Properties of Concrete and Reinforcing Steel Concrete Cementitious Materials Aggregate Water Admixtures Sump Density Compressive Strength Stress-Strain Relationship Modulus of Elasticity Splitting Tensile Strength Modulus of Rupture Shear Strength Poisson's Ratio High-Performance Concrete Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Polymer Conerete Lightweight Concrete Sell-Placing Concrete Roller-Compacted Concrete Soil Cement Controlled Low-Strength Material Reinforcing Steel Mechanical Properties of Stee] Exposure Electrical Protection of Rebar Coated Rebar Nomenclat A area in? © distance from noutral axis to. in ‘extreme Gber D- diameter in Bmocnhas of elasticity Toff’ Ff Seength bffin® 4, compressive strength of | Bffin? 1 moment of inertia nt 1 length in ‘M- moment ina P force tor fw speci: weight ony Symbols A —Tigheweight agaregate factor — Subscripts et compressive tensile Pr supture MPs MPs MPa Nm kg/m? 481 41 48.2 43.3 48-3 ABA 484 48-4 48.5 485 48.6 486 486 486 486 437 487 487 487 43-7 488 488 48-8 48.9 48-10 48.10 48.10 1, CONCRETE Concrete (portland cement concrete) is a mixture of cementitious materials, aggregates, water, and air. The cement paste consists of a mixture of portland cement and water. The paste binds the coarse and fine aggre- gates into a rack-like mass as the paste hardens during he chemical reaction (hydration). Table 48.1 lists the approximate volumetric percentage of each ingredient Table 48.1 Typical Volumetric Proportions of Co te Ingredients compone sirentrained — non-sir-entrained coarse agaregate 31% 31% fine aggregate 28% 30% water 18% 21% portland cement 15% 15% ait 8% 3% 2. CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS. Cementitious materials include portland cement, blended hydraulic cements, expansive cement, and other cement tious additives, including fly ash, pozzolans, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Portland cement is produced by burning a mixture of lime and clay in a rotary kil and grinding the resulting mass. Cement has a specific weight (density) of approx: imately 195 Tbt/fe® (3120 kg/mm!) and is packaged in standard sacks (bags) weighing 94 Ibf (40 kg), ASTM C150 deseribes the five classifications of portland cement. Type [Normal portland cement: This is a general- pllrpose cement used whenever sulfate hazards are absent and when the heat of hydration will not produce a significant rise in the temperature of the cement. Typical uses are sidewalks, pavement, beams, columns, and culverts. Type Modified portland cement: This cement has a moderate sulfate resistance, but is generally used in hot weather for the construction of large structures. Its heat rate and total heat generation are lower than those of, normal portland cement. Type [l—High-early strenglh portland cement: This type develops its strength quickly. Tt is suitable for use when a structure must be put into early use or when long-term protection against cold temperatures is not feasible. Its shrinkage rate, however, is higher than those of types I and Il, and extensive cracking may result www. TechnicalBooksPdf.com StructuralTouran’ 48-2 SIVIL_ENGINEERING REFERENCE MANUAL Type 1V—Low-heat portland cement: For massive con- crete structures such as gravity dams, low-heat cement is required to maintain a low temperature during curing. ‘The ultimate strength also develops more slowly than for the other types. Type V—Sulfate-resistant portland cement: This type of cement is appropriate when exposure to sulfate concen- tration is expected. This typically occurs in regions having highly alkaline soils. ‘Types I, Tl and Il are available in two varieties: nor- ral and aicentraining (designated by an “A” suffix) ‘The compositions of the three types of at-entraining portland cement (types TA, TIA, and HLA) are similar to types 1, Il, and Il, respectively, with the exception that an eit-entraining admixture is added. Many state departments of transportation use modified concrete mixes in critical locations in order to reduce concrete-disintegration cracking (D-cracking) caused bY the freeze-thaw cycle. Coarse aggrenates are the primary cause of D-cracking, so the maximum coarse aggregate size is reduced. However, a higher cement paste content, causes shrinkage cracking during setting, leading to increased water penetration and corrosion of reinforcing, steel. ‘The cracking can be reduced oF eliminated by using shrinkage-compensating cement, known as type-K cement (named after ASTM C845 type E-L(K)) ‘Type-K cement (often used in bridge decks) contains an aluminate that expands during setting, offsetting the shrinkage. The net volume change is near zero The resulting concrete is referred to as. shrinkage compensating concrete Special cement formulations are needed to reduce alkali- aggregate reactivity (AAR)—the reaction of the alkalis in cement with compounds in the sand and gravel aggre- gate. AAR produces long-term distress in the forms of network cracking and spalling (popouts) in otherwise well-designed structures. AAR takes on two forms: the more common alkal-sitica reaction (ASR) and the less- common alkalt-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR is co! tered by using low-alkali cement (ASTM C150) with an equivalent alkali content of less than 0.60% (as sodium oxide), using lithium-based admixtures, or “sweetening” the mixture by replacing approximately 30% of the aggregate with crashed limestone. ACR is not effec- tively controlled by using low-alkali cements. Careful selection, blending, and sizing of the aggregate are needed to minimize ACR, waste product of coal-burning power-generation sta- tions, fly ash, is the most common pozzolanic additive. ‘As cement sets, calcium silieate hydrate and calcium hydroxide are formed. While the former is a binder that holds concrete together, calcium hydroxide does not contribute ta binding. However, fly ash reacts with some of the calcium hydroxide to increase binding, Also, since fly ash acts as a microfiller between coment, particles, strength and durability are increased while permeability is reduced. When used as a replacement for less than 45% of the portland cement, fly ash meeting ASTM C618 enhances resistance to scaling from road-deicing chemicals, Micrositica (silica furne) is an extremely fine particulate material, approximately 1/100th the size of cement par- tleles. It'is a waste product of electric are furnaces. It acts as a “super pozzolan.” Adding 515% microsilica will increase the pozzolanic reaction as well as provide a microfiller to reduce permeability. Microslica reacts with ealeium hydroxide in the same manner as fly ash. It is customarily used to achieve concrete. compressive strengths in the 8000-9000 psi (65-62 MPa) range 3. AGGREGATE Because aggregate makes up 60-75% of the total con- crete volume, its properties influence the behavior of, freshly mixed concrete and the properties of hardened concrete. Aggregates should consist of particles with sufficient strength and resistance to exposure conditions, such as freezing and thawing cycles. Also, they should, not contain materials that will cause the concrete to deteriorate, Most sand and rock aggregate has a specific weight of approximately 165 Ibf/ft® (2610 kg/m*) corresponding to a specific gravity of 2.64 Fine aggregate consists of natural sand or crushed stone up to /4 in (6 mm), with most particles being smaller than 0.2 in (5 mm). Aggregates, whether fine or coarse, rust conform to certain standards to achieve the best engineering properties. They must be strong, clean, hard, and free of absorbed chemicals. Fine aggregates mast meet the partile-sze distribution (grading) requirements The seven standard ASTM C33 sieves ("/4 in, no. 4, no. 8, no. 16, no. 30, no. 50, and no. 100) for fine aggregates have openings ranging from 0.150 mm (no. 100 sieve) to Ys in (9.5 mm). The fine aggregate should have not more than 45% passing any sieve and rotained on the next consecutive sieve, and its fineness modulus should be not less than 2.3 oF more than 3.1 The fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by adding the cumulative weight percentages retained on each of a specific series (usually no. 4, no. 8, n0. 16, no. 30, no. 50, and no. 100 for the fine aggregate) of sieves and dividing the sum by 100. (The dust or pan percentage is not included in calculating the cumulative percentage retained.) ‘The higher the fineness modulus, the coarser will be the gradation. Coarse aggregates consist of natural gravel oF exushed rock, with pieces large enough to be retained on a no. 4 sieve (openings of 0.2 in or 4.75 mm). In practice, coarse aggregate is generally between Ys in and 1s in (9.5 mn and 38 mm) in siz, Iso, coarse aggregates should moet ors www. pplapass.com www. TechnicalBooksPdf.comPROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND REINFORCING STEEL 48-3 the gradation requirements of ASTM €33, which speci fies 13 standard sieve sizes (4 in, 3/2 in, 8 in, 22 in, 2 in, 1 in, 1 in, 4 in, Yo im, 9s in, no. 4, no. 8, and no. 16) for coarse aggregate Coarse aggregate has three main functions in a concrete mix: (1) to act as relatively inexpensive filer, (2) Lo provide ‘a mass of particles that are capable of resisting the appliod loads, and (3) to resiuce the volume changes that occur during the setting of the cement-water mixture 4. WATER Water in conerete has three functions: (1) Water reacts chemically with the cement, This chemical reaction is known as hydration. (2) Water wots the aggregate. (3) The water and cement mixture, which is known as cement paste, lubricates the concrete mixture and allows it to flow Water has a standard specific weight of 62.4 Ibf/ft* (1000 kg/m"). 7.48 gallons of water occupy one cubic foot (1000 L occupy Tm"). One ton (2000 Ibt) of water has a volume of 240 gal Potable water that conforms to ASTM C1602 and that has no pronounced odor or taste can be used for pro- ducing concrete. (With some quality restrictions, the American Concrete Institute (ACI) code also allows nonpotable water to be used in eoncrete mixing.) Impu- nities in water may affect the setting time, strength, and corrosion resistance. Water used in mixing concrete should be clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salt, organic materials, and other sub- stances that could damage the concrete or reinforcing steel. 5. ADMIXTURES Admiztures are routinely used to modify the perfor mance of concrete. Advantages include higher strength, durability, chemical resistance, and workability; con- trolled rate of hydration; and reduced shrinkage and cracking. Accelerating and retarding admixtures fall into several different categories, as classified by ASTM cag. ‘Type A: water reducing ‘Type B: set retarding ‘Type C: set-accelerating, ‘Type D: water-radueing and set-etarding ‘Type E: water reducing and se-aeceleraling ‘Type F: high-range water-reducing ‘Type G: high-range water-reducing and set-retarding ASTM C260 covers air-entraining admixtures, whieh enhance freeze-thaw durability. ASTM C1017 deals exclusively with plasticizers to produce flowing concrete. ACI 212 recognizes additional categories, inelnding cor- rosion inhibitors and dampproofing. Discontinuous steel fibers are routinely used in concrete as permitted in accordance with ACI 318 Sec. 3.5.1. Finally, discrete synthetic fibers including carbon and alkalt-resistant glass can be added to create fiber-reinforced concrete, which is becoming more popular. Water-reducing admixtures disperse the cem« cles throughout the plastic concrete, redu requirements by 5-10%. Water that woul be trapped within the cement floc remains available to fluidize the concrete. Although water is necessary to produce conerete, using lesser amounts increases strength and durability and decreases permeability and Shrinkage. The same slump can be obtained with less water pacti- High-range water reducers, also known as superplastict 2zers, function through the same mechanisms as regular water reducers. However, the possible water reduction is, greater (eg, 12-80%). Dramatic increases in. slump, workability, and strength are achieved. High-slump concrete is suitable for use in sections that are heavily reinforced and in arcas where consolidation cannot, otherwise be attained, Also, concrete can be pumped a lower pump pressures, so the lift and pumping dis- tance can be increased. Overall, superplasticizers reduce the cost of mixing, pumping, and finishing concrete, Set accelerators increase the rate of cement hydration, shortening the setting time and increasing the rate of strength development. They are useful in cold weather (below 3540°F or 2-4°C) or when urgent repairs are needed. While caleium chloride (CaCl) is a very effec- tive accelerator, nonchloride, noncorrosive accelerators can provide comparable performance. (ACI 212.3R does not allow chloride to be added to concrete used in pre- stressed construction, in concrete containing aluminum, embedments, or in concrete cast against galvanized stay-in-place steel forms.) Set retarders are used in hot environments and where the concrete must remain workable for an extended period of time, allowing extended haul and fnishing times. A higher ultimate strength will also result. Most retarders also have water-reducing properties. Air-entraining mictures create microscopic air bubbles n the concrete. This improves the durability of hard- ened concrete subject to freezing and thawing cycles. ‘The wet workability is improved, while bleeding and segregation are reduced, Corrosion-resisting compounds are intended to inhibit rusting of the reinforcing steel and prestressing strands. Calcium nitrate is commonly used to inhibit the corto sive action of chlorides. It acts by forming a passivating, protective layer on the steel. Calefum nitrate has essen- tially no effect on the mechanieal and plastie properties ‘of concrete. In the DELVO® admixture system, the cement particles are coated with a stabilize, halting the hydration pro- cess indefinitely. Setting ean be reiitinted at wll ors fr days later. The manufacturer clit that the tree tment has no effect on the concrete when it hardens. www. TechnicalBooksPdf.com eeeTouran’ 48-4 6. SLUMP The four basic concrete components (coment, sand, coarse aggregate, and water) are mixed together to produce a homogeneous concrete mixture. The consis tency and workability of the mixture affect the eonerete’s ability to be placed, consolidated, and finished without segregation or bleeding. The slump test is commonly used to determine consistency and workability. ‘The slump test consists of completely filing a shump cone mold in three layers of sbout one-third of the mold volume. Each layer is rodded 25 times with a round, spherical-nosed steel rod of "/ in (16 mm) diameter. ‘When rodiding the subsequent layers, the previous layers Beneath are nit penetrated by the tod. Alter rodding, the mold is removed by raising it carefully in the vertical direction. The slump isthe difference in the mold height and the resulting conerete pile height. Typieal values are 14 in (25-100 mm) Concrete mixtures that do not skimp appreciably are Known as stiff miztures. Stiff mixtures are inexpensive Decause of the large amounts of coarse aggregate. How: ever, placing time and workability are impaired. Mix tures with large slumps are known as wel miztures (watery miztures) and are needed for thin castings and structures with extensive reinforcing. Slumps for com crete that is machine-vibrated during placement can be approximately one-third less than for concrete that is consolidated manually DENSITY The density, also known as weight density, uni weight and specific weight, of normal-weight concrete varies from about 140 Ibf/ft? to about 160 Tot/fe? (2240 kg/m! to 2560 ka/m), depending on the specific gravities of the constituents, For most caleulations involving normal ‘weight concrete, the density may be taken as 145 Ibi/f to 150 Ibf/ft" (2320 kg/m" to 2400 kg/m), Lightweight conerete can have a density as low as 90 Ibi/it® (1450 kg/m’). Although steel has a density of more than Lee times that of eonerete, due to the variability in conerete density values and the relatively stall volume of steel, the density of steal-reinforeed concrete is typi cally taken as 150 Ibf/ft? (2400 kg/m) without any 8. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ‘The concrete’s compressive strength, f', is the maximum stress a concrete specimen can sustain in compressive axial loading, It is also the primary parameter used in ordering conerote. When one speaks of "6000 psi (11 MPa) concrete,” the compressive strength is being referred to, Compressive strength is expressed in psi ot MPa, SI compressive strength may be written as “Cx” (c.g “C20"), where xx is the compressive strength in MPa, (MPa is equivalent to N/mue?, which is also com monly quoted.) ‘Typical compressive strengths range from 4000 psi to 6000 psi (27 MPa to 41 MPs) for traditional structural concrete, though concrete for residential slabson-grade and foundations will be lower in strength (e.g, 3000 psi or 21 MPa), 6000 psi (41 MPa) conerete is used in the manufacture of some eoncrete pipes, particularly those ‘hat are jacked in Cost is approximately proportional to concrete’s com- pressive strength—a rule that applies to high: performance concrete as well as traditional concrete. For example, if 5000 psi (34 MPa) concrete costs $100 per cubic yard, then 14,000 psi concrete will cost approximately $280 per cubic yard, Compressive strength is controlled by selective propor- tioning of the cement, coarse and fine aggregates, water, and various admixtures. However, the compressive strength of traditional concrete is primarily dependent on the mixture’s water-cement ratio. (See Fig, 48.1.) Provided that the mix is of a workable consistency strength varies directly with the water-eement ratio. (Chis is Abrams’ strength law, named after Dr. Duff Abrams, who formulated the law in 1918.) Figure 48.1 Typical Concrete Comoressive Strength Characteristics 6000 5000 non-tirentrained ngth tp 4000 2000 sirentrained concrete — 2000 1000 os 04 05060708 water-cement rato (weight basis) The standard ASTM C30 compressive test specimen mold is a cylinder with a 6 in (150 mm) diameter and 2.12 in (300 mm) height. Steel molds are more expensive than plastic molds, but they provide greater rigidity. (Some experts say specimens from steel molds test 3-15% higher.) The concrete is cured for a specific amount of time (three days, a week, 28 days, or more) ata specific temperature, Plain or lime-saturated heated water baths, as well as dry “hot boxes” heated by incan- descent lights, are used for this purpose at some testing www. TechnicalBooksPdf.comlabs. To ensure uniform loading, the ends are smoothed by grinding or are capped in sulfur. For testing of very high-strength concrete, the ends may need to be ground glass-smooth in lapidary machines. Since the ultimate load for 15,000 psi (108 MPa) and higher concrete exceeds the capacity (typically 300,000 Ibf (1.34 MIN)) of most testing machines, testing Firms are switehing to smaller eylinders with diameters of 4 in (100 mm) and heights of 8 in (200 mm) rather than purchasing 400,000-600,000 Tbf (1.8-27 MN) machines, ‘The specimen is axially loaded to failure at a specific rate. The compressive strength is calculated as the max- imum axial load, P, divided by the cross-sectional area, A, of the cylinder. Since as little as 0.1 in difference in the diameter can affect the test results by 5%, the diameter must be measured precisely. f= 48.1 A Compressive strength is normally measured on the 28th day after the specimens are east, Since the strength of concrete increases with time, all values of J! must be stated with respect to a known age. Ifo age is given, a Strength af a standard 28-day age is assumed, The effect of the water-cement ratio on compressi strength (Le., the more water the mix contains, the lower the compressive strength will be) is a different issue than the use of large amounts of surface water to cool the concrete during curing (e., moist-curing). The strength of newly poured concrete ean be increased sig- nificantly (e.g., doubled) if the concrete is kept cool during part or all of curing. This is often accomplished by covering new concrete with wet burlap or by spray- ing with water, Although best results occur when the conerete is moist-cured for 28 days, itis seldom econom- ical to do so, A substantial strength increase can be achieved if the conerete is kept moist for as little as three days. Externally applied curing retardants can also be used. 9. STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP ‘The stress-strain relationship for concrete is dependent on its strength, age at testing, rate of loading, nature of, the aggregates, cement properties, and type and size of specimens. Typical stress-strain curves for concrete spe- cimens loaded in compression at 28 days of age under a, normal rate of loading are shown in Fig, 48.2. 10. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY The modulus of elasticity (also known as Young's mod- ulus) is defined as the ratio of stress to strain in the clastic region. Unlike steel, the modulus of elasticity of, concrete varies with compressive strength. Since the slope of the stress-strain curve varies with the applied stress, there are several ways of ealculating the modulus of elasticity. Figure 48.8 shows a typical stress-strain 48-5 Figure 48.2 Typical Concrete Stese.Strain Curves 6 compressive stross (ki) (0.001 0.002 0.003 0.008 strain tinvin) Figure 48.3 Concrete Modi of Elasticity | 2 ; tangent modulus at Of; 5 ultimote g Initial modulus (tangent a origin)| Sei" 3 ose Gules Hengent akon eypeaty ay from 0.003 5 roo.008 W)\ secent modulus 3 0.5, 0.007 0.002 0.003 0.004 curve for concrete with the initial modulus, the tangent modulus, and the secant modulus indicated. The secant modulus of elasticity is specified by ACL 318 for use with specific weights that are between 90 Tbt/1 and 160 Thi/fe? (440. keg/ms® and 2560. kg/m’) Equation 48.2 is used for both instantaneous and long. erm deflection ealeulations. wis in bs/ft” (kg/m), and and fare in Ibf/in® (MPa) [ACI 318 Sec. 85.1 = 0088u* VF Si) 48.210) B= s8uh*\/f. US) 4820) For normakweight concrete, ACI 318 uses Eq which corresponds to a specific weight of approximately “5 Tof/? (2820 kg/m?) {ACT 318 Sec. 8.5.1 p= s000/f si) at@ = 57000\/f ws} 4090) www. TechnicalBooksPdf.com StructuralTouran’ 48-6 14. SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH The extent and size of eracking in concrete structures are affected to a great extent by the tensile strength of, the conerote. The ASTM C496 split cylinder testing procedure is the standard test to determine the tensile strength of concrete. A 6 in x 12 in (150 mm x 300 mm) cast or drill-core cylinder is placed on its side as in Fig. 484, and the minimum load, P, that causes the cylinder to split in half is used to caletlate the splitting tensile strength, ACT 318 Sec. 5.1.4 suggests that the splitting tensile strength f ean be ealeulated from correlations with eom- pressive atrength, and ACI 318 Sec. 8.6.1 indizeetly gives such correlations. The general relationship between split: ting tensile strength and compressive strength is Fastra = 056/Ten st) 48510) fa =6DVE WS} 48.5.0) Lightweight concrete bas a lower tensile strength than normal weight concrete, even if both have the same compressive strength. The lightweight aggregate factor, 2, is used to account for this lower tensile strength and is determined from Table 48.2. For conerete using a blend of lightweight and normal weight aggregates, ACI 318 Sec. 8.6.1 allows for linear interpolation to determine the lightweight aggregate factor. ACT 318 also permits the use of laboratory tests to correlate splitting tensile strength with compressive strength, Table 48.2 Lightweight Agaregate Factors, X normal weight conerete 9 sand-lightweight concrete 085 all-tightwei 12, MODULUS OF RUPTURE The tensile strength of concrete in flexure is known as he modulus of rupture, f,, and is an important param- ter for evaluating cracking and deflection in beams. The tensile strength of concrete is relatively low, about 10-15% (and occasionally up to 20%) of the compressive strength. ASTM C78 gives the details of beam testing using third-point loading. The modulus of rupture is calculated from Eq, 48.6. Me {tension 486 fi T Equation 48.6 gives higher values for tensile strength han the splitting tensile strength test because the stress distribution in concrete is not linear as is assumed in Eq. 48.4. For normal-weight concrete, ACI 318 pre- scribes that Eq. 48.7 should be used for modulus of rupture calculations. For alllightweight concrete, the modulus of rupture is taken as 75% of the calculated values. Other special rales for lightweight conerete may apply [ACI 318 Sec. 9.5.2.3 and See. 8.6.1 J, =0.62a/f, [st] 48.7(a) 48.710) [aT oyh ws 13. SHEAR STRENGTH Concrete's true shear sérength s difficult to determine in the laboratory because shear failure is seldom pure and is typically affected by other stresses in addition Lo the shear stress. Reported values of shear strength vary greatly with the test method used, but they are a smail percentage (¢.g., 25% or less) of the ultimate compres- sive strength, 14, POISSON'S RATIO Poisson's ratio is Uhe ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain, It varies in concrete from 0.11 to 0.23, with typical values being from 0.17 to 0.21, 15, HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE ACI defines high-performance conerete (HPC) as “con- crete meeting special combinations of performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely’ using conventional constituents and normal mixing, placing, and curing practices” (ACT L16R). High-strength concrete (HSC), a special ease of high-per- formance concrete, is defined by ACI Committee 363 on high-strength concrete as concrete having a specified compressive strength for design of 6000 psi (41 MPa). However, the strength threshold at which conerete is considered high-strength depends on regional factors, such as characteristics and availability of raw materi als, production capabilities, and the experience of local ready-mix producers in making high-strength concrete. Specifying conerete with strengths of www. TechnicalBooksPdf.com6000-10,000 psi (41-70 MPa) for high-rise eonsteuc- tion is now routine. Ready-mix plants can deliver 9000-16,000 psi (62-103 MPa) concrete, and 20,000 psi (138 MPa) conerete has seen limited use High strength is achieved in a variety of ways. Super- plasticizers and other mineral admixtures (e.g, pozz0- Jans such as fly ash, silica fume, and precipitated silica) are the main components affecting strength. HSC allows engineers to design structures with smaller structural members (i., columns and beams), reducing dead load and increasing usable space. Though HSC is, more costly than standard concrete, the long-term Benefits to the building owner canbe substantial The benefits of HSC use, however, may not be realized in areas where concrete member dimensions are gov ered by building code requirements concerning, fire safety and so forth 16. FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) contains small steel, polymer (polyolefin or polypropylene), carbon, or glass fers approximately 05-2 in (12-30 mm) long dis persed randomly throughout the mix. (The term earbon-fiber-reinforced concrete (CFRC) is used with carbon reinforcement.) Synthetic fibers are specified by ASTM C1116, steel fibers by ASTM A820. \s setting concrete loses water, it shrinks. Fibers are added to control surface cracking during the setting process. These fibers intersect. eracks that form during shrinkage. For control of surface cracking, fibers arc added in a proportion of approximately 0.1% by volume corresponding to 1.5 Ibm/{ft® (24 kg/m*) of concrete. Fibers can also be used to catty a portion of the service oad, though the volumetric fraction must be much higher: 4-20%. Steel fibers are used in airport pave- ‘ments, industrial floors, bridge decks, and tunnel lining. Glass fibers are used in precast products. The fibers carry the lond once microcracking from flexural loading hhas occurred, at approximately 3500 psi (24 MPa). Microreinforced concretes with compressive strengths cof 30,000 psi (207 MPa) and higher have been reported. The addition of steel fibers to a concrete mix has little effect on compressive strength; the increase will generally be only a few percent and will seldom be greater than 20%. However, the post-cracking ductility and toughness (energy absorption), as well as tensile and flexural strengths, are increased. The orientation of the sted fibers affects the increase in tensile strength, with random, orientation being generally less effective at increasing strength than orientation in the direction of the tensile stress. The tensile strength increase is typically 060% for random orientation and can exceed 130% for fibers oriented in the direction of stress. For flexural strength, strength inereases are commonly 50-10%, and even higher values have been reported, so ultimate moment is increased and deflection is decreased, However, since even a 1% steel fiber volumetric content can double the 48-7 material cost of concrete, steel-fiber-reinforoed concrete is limited to specialty applications, such as tunnel linings, bridge deck repairs, and design of members exposed to dynamic and impact loads. 17. POLYMER CONCRETE Polymer concrete (polymer-portland and cement con- erele, PPCC) is a material primarily used for rapid repair (sealing or overlaying) of concrete, usually bridge decks. Sometimes dubbed MMA concrete after one of its components, itis delivered as two components that are rmixed together prior to use: (1) a premixed powder of fine aggregatcs coated with polymers, initiators, and pige ments; and (2) a liquid methyl-methacrvlate (MMA) monomer. Seting is rapid, though complete curing may take several wooks. Pinal performance is similar oF supe slor to traditional concrete Polymer concrete can be precast. into products with compressive strengths up to 15,000 psi (103 MPa) and flexural strengths up to 300 psi (2.1 MPa), It is water and corrosion-resistant, thin, lightweight, and colorfast making it ideal for some bridge components. 18. LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE, Aggregate of rotary kilnexpanded shales or clays hav ing a specific weight of 70 Ibf/ft® (1120 kg/m°) or les is known as lightweight aggregate, also known as ASTM 0330 aggregate. It is used in the production of light ‘weight concrete. Lightweight concrete in which only the coarse aggregate is lightweight is known as sand-light- ‘weight conerete. If both the coarse and fine aggregates are lightweight, the concrete is known as all-ightueight concrete, Unless noted otherwise, concrete in this book is assumed to be normal-weight concrete 19. SELF-PLACING CONCRETE Self-placing concrete (also known as self-compacting concrete, self-consolidating concrete, flowable concrete, and nonvibration concrete) is used to reduce labor needs and construction time, particularly where congestion of steel reinforcing bars make the consolidation of eonerete difficult. Such concrete does not requize vibration and reduces site noise and placement defects. Self placing concrete relies on viscosity agents to produce liquid-like flow characteristies, 20, ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE Roller-compacted conerete (RCC), also known as roll- crete, is a very lean, no-slump, almost-dry conerete similar to damp gravel in consistency. It is primarily used in dams and other water-control structures, though use has been extended to heavy-duty pavements (e.g logging roads, freight yards, and truck stopping areas) where a perfectly smooth surface is not required. RCC is tive because of its low cost, Requiring less time www. TechnicalBooksPdf.com StructuralTouran’ 48-8 and labor to complete, an RCC dam costs about balf the price of a conventional concrete gravity dam and about one-third less than an earth or a rockiill dam, Serapers and bulldozers spread and compact ROC in road 1-2 ft (30-71 em) thick lifts, and vibratory rollers or dozers consolidate it to the specified density with multiple (4-10) passes. A compressive strength of approximately 10001500 psi (7-30 MPa) is achieved, identical to the strength of a conventional mixture with the same water-cement ratio, Seepage in RCC dams occurs primarily through the inter- faces between the lifts, but this seepage can be controlled or eliminated with a variety of practices. The abutments and one or both faces should be constructed from norma concrete. Each new lift of RCC should be bedded in a Yale in (G12 mm) thin layer of highshump cement: paste mortar. The time between lf ean be reduced, and Slightly wetter mixes can be used. Other methods of reducing seepage include using more cement, fly. ash and water in the core of the dam; incorporating a PVG membrane between the cast-inplace face and the RCC; and building up the lifts in small 6 im (150 mun) layers Since RCC tends to clump in temperatures greater than 90°F (82°C), in extreme cases placement can be limited to winter months or cooler nights. 21. SOIL CEMENT Soil cement is a combination of soil, water, and a small amount of cement (about 10%). Soil cement is low in price, strong, and easy to work with, can take repeated wetting and heavy wave action, and can stand up to freeze-thaw cycles, Placed soil cement looks like con- crete of rock. It has proven Lo be an ideal material for pavement base courses (where it is referred to as cement-treated base) but can also be used for river bank protection, reservoir and channel lining, facing for earthfill dams, seepage control, pipe bedding, and foundation stabilization Table 48.3 ASTM Standards or Reinforcing Bars nominal nominal customary US. soft metric diameter diameter bar no. bar no. ar) 3 10 Oats 4 18 127 5 6 159 6 19 wt 7 2 22 8 25 25d 9 29 287 0 32 32.3 1 36 355 4 430 8 573 (ulin in by 254 to obtain mm.) tpl in by 6482 to obtsin cm) {Multiply t/t by 1488 to obtain kg/m.) 22, CONTROLLED LOW-STRENGTH MATERIAL, Controlied low-strength material (CLSM) is a mixture of| fly ash, fine ageregates, cement (about 5%), and water. Delivered in a semifluid state, it flows readily into place, needs no tamping or vibration, and achieves a compres sive strength of 100 psi (700 kPa) within 24 hours. It has proven to be an efficient and economical backlilling material for floor leveling, culverts, bridge abutments and trenches. 23, REINFORCING STEEL Steel is an alloy consisting almost entirely of iron. It also contains small quantities of carbon, silicon, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and other elements. Carbon has the greatest effect on the steel’s properties. The carbon content is normally less than 0.5% by weight, with 0.2-0.3% being common percentages. The density of steel is essentially unaffected by its com- position, and a value of 0.283 Ibf/in® (7820 kg/m®) can be used. Reinforcing steel for use in steel-reinforced concrete may be formed from billet steel, axle steel, or rail steel Most modern reinforcing bars are made from new billet steel. (Special bars of titanium, stainless stee!, corrosion. resistant alloys, and glass fiber composites may see extremely limited use in corrosion-sensitive applications.) The following ASTM designations are used for steel rein- forcing bars. (See Table 48.3 for ASTM standards.) ASTM A615: carbon steel, grades 40 (280 MPa), 60 (420 MPa), and 75 (520 MPa) (symbol “S") ASTM A996: rail steel, grades 50 (350 MPa) and 60 (420 MPa) (symbols “R” and “L”; only “R” is permitted to be used by ACT 318), and axle steel, grades 40 (280 MPa) and 60 (420 MPa) (symbol “A”) sonia sosninal nominal ‘area weight mass (in?) (aim) ont 0.560 020 0.994 oat 1.552 oat 22035 080 042 or aor 1.00 5.060 6.404 907 1139 4.00 13.600 2024 www. TechnicalBooksPdf.comASTM A706: low-alloy steel (symbol “W") ‘grade 60 (420 MPa) ASTM A955: stainless steel (mechanical prop- under ASTM A615) ASTM A1035: low-carbon, chromium, steel bars (permitted only as transverse or’ as. spiral reinforcement) Reinforcing stecl used for concrete structures comes in the form of bars (known as rebar), welded wire rein forcement, and wires. Reinforcing bars can be plain or deformed; however, most bars are manufactured deformed to increase the bond between concrete and steel. Figure 48.5 shows how the surface is deformed by rolling a pattern on the bar surface. The patterns used vary with the manufacturer. _ letter or symbol — Tor producing mil bar siza No, (2) grade 60 _— main tbs _lette or symbol Tor prosucing mill bar size No. 6 — type of ste (b) grades 40 and 60 Plain round reinforcing bars are designated by their nominal diameters in fractions of an inch or in mill- meters (eg, /2 in, Is in, ete.). Deformed bars are also round, with sizes designed in numbers of eighths of an inch or in millimeters. Standard deformed bars are man- ufactured in sizes no. 3 to no. 11, with two special large sizes, no. 14 and no. 18, also available on special ordes Metric (SI) bar designations are based on a “soft” con- version of the bar diameter to millimeters. For example, the traditional no. 3 bar has a nominal diameter of Y/s in, and this bar has a metric designation of no. 10 because it has a 9.5 mm diameter (approximately 10 mm), Hard metric conversions, where bars with slightly’ different diameters would be used in metric projects, were once 48-9 considered but ultimately rejected. Hard conversions are used in Canadian bar sizes, which have different designa- tions and sizes, (See Table 48.4.) Table 48.4 Hard SI (Canadian) Bar Dimensions hard metric diameter area, mass bar number (mm) (ex") (g/m) TOM 18 0 0784 15M 160 20 20M 195, 30 25M 252 50 30M 209 To 35M 3 109. 437 150 564 250 (Muipty am by 0.08537 to obtain in.) (Mulipiy em by 0.1550 to obaln it) (ips kg/m by 065718 to obtain bf.) 24, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL A typical stress-strain curve for ductile structural steel js shown im Fig. 48.6. The curve consists of elastic, plastic, and strain-hardening regions. Figure 48.6 Typical Stress-Srain Curve for Ductile St “on timate strength _ (si Zz 259 MP= 263M The elastic region is the portion of the stress-strain curve where the steel will recover its size and shape upon release of load. Within the plastic region, the material shows substantial deformation without noticeable change of the stress. Plastic deformation, or permanent set, is any deformation that remains in the material after the load has been removed. In the strain-hardening region, additional stress is necessary to produce addi tional strain. This portion of the stress-strain diagram is not important from the design point of view, because so much strain occurs that the functionality of the material is affected, www. TechnicalBooksPdf.com StructuralTouran’ 48-10 CIVIL ENGINEERING REFERENCE MANUAL ‘The slope of the linear portion within the elastic range is the modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity for all types of ductile reinforcing steels is taken to be 29 x 10° psi (200 GPa) [ACT 318 Sec. 8.5.2). (The mod ulus of elasticity is sometimes quoted as 30 x 10° psi (207 GPa). This value may apply to hard steels used for other purposes, but not to steel used for reinforcing conerete.) ‘The steel grade corresponds to its nominal yield tensile strength in ksi (thousands of pounds per square inch). Grade 60 steel with a yield strength of 60 ksi (413 MPa) is the most common, though grades 40 and 50 are also available upon request. ST values of stce! strength are obtained using “soft” conversions. That is, steel proper- ties are the same in customary U.S. and SI values, Only the designations are different, 25. EXPOSURE Chloride has been used as a conerete additive for a long, time. In some fresh conerete, ealeium chloride is delib- rately added to the mix as a low-cost means of increas- ing early strength. In cold weather, chloride speeds up the initial set before the cement paste freezes. However, corrosion from chlorides is a major problem for steel-reinforced concrete. On roads and bridges, de-icing chemicals and environmental salt corrode from the out: side in. In buildings, chloride from concrete accelerators ‘works from the inside out. In both, chloride ions migrate through cracks to attack steel reinforcing bars. Once corrosion has begun, the steel is transformed into expanding rust, putting pressure on surrounding con- crete and causing the protective concrete layer to spall In addition to chloride attack, degradation from sulfates and fluctuations in temperature and moisture can sig- nifieantly affect concrete durability. ACI 318 identifies four exposure categories that affect the design require- ments for concrete to ensure adequate durability performance, exposure category F, freeze/thaw: exterior con- exete exposed to moisture and frocze)thaw cycling (with or without de-icing agents) exposure category S, sulfates: concrete in contact, with soil or water that contains deleterious amounts of soluble sulfate ions exposure category P, permeability: concrete in contact with water requiring low permeability exposure category C, corrosion: both reinforced and prestressed concrete exposed to conditions that, warrant additional corrosion protection of reinforcement Each category is then subdivided into more specific expo- sure conditions. Recommended water/cement ratios, air Contents, and chloride and sulfate limits are also provided JACI 318 Chap. 4]. Exposure categories are assigned based on the severity of the anticipated exposure of structural concrete members, 26, ELECTRICAL PROTECTION OF REBAR There are two major methods of using electricity to prevent chloride corrosion. Cathodic protection lowers the active corrosion potential of the reinforcing steel to immune or passive levels. Current is supplied from an extemal direct-current source. The current flows from fan anode embedded in the concrete or from a surface mounted anode mesh covered with 1.5 8-51 mm) of concrete. From there, the current passes through the electrolyte (the water and salt in the pores of the con crete) to the steel. The steel acts as the cathode, whieh is protected, Installation of eathodie protection is simple. Power con- sumption is very low. Maintenance is essentially zero. Large areas should be divided into zones, each with its ‘own power supply and monitoring equipment, This pro- tection scheme has initial and ongoing expenses, as the system and power supply must remain in place through- ut the life of the structure. An alternative method, developed in Europe, also attaches steel mesh electrodes to the surface and uses a current. However, the treatment is maintained only for a limited amount of time (¢.g., one to two months), An electrolytic cellulose paste is sprayed on and the current is applied. Chloride ions migrate from the rebar and are replaced by alkali ious from the paste. This raises the pH and forms a passivating oxide layer around the rebar. The mesh and collulose are removed and discarded when the treatment is complete. Protection lasts for years. This electrolytic treatment may not be effective with epoxy-coated bars, prestressed structures (where chem- jal reactions ean cause embrittlement), and bridge decks (due to the duration of shutdown required for treatment), 27, COATED REBAR Corrosion-resistant epoxy-coated rebar (“green baz” or “purple bax”) has been in use in the United States since the 1970s, most of it in bridge decks and other struc- tures open to traffic. After proper cleaning, standard robar is given a 0.005.012 in (0.13-0.30 mm) electro- static spray coating of epoxy. The epoxy is intended to be flexible enough to permit subsequent bending and cold working. Epoxy-coated bars must comply with ASTM standards A775 or A934. Epoxy’s effectiveness, once described as “maintenance- free in corrosive environments,” is dependent on instal- lation practices. Corrosion protection is less than expected when poor manufacturing quality and installa- tion practices remove or damage portions of the coating. Corrosion of coated bars can be reduced by coating afte bending and by using alternative “pipeline coatings,” which are thicker but less flexible than epoxy. ors www. pplapass.com www. TechnicalBooksPdf.comPROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND REINFORCING STEEL 48-11 Epoxy-coated rebar is only one of several fabrication methods needed to prevent or slow chloride corrosion in bridge decks, including cathodic protection, lateral and longitudinal prestressing, less-porous and low- slump conercte, thicker topping layers (3 in (75 mm) or more), interlayer membranes and asphalt concrete, latex-modified or silica fume conerete overlays, corrosion-resistant additives, surface sealers (with or without overlays), galvanizing steel rebar, polymer impregnation, and polymer concrete, www. TechnicalBooksPdf.com Structural