852354 } a5; ut 1 2 553 aS: Gq, S02 008 ‘1 a TS, ates $81 ass} bS.— aS, 34% 3S, asi} 35a Substituting 8S51=Myddy, 8S2—=haddx and 8S2—=fadAs a oF Iache dhs dhe drag — feo haha } iuddsddada Tiina Tae hah } hy day dda da a _ = fea hyhg ‘ hy dy dda dds. a 1 a ot ta fag (oa heh) +2 Cotas + (eta hy In) 20. Which is known as the equation to continuity in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.ai Kinematics ticles of a fluid move symmetrically in space with Ex. 1. The par: space W! t the equation of continuity is regard to a fixed centre ; prove thai a #48. 2 (ew) =0 where u is the velocity at distance r. Let P(r, 6, w) be a point p’ in the fluid. Construct a para- llelopiped with Pp’ (=r), PQ (=r59) and PS (=r sin 0 8) as edges Consider u,v, w be the components of the velocity in the direction of the elements dr, r30 and r sin 6 8. Let the origin O be the fixed centre. Since the fluid particles move symmetrically in space with reqard to an origin (fixed centre) that means the motion is only along PP’. So there is no motion along other edges rd9 and r sin 6 &w. Therefore the excess of flow-in over flow out from the face PORS and the oppposite face P’Q’R’S' along PP" in unit time =-95 {eu.rd?.r sin 8 So} Similarly the excess of mass of flow-in over flow out along PQ and PS vanishe as there is no motion along these directions. Mass of the fluid inside the element =pér.rd8.r sin 9 8a. Increase in the mass of the element a i (P6r.r50.r sin 63w) per unit time. From the principle of equation of continuity, we have Increase in mass=Excess of flow-in over flow out a . i (edr.r80.r sin 88u)—=—8r > (eu.r3Par sin 05) ae : or 5p {5r.rd0.r sin 8 8a} + zg (pur?) Sr. 80 sin 0Sa=0. 1 2 rar @ 1. , a 1.8 or apt pee ay th Pog, (ur?) =0 ée or at (pur?)=0.22 Hydrodynamics 2p bad ate art A Y 3 wu Ex. 2° "4 mass of fluid is in motion so that the lines of motion lie on the surface of coaxial cylinders. Show that the equation of continuity is ap ole tery) + 2 5, (PraJ=0 where V, ¥s are the velocities ‘pepusiiaias and parallel to z. Let P(r, 0, z) be a point in the fluid. Construct a parallelo- piped at P with edges PS (=r60), PR (=ér) and PP’ (=6z). Let ¥¢, ve and ve be the velocity components along PR, PS, PP’. Since the lines of motion of the fluid lie on the surface of coaxial cylinders so there is no motion along PR. Then excess of flow-in over flow out along PR vanishes. Also excess of flow-in over flow out along PS a =—rdo 70 {Pv,8r-8z} ir*)=0. Proved. and excess of flow-in over a~ out alog PP’ = ee {evr +180} Mass of the fluid in the element =prd0-Sr-dz Increase in the mass of the element -2 {er80-5r-5z} per unit time. From the equation of continuity, we have Increase in mass=change of flow-in over flow out. a a 9 or {erd8-8r-3z}—=—180- {eve8r3z}—82 5 {evs5r- 80} op a or oF (730-8r-82)-+75 (v9) + (r888r8z) a te (ere) (7888782) =0 a a é o ta (Pr) +a— (Pr)=0. Proved.Kinematics 23 Ex. 3. if the lines of motions are curves on the surfaces of cones having their vertices at the origin and the axis of Z for common axis. Prove that the equation of continuity is ap, 8 2°ge cosec 6 8 =0 hte (ear)+"t — a0 (Pgu)=0- Let O be the vertex and OZ be the common axis of Z. Let A (r, 9, @) be a point on the sur- face of the cone and qr, qe, qu be the components of the velocity along the edges of the parallelo- piped AA’, AB and AD respectively. Since lines of motion are curves on the surfaces of cones so there will be no motion perpendi- cular to the surface of the cone. The length of the edges are AA'=8r, AB=r80 and AD=r sin 65w. Now excess of flow-in over flow out in the direction AA’ i.e. from the face ABCD and A’B'C'D’ in time 5¢ = -2 {Parrie-r sin eau br-8t and the excess of flow-in over flow out in the direction AD i.e. from the face ABB’A and the opposite face in time br a . -— hal qu T808r }r sin 0 8w-dt Total excess of flow-in over flow out in time 6r a é =-2{ gy rd0-r sin ti | ar-ae ~ acres (007 ar} rsin @ 8 8¢ volume of an elementary parallelopiped + (l) =8r.r8 +r sin 0 dw Increase in the mass of an element in time 8¢ =2 fo. ae-rsin 83 Ey er 30-rsin 8 du Srp St o+.(2) Hence from the equation of continuity, we have24 Hydrodynamics #{ 2 sin 0 80 3u a wap arr 30-r sin @ sw f ar Bt or or @ fear 88 » resin 8 Su St ~Fsin 0 de or 22412 (cqq.rt) + pct (eae )=0 or 4 Le. 2 (oao-t(ea.2r}+ cosee @ B (og,y=0 or eye (egr)+ Par, gosee O Z (Pg.)=0. Proved. Ex. 4. if every particle moves on the surface of a sphere, prove that the equation of contniuity is ap a oe _ or cos otaG (ew cos N+ag (ew cos 6)=0. p being the density, 9, ¢ the latitude and longitude of any element, andw andw' the angular velocities of the element in latitude and longitude respectively. Consider an elementary parallelopiped PORS and P’ Q' R’ s on the surface of the sphere, where PP'=$r, PQ=r 80, PS=r cos 8 3¢ are the edges of the element, Since w and w’ are the angular velocities along 6 and ¢ respectively so rw and r cos w’ are the velocities along PQ and PS. Since the particle moves on the surface of the sphere so there will be no velocity normal to the surface of the sphere that means the velocity along PP’ vanishes. Now excess of flow-in over flow out along the faces perpen- dicular to PQ i.e. from the face QQ’ R'R and PP’ S‘S per unit time is =-10.5,{ © rw Sr-r cos 8 ae} Similarly excess of flow-in over flow out along the faces perpendicular to PS i.e., from the face QQ’ P'P and the opposite face per unit time is25 Kinematics =—r cos 6 &¢. ~ 2, n=, v(x, 2 n= and w(x, ¥s Zz nae with initial conditions x (f.) =X.» (to)=Yo and z (t))=Zo For a steady flow the velocity q is independent fof time. It is evident that in a steady flow the path lines and the stream lines are’ identical. § 1:84. Velocity Potential. , Let q(uvw) be the velocity of the fluid particle at any instant ¢. If the expression u dx+v dyt+w dz is a perfect differential he. udx-+v dyt+w dz=—d¢ veeli) ad og ap 01 dx-+-v dy+ =—Lax— Sdy— = Tr u vy dy-+w di a dx y a dzHydrodynamics 30 _ —__% ot Then u=— 5 = — By and W=—3- or q=—V¢ oee(2) where ¢ is called the velocity potential. The necessary and sufficient condition for differential is (1) to be a perfect vxq=0. « 3) § 1:85. Irrotational Motion. If the relation (2) of § 1°84 holds ie. the velocity potential . . aw ov du ow av du ¢ exists or when the expressions By az? Fe ox an ax oy all vanish then the motion is said to be irrotational. Ex. 1. Show that a 2xye ya u=— Gaye 9 Cty we Bye are the velocity componenis of a possible liquid motion. Ts this motion irrotational ? . Ifu, v and w satisfy the equation of continuity then it will be a possible liquid motion. ; au av he. ty 3xt—y* y~3xt 2yz. Gedy t? Gap +0 ow +3,7- =zer0. Which shows that the liquid motion is possible. Again for irrotational motion, we have av Ow, aw Gu au oy az ty hax azo and ox go MH a og, az ay (PPP PTF aw éu 2x) 2x) aso Re toate aad ou_ov _2xz (3y? —x*) _2xz (39x?) _ 9 ap ox GF (8+ y9)* Which satisfies the condition, hence the motion is irrotational. E: ; ey tx x. 2. Given u=—"y, P=n as w=0, where r denotes the distance from Z-axis. Find the surfaces which are orthogonal to stream lines, the liquid being homogeneous... 931 Kinematics If u, v, w satisfy the equation of continuity then it will be a possible liquid motion. ° oy | aw hes ax tay +3 2 or oe — 20 ral +0=0 which is an identity therefore the liquid motion is possible Qu 2cty ar 20 x | eo ox Br as x*-tyt=rt . or _% | 7 ax or The differential equation to the lines of flow are ae _dy_de u v w or dx ay a# aot yf eixire dx _dy_dz °* =p 0 or xdx+y dy=0, dz=0 or x#-+-y?=const. and z=const. The surfaces which cut the stream lines orthogonally are u dx--v dy+w dz=0 2, 2 or hae “no 2 = “hy ae ax dy—y dx _ or Oey =0 By integrating, we have e? tan? ( x) ) =const. or tan (= =const=A x or 2=tan A=ap (let) or ype which represents a plane through Z-axis.32 Hyrodynamics Ex.3. Ifthe velocity of an incompressible fluid at the point et (x,y, z) is given by 322, aE, 2, prove that the liquid motion is possible and that the velocity potential is cos, Also determine the stream lines. The liquid motion is possible ‘ au, ov if ox +2 4Be0 3z_15x2z ,3z__iSy*z_, 6z _ 1529, 3z. or ry tT 7 tp temo 2. 2. 2 or ye 15z (x' 2 +28) =0 15z__15z or ~ rao which is an identity, hence the motion is a possible one. [ Since resxi+yt+2? or Ou then Ox? Ox a3z 15xz' L —i+(-F) If ¢ be the velocity potential, then dont xr ay tb de or dg=—(u Pe dy-+w dz) or dp=— L Bp xz dx+3yz dy+(3z?—r*) az} or a=—}, fa: (x dx+y dy-+z dz)—r* de} or dpa, 2 dz 32 d(r) dz or aHj-—-F on th = #a(i) By integrating, we have $=%, —7 60s @_cos 6 r ne r (Constant of integration vanishes as it has no significanc:)Kinematics 33 Also the equation to stream lines are, dx_ dy _de u vow & oY ae 3xz 3yz 322—r* re pe re dx _dy _ dz _xdxty dy+tz dz or hee Bye Pty te) 22 eye) @ @) (3) (4) From (1) and (2), we have dx_ dy or x y or log x=log ytlog ¢ or Fae y (5) From (1) and (4), we have dx _xdx+y dy+zdz Be ty +2*) By integrating, we have } log x=4 log (x*-+y*+2*) + log D (where D is any arbitrary constant) or x= D (x*-+y*- +27) +) Hence equations (5) and (6) represent the stream lines. Ans. Ex. 4. Given u=—ay, Vox, w=0, show that the surfaces intersecting the stream lines orthogonally exist and are the planes through Z-axis, although the velocity potential daes not exist. The motion will be possible if it satisfies the equation of continuity. ie. ae +20 which is true from the given relation. Hence the motion is a possible one. The differential equation to the lines of flow are, ds_dy_ de u y Ww dx _dy _dz or “at=- or xdxty dy=0 and dz=034 Hydrodynamics By integrating, we have x?--y?=const. and z=const. The surfaces which cut the stream lines orthogonally are udx+yv dy+wdz=0 or —wy dx+wx dy=0 or &_d_o, : . x y By integrating, we have log (=)='ee ¢ (where c is an arbitrary const). or game which represent a plane through Z-axis and cuts the stream line orthogonally. The velocity potential will exist if u dx-++-v dx+-w dz is a perfect differential . But udx+vdy+wdz is not a perfect differential. Hence the surfaces intersecting the stream lines orthogonally exist and are the planes through Z-axis, although the velocity potential does not exist. § 1:9. Boundary Surface. At the boundary of the fluid, the equation of continuity is replaced by a special surface condition When the fluid is in contact with a bounding surface then velocity of a fluid particle at y any point of the boundary uw 1 (Welosity of relative to the surface must be (Velotity tangential to the boundary. of Susface) Thus at a fixed boundary, the velocity of the fluid perpendi- cular to the surface must Boundry Q vanish and the normal com- (Cmaving Surface) ponent of the fluid velocity must be equal to the normal component of the surface. Let q be the velocity of the fluid and u the velocity of the point P at the surface. Consider m be the unit normal vector drawn at the point Pon the boundary surface F (r, t)=0. then q.n=0.n Gi) or (q—u).n=0 {since VF or (q—u). VF=0. i)Kinematics 35 Since the surface is in motion then the position of the point P at any instant ¢+8f is given by F(rtar, t+82)=0 { from (i) or F(r, t)+8r. VF+ waa (By Taylor's theorem) oF or _, or at x VvF=0. Now as 8r->0, 5f-+0, the above relation becomes oF vee ath VF=0 ee(iii) { as ae ~ dt aF —+¢. ‘=0. or ate VF { from (ii) aF, OF, OF, aF_ or att at? "a wiv) Thus the equation of every boundary surface must satisfy the above differential equation. If the surface is at rest, then #. =0 Thus (iv) reduce to OF, OF, oF. Wag t ay tae" or q. VF=0 Which is the condition when the liquid is in contact with a rigid surface, in order that contact is maintained, the fluid and the surface must have the same velocity normal to the surface. The normal velocity of the boundary is given by un=u. WE , VFI OF/at =" VFI {from (iii)} ~ Ere eT Ex. 1. Show that . 5 =) x a ee tant ti cot =1,36 Hydrodynamics is a possible form for the bounding surface of a liquid, and find an expression for the normal velocity. ‘We know that the surface F(x, », z, f)=0can be a possible boundary surface, if it satisfies the boundary condition dF a =0 OF, OF, OF, oF or ap te at’ ay ta, =? eee (i) where u, v, w satisfy the equation of continuity ou, ov | ow 7 ix +3370 +e (ii) Here, we have two-dimensional equation _x? y? F (x,y, 1) tan’ t+7 cot? s—1=0 aF_2x2 rs) 2 br var tal f sect t—Fe- cot # cosec? t aF_2x Ox a From (1), we have x fan * (x sect #-+u tan nest (—y cosec? ¢+v cot t)=0. + (iii) OF _2y 2 2 tan? ¢and yb cot? ¢ Now (i) will be the boundary condition, if x sec? t+-u tan £=0 or =—x sec? tf cot f= and —y cosec® ¢-+-v cot t=0 7 Pedr or v=y cosec? ¢ tan 807 Part which satisfies the (iii) relation. Now 1 d ov 1 Be id et ox sin f cos ¢ ay sin t cos ¢° Hence equation of continuity du, av : = Be +3 =0 is satisfied. Thus the given surface isa possible form for the boundary surface of a liquid with velocity components x os F ant cone 4 “sing cos37 Kinematics N u iy s in, 1 veiocity= Again, Normal veiocity: 7 FE (= + (s) 5) x 2x y 2y ge an on t pee ‘ __sin roost’ a _ 2 A(z) +(F cot { avy cot t cosec? ¢—b*x? tan f sec? t V Geb! tant r+ y*at cott 1) . Ex. 2. Show that the ellipsoid xt (2 z iat ee (5) ) is a possible form of the boundary surface of a liquid. | The surface F (xy zt)=0 can be a possible boundary surface, if it satisfies the boundary contdition. dF . a7? OF, oF, oF, OF \ . or art et? at” ap 70 : wool) where u, v, w satisfy the equation of continuity au, Wg, eat ax ay az : 2 2 2 So F(xyz O=_uaath'{ (Ie) +()}-1=0- oF x? 2n jb 2 oF ¥,. Bint {e)+(S)} aF_ 2x aF _2k"y 4 OF _2kite ie wer oy ze Now from (1), we have xt Qn ai (Pe 2xu +nkt eet ae atk? geath 2kt" yy ms + = zee Ww 0 nx\ 2x ny\2k yi™ (« *) +(r+37) * ark? te 2t nz\ 2k zi" + ( wz) “~——=0 which will hold, if38 Hydrodynamics u—Z a0, ve =0 and w+gre0 mx nz or ra va? and w= =a which satisfies the equation of continuity dun mm sag ax tay 2t and 5 az 2t . ou +r ow _, he. te +5t ae Thus (i) is a possible form for the boundary surface of a liquid with velocity components. nx nz uae vet and wear Ex. 3. Shew that all necessary conditions can be satisfied by a velocity potential of the form Saat + By +z" and a bounding surface of the form FSax*+byt+cz4—X (t)=0 where X(t) is a given function of the time, and «,B,y, a, b,¢ are the suitable functions of ihe time. The necessary conditions are : (i) ¢ satisfies the Laplace’s Equation i.e. W%=0 for incompressible fluid flow. (ii) F satisfies the condition for bounding surface, i. e. OF OF OF ar +4 et oy wt” az =0 for the surface. We have paaxt+ By? +yzt . ++i) The Laplace’s Equation V¥=0 a or pee set ee—0 will be satisfied if a+p+y=0 {from (i) where a, B, y are some suitable functions of the time.Kinematics 39 Again, F=ax'+by+ez4—X (t) ae (ii) can be a possible form for the bounding surface of a liquid, if aF, aF , OF, OF a ttag t” ata? or xt Bay aa xe x! (1) + 4axtu+4bytv+-deztv=0 ov (iii) _% 2 =—% But u=—30= 2ax yea = 2py ——# a and wea 2yz. Substiting the value of u, », w in (iii), we have da, 40, 486 ry = 4 = wor tg te 4 X' (1)—Baaxt—Bbpy—Beyz4=0 a (7 2, ae or xt (4 tas) 494 (7 —t0p) +2 & 8) =x ()=0 Comparing this with the equation of the bounding surface Feaxt-+by'+ez*—x (1) =0 we have The condition will hold if a,b,c, a, 8,¥ are some suitable function of time. Hence ¢ and F=0 satisfy the necessafty conc ition for velocity potential and boundary surface if a, B, ¥, 4 b, c are some suitable function of time. Exercise 1, Show that the variable ellipsoid x yVafzy dente (5) +(Z) Ie is a possible form for the boundary surface of a liquid at any time t. 2. Show that a surface of the form axt-+-by*-ez8— p (t)=040 Hydrodynamics is a possible form of a boundary surface of a homogeneous liquid at time ¢, the velocity potential of the liquid motion being $=(B—7) x*-+(y—@) Y+(a—B) 2? where p, «, B, y are given functions of time and a, 6, ¢ are suitable functions of time. In the steady motion:of homogeneous liquid if, the surfaces fi=a1, fa=aa define the stream lines, Prove that the most general values of the velocity components 4, », W, are Fuh) oe ®, PU) PAA), F ity 2M 8, z) @ (2; X) Oy)2 Equations oi Motion § 20. The Equation of motion of an inviscid fit Consider any arbitrary closed surface S drawn in the region occupied by the incompressible fluid and moving with it, so that it contains the same fluid particles at every instant. We know that the total force acting on this mass of fluid is equal to the rate of change of linear momentum. The forces are due to: (i) The normal pressure thrusts on the boundary. , Gi) The external force (e. g. gravity) F (let) per unit mass. Let p be the density ©! de be the volume enclosing P. f the fluid particle P within the closed The mass of the element surface, ede will always remain constant. Let q be the velocity of fluid particle P. Then the momentum of the volume is i) M=Sq e de The time rate of chan differentiating (i) w.t- to t, we have dM (dq d iM _(38 (east fagoe dM. ‘dq dt -(z + ede wll) The second integral vanishes,as the mass edz remains constant for all time. Let F be the external force per unit mass acting on fluid particle P, then the total force on the yolume is =JjFed «+ (iii) ge of momentum is given by42 Hydrodynamics Again let p be the pressure at a point on the surface along the . “ outward drawn unit normal p _s (Negative sign as the -| p (—a)ds surface force acts inwards) = -f Pp nds =—|v pa we Gil) (By Gauss Theorem) Since Rate of change of momentum=Total force acting on the mass of the fluid or \3 . rae | Feds—|V pdt or \(° 49_op+vp) dz=0 Since the volume enclosed in the surface is arbitrary, then da_ = 0 8 E+ VP 0 dq_. L or aa a(¥) which is known as EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION. éa* =F or 5, +(4.V) a=F-| VP wo(¥) or 34 7dq)—axcurl q=F— + Vp . {ws V(q-q)=2 {aX curl evn] or (q. Za=V(dq?)—4 Xcurl q © We know that the velocity vector g isa function of position and time both a=a(t-4) let q+8q be the velocity to a neighbouring position at time 1+8r. then — 8q—q (F-+3r, £+84)—a(F, ¢) o(8) 3q=(q (r+3r, t-+84)—ale, t+8¢)}-+{a (x, ¢3r)— ale 1} 8q=(3r.V) q (r, £-+84)+3/.0q (Fr . 1)/dt ++.(b) Dividing (b) by 3r, we have dq_ 4 ota: ViaEquations of Motion 43 ive or a — qxcurl qeF-4 Ve or a ste xa-P—-1vP-3 svar ++(vii) oF nd G@teoxq=F-F Lop fluid particle, then , If q be the velocity vector ofa w= TX =curl q or then qxcurl qa exXd which is known a3 Lamb’s Hydro-dynamical Equation. g 2-01. Cartesian Co-ordinates. Let q (u, ¥, ») be the velocity of the fluid particl be the external force. eand F(X ¥ Z) Since a - dq _du na ne AG and F=Xi+-Yit+-Zk also wpa bite 9p je k then from relation (iv), we have dq 1 ra =F— ay P) du, dv, Lyi or (Hin Fit x )eanerieay op. , P ay + ipyitag ) Equating the coefficient of i, § & k, we get du 1 a dnp Ox a _y_ 1% at ® ay a at p Oz Again by equating the coefficients of i,j,k in telation (vi), - we get ou au 1% ar toy mt ee =X-F44 Hydrodynamics av av or att 2g +v aw, aw and 54 at? a a a a {as ava=( at? at” z) q. Known as Euler’s Dynamical Equation in Cartesion form along the co-ordinate axes respectively. § 2:1. Equation of Motion of a Perfect fluid. (Alternative method) Consider a parallelopiped having centre as P (x, y, z) and edges 8x, dy, 32 parallel to the rectangular co-ordinate axes. Let p be the pressure, P the | density and X, ¥,Z, be the components of the external forces per unit mass at any time rat P. Pressure on a plane through P parallel to ABCD =p dy bz =f (x y z) 8p 82 (say) Pressure on the face ABCD i.e. on yz-face =f (x—}8x, y, z) dy 8z =[fe» a} bx Bonn] by 8z = 1 op, (o~ 5 Zax’) wee Similarly pressure on the opposite face ae c’pD' =f (x+48x, y, 2) 8p 82 = 1,0? =[se» 2) dag tee —(p+1 ® =(0+ ; 2x.) ay 32 Thus the resultant pressure on the face 1 4 i =(2— 5 Pax ) ay tz—(e+ ed ap'bz a Ox » 82 8x Sy 82 in the direction of X positive.Equations of Motion 45 nthe remaining faces are t of the momentum The pressure 0! perpendicular to Xx. Again rate of increment! of the element in the direction of axis of X, is wo ax ay 32-24 =p dx by 82.77 By the equation of continuity, we have Du ap = = — 8. ° Th ax by z= XpSx by 8z— 5 bx dy 8z by_y_ 1 wl or Deo ax @ Du_ ow Qu, eu, du where Dita tix” By tae Hence (i) becomes ou ou du, Gu _y_ lop at! at’ Bian 6 ox Similarly av ov ov, ov _1 op art! gat” ap thas * aw, aw, Ow, Ow 1 ap and at! ant? B +w mia ie Known as Euler’s Dynanical Equations. § 2:12, If Tt be the external pressure upon its surface and p be the pressure of the liquid at the surface, then we have =I Thus at all points or the free surface Dp_pu Dt Dt a a a, op atl or ety Poy Bt" 38 where II depends on time only. § 22. Conservative field of force. B Ifthe work done by the force F. of the field in taking a unit mass from one points 4 to another point B is independent of the path, then it is known as conservative field of force. D J F.dr= [F. dr=—3 (let) ACB ABD Where Qisa scalar point function A46 Hydrodynamics whose value depends on the initial and final position 4 and B. or =—-Va Where © is known as force potential. It measures the potential energy of the field. § 2:3. Integration of Euler’s Equation, We know that the equation of motion is a : : 24.497 (3q7)—-axo=F—1 Vp seeli) {Ref. § 2°0} and the external force form a conservative field of force then F=—Vo. wa(di) From (i) and (ii), we have a 1 S4-qxo=—Va—; Vp—V Ga) 2g gxw=— dp Boavon-vfor [tate] Since q=— V/¢ where ¢ is the velocity potential. a dp oF a (—4)—axcun q=—v {0+ [P45 q } Case I. It the motion be irrotational, then curl q=0. So (iii) reduces to Hros[2a! g to v{-# +0+f ety a (=o . fd} . or —#i0+ [P45 g@=X(t) « (iv) The constant % (¢) will be a function of time only, % (¢) can be absorbed in at then (iv) reduces to ae apd i +2+ | ? +39 =Constant. This is known as Bernoulli’s Equation for irrotational flow. Case II. If the motion be Steady as well as irrotational then #9 and Curl q=0. ‘ Since qx Curl q=0 + q and Curlg are parallel that means streamlines and vortex lines coincide. For such a motion gq is known a Beltrami vector and the flow is a Beltrami flow then (v) reduces to jes q?+2=Constant. os(vi)Equations of Motion 47 Here the constant is an absolute constant i.e. independent of time. Case Ill. If the fluid be incompressible and homogeneous, then dg p=Constant. as o=5 So (vi) reduces to, Pp 1 2, a! eto g+a ‘Const. where the const. depends upon the stream line chosen. The equation (vi) is known as the Bernoulli’s equation for steady motion. § 2:31. Integration of Euler’s Equation. (Alternative method) When a velocity potential ¢ exists, then 3 —_% 2 u=— = — ay and w= Pa and the extraneous forces are derivable from a potential function v 7 ov av av ie. —. “ y=- = ——— x: ax’ Y: y and Z: ip Substituting the values of 4, v, and X,Y, Z in Euler's Dynamical Equation, we have (Ref § 2°1) a (2) 2 2 8 OO or Vix) tax * xt t ay * dyax™ Oz * dz0x oA (BE. 5th HE a ws 2 (HE. Bed atk =- wt 2 wii) Multiplying (i), (ii) and (iii) by dx, dy and dz respectively and adding, we have Tete BE ore ta ap 1 1 or dg ght dV; dp=0 {Cy oe48 Hydrodynamics Considering a functional relationship between p and e. By integrating, we get —et gt v+[2-c vee (iv) where C is a constant depending on time only. Case I. If the fluid be homogeneous and inelastic then e=Const. The relation (iv) reduces to 4p) = te t2 g+V=c. known as Bernoulli's Equation Case Il. If the motion be Steady i.e. oo, then (iv) reduces to Bg 1 2, = et g+V=C., here the constant C is an absolute const. i.e. independent from the time ft. Known as Bernoulli’s Equation for steady motion. § 232. Bernoulli's Theorem (when velocity potential does not exist). The pressure at a point for the steady motion of a perfect fluid under conservative body forces is given by dp 1 _ \Fa q?+%=Const. Consider the motion of a small cylinder of cross-sectional area A with its axis of length 8s along a stream line, where Sis the arc of the stream line on which the element lies. Since the pressure does not contribute anything to the resultant force in the direction of motion. Thus the resultant thurst in the direction of motion is =[pa— f+ asha [>a for? ast =? =—-35 Abs Let the component of the bady force in the direction of motion be F. The total body force on this element of mass 943s is given by = Fedés. Let g be the velocity, the equation of motion isEquations of Motion 49 pdds (2) = FpAss— (#) Abs wai) (By Newton’s Second Law of motion) Since Fo-Vh { Ref. § 2°2 ot 2 =-3 +i) From (i), we have - q_p 18 dt F Pp as . i dq_ 24, 424 (= ) ‘Since, ht 3 id 25 a 770 for steady flow aq__0k_1 op . or I5,=— 3s 6 26 { from (ii) afi ip} _. or os [5 ett fZ]-0. The rate of change along the stream line vanishes, so Let [F+1=Cons. ...(lii) where constant varies from one streamline to the other Case 1. If pis constant then (iii) reduces to Loy Paya : 34 + qt t= Const, Case Il. If the motion is irrotational, the velocity potential exists then const. is an absolute constant. §2'4. Lagrange’s Equations. ~ Consider the “independent variable fo (initial position vector of the particle) at any instant ¢. Let the particle attains the position r at time f, then r=r (To, ¢)- The equation of motion of the particle is given by or The indefinite or dyadic product of two vectors a and b is gi ab ora:b, The differential operator and Bits given by a_.a- a. rane yan ai oi Stud and raix+iy-tke ny az Then the dyadic product is OJ ypree pre p42 x? + j sP=3.3 ae at an)? (ix-+iy+kz)=7 Again. adit 850 Hydrodynamics er 1 O3r0 PP i oF (5 F)+5 ‘or anne ' “fi " - Premultiplying by Be, (i) reduces to ‘0 air (He) + 230 OP _o, oro \ar® ry Or Oe ayn (er 1 op _ ae or Oy” (B-F)+} are? «+. (ii) . Bir Fo ince =. a=! fs oro” «(OF which is known as Lagrangian form of the equation of motion. Consider a fluid particle of infinitesimal volume dv, density pat any time ¢ and an infinitesimal volume'dys, density e, of the particle in its initial position. Then by equation of continuity, we have Pdv=Podvo aii) In cartesian coordinates, we have dy=dxdydz, dvy=dxodyodzy or axdydz=Jdx,dyodzy e 2 (xyz) al @ (xa¥eza) . where J being the Jacobian of the coordinates day e) ofa with regard to the coordinates (Xp Yo Zo) Of ro * te 3 Now (iii) reduces to with the help of Jacobian notation pJ==Po a(xy. or * Tye w.-(iv) Known as Lagrange’s Equation of Continuity. _Thus the equation (ii) together with the equation of continuity (iv) forms Lagrange’s Hydro-dynamical Equation. , Cor. Representation of Lagrange Equation of motion (ii) in cartesian codrdinates. ‘We know that Layb o 2 “ Fo-V2 ant” rE (ii) can be written as ~ (Voit) POAT OS TA aah. an(v)‘Byuaiion’ of Motion 51 - @ir an_20 Since (Vo; t) Vis ar are" Then (v) becomes* - 1 ‘ 7 vy two similar, an (xo¥ + +20#) i+ expressions _ ire VO? Equating the coefficients of i, j, k, we have #xat yet #2a= —Oe—F Pa # wt) yor? nao! Po ¥ xe Yet # = — O03 Po These suffix denotes partial derivatives ie. pom ete. Le. 3a Known as Lagrange’s equation of motion in cartesian coordinates. - § 25. Cauchy’s Integral. i _y4{2 Consider Q=V+ f ? mn) Let (xyz) be the co-ordinates of a particle at any time # whose initial co-ordinats are (abc). Since @ is a function of p, then from (i), —20__2¥_1 a ga da pea Similarly we can write other two equations. ea(ii) We know that the equations of motion are x __aV_1 ar? Ox Pp Ox ay __oV_1 ap at ye ey @) az__ ov _Lap af éz poz Multiplying these equations (A) by &, = and = respectively and adding, we have x, and T=xi+3j+ek . ii yoif+zaik-+ xofi-t-yojj + zk + xckit+yekj+zokk (xo¥ +Yali+ 20%) i+ (x08 + Ye +207) Jj +(x + ye +20%) k then Yost and (Vos62 Hydrodynamics ix Ox, By yo Oz OY _| op att" aa‘ att” Ga Ort Ga = 8a P a or ax ox Oy oy Oz oz 20 ar?" Ga" 8s2" Ga’ a8 da da _ {from (ii) a ax Ox, By ay az az__ 20 Similarly of ata aot ae ab ax ox dy ay 4s oz__ 00 B® GeO a “at® ee — 8c .. &@.(a0\_a (20 {since 55 (52)~écles) By eliminating Q in the last two equations, we obtain (we ax #u + (ae ay _ ay 2) or and 5b at be ac ot ab) \Ob Ot Oc Be OF Ob +( Ow ez _ aw az) _ ab ot ce Oc at db}~ ° @ (au ax_ou oF Ox au Px F lab’ ac oc ab) db bree dc” arab -++two similar expressions=0. 2 (au, xo 2) 18%, _o ) oF arab’ Gc ac’ ab) at\db" Be ae" ab aw. az_ aw @z\_ +5 (Ge gene B= By integrating w.r. to f, we have . ax _ Ou {since Beal de etc. ou, x ou Ox Or, 2, 3b Be Bc’ ab | ab" 3c ac Bb aw Oz_dw Or We ys +36: Reve’ bab ae Where up, Y%, Wo are initial values. a6 ax ax. Ox Initially Fan) 3p 78 ete. . du_du Ou, du dy , au az Since aa ox’ da oy 8a ta * da Then relation (ii) becomes (2 3) avy z) (i -) (zx) 2)" Tbe) \ez Ox) ab)53 Equations of Motion a2) 1,9 &*%) atx y)_, ‘ or E ate) +15 Ge) ate Foe) fo oe eiv) Similarly other two expressions are, a2, 2). a(xy)_ ea (ca) art re are aca) a7” oe o¥) a (y 2) a(zX) 7 AW ‘ and 55d) Ht? 7(@ 8) ate x(a 8) bo -. (vi) _faw__ ov du _ ow _ ov _ ou { where fy 3g? = ax and t= Also the equation of continuity is a(xy2)_ : - e a(abe) b 2 «- (vii) ax ax ox respectively and Multiplying (iv), (¥), (vi) by Sa’ 0b” be adding, we obtain with the help of (vii), & Ea Ox 4 Mo Ox 4 bo OF 2% 04 4b Po ac 1 be Y 4% W pho W Pe bo 0a +e ab Veo ae g bp 32 4 Mo OF 4 bo 02 PP Oa | Py OD Po OC ‘These are known as Cauchy’s Integral. When velocity potential exists C=7=C¢=0, and from the above equations it conclude that these quantities are always zero if their jnitial values are zero- When a velocity potential exists the motion is said to be jrrotational, thus we can state that the motion of a fluid under conservative forces, if once irrotational, is always irrotational. When a velocity potential does not exist, the motion is said to be rotational. Ex. 1. An elastic fluid, thé weight of which is neglected, obeying Boyle’s Law, is in motion in a uniform straight tube ; shew that on the hypothesis of parallel sections the velocity at any time from a fixed point in the tube is defined by the tata distance r equation BY, B (ay Oe Lag a or (2 ant” or \ahae Since the fluid obeys Boyle’s Law ie. p=ke eel)