Robot Dynamics

Hesheng Wang
Dept. of Automation
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
 What is Robot Dynamics?
• Robot dynamics studies the relation between
robot motion and forces and moments acting
on the robot.  2 l2
2

1 l1
1
x
Rotation about a Fixed Axis

The velocity v can be determined from

the cross product of  and rp . Here rp is
a vector from any point on the axis of
rotation to P.

v =  x rp =  x r
The direction of v is determined by the
right-hand rule.
 Rotation about a Fixed Axis
(continued)
The acceleration of P can also be defined by
differentiating the velocity.

a = dv/dt = d/dt x rP +  x drP/dt

=  x r P +  x (  x r P)
Tangent accel
Normal/centripetal acceleration

It can be shown that this equation reduces to

a = a x r – w2r = at + an
The magnitude of the acceleration vector is a = (at)2 + (an)2
 Rotation of a Vector
• Consider rotation of a vector about a
axis.
P
r
Point P is rotating about axis u.
r is the position vector of point P.
u
 : the speed of rotation 
The angular velcotiy : ω  u
The rate of change of position vector r :
d
r  ωr
dt
 Rotation of a Frame
Frame A
yB
xB
• Consider a frame B rotating
about an unit vector u.
u
i B , jB , k B : unit directional vectors of the axes zB 
of frame B w.r.t. the reference frame A
d d d
iB  ωiB, jB  ω  jB , kB  ωkB
dt dt dt
The derivative of the rotation matrix of frame B :
d
R  i B j B k B   ω  i B ω  j B ω  k B 

dt
   ωR
R
 General Motion
• A general motion can be considered a
combination of a translation with a z1
point and motion about the point. B
A
O  xo yo z o : A fixed reference frame z0 y1
A  x1 y1 z1 : A frame that translate with A x1
O y0
The velocity relation:
x0
VB  VA  ω  r
The acceleration relation:

a B  a A  α  r  ω  (ω  r )
Introduction to Dynamics
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
First Law: A particle originally at rest, or moving in a
straight line at constant velocity, will remain in this state if
the resultant force acting on the particle is zero.
F
Second Law: If the resultant force
on the particle is not zero, the a
particle experiences an acceleration
in the same direction as the resultant F  ma
force. This acceleration has a m : the mass
magnitude proportional to the F : the net force
a : the acceleration
resultant force.

Third Law: Mutual forces of action

and reaction between two particles F F’
are equal, opposite, and collinear.
 Example
m1
Find the accelerations of the ball Frictionless
surface
and the wedge. m2

Solution:

(1) Draw the free-body diagram of the particles
(2) Apply Newton’s 2nd Law
N
For the ball
R
m1 xb  N sin  (1)
m1 yb  N cos   m1 g (2)

For the wedge

m2g m1g
y
m2 xw   N sin  (3) N
x
 Example (continued)
• Consider acceleration relationship between
the ball and the wedge
ab  a w  ab / w ab

a b / w : relative velocity of the ball

aw
w.r.t. the wedge
Note that the relative velocity is along the surface of the wedge ab/w
From the diagram, we have

xb  xw  ab / W cos  (4)

yb  ab / w sin  (5)

From eqs. (1)-(5), we can solve the five unknowns, i.e. the acceleration
 Linear Momentum
• Linear momentum: product of mass and velocity:
L  mV mV
– It is a vector, in the same direction as velocity
- SI Unit : Kg  m/s V

From Newton' s 2nd Law :

d
F  ma  m V  L
dt
• Principle of Linear Momentum: The rate of change of the
linear momentum of a particle is equal to the result force
acting on the particle
 Angular Momentum
V
• r: the position vector of a particle w.r.t. a
reference point O.
• V: the velocity of the particle r
• m: the mass of the particle
• The angular momentum of the particle O
about reference O:

H o  r  mV
H o is a vector perpendicular to both V and r.
Its direction is determinedby the right - hand rule
Its unit is Kg  m2 / s
 Principle of Angular Momentum
Consider a force F acting on the particle
V

Differentiating the angular momentum F

r

  r  mV  r  mV
H   rF
o
O
H   rF  M
o o

Principle of angular momentum: The rate of change of

the angular momentum of particle about a fixed point O
is equal to the resultant moment of forces acting on the
particle about point O
 Dynamics of a System of Particles
Consider a system of n particles.
f1 m fi
fi: the external force exerted on particle i 1
eij: the internal force exerted on particle i mi
by particle j m2 eij
mi: mass of particle i.
ri: position vector of particle i eji
f2
d mj
Linear momentum : L   mi Vi  mi ri fj
dt Total mass

 The center of mass : rc 
mri
 mi
L  m r
i c  MVC
Velocity of
The linear momentum of a system of particles is center of mass
equal to the product of the total mass and the
velocity of the center of mass
 Dynamics of a System of Particles
Differentiating the linear momentum
d 2 f1 m fi
L   mi 2 ri   (f i   eij ) 1
i dt i j mi
  e
i j
ij 0  L   f i
i
m2 ei

The rate of change the linear momentum of a ej

system of particles is equal to the resultant of all f2 mj
EXTERNAL forces acting on the particles fj
ac: acceleration of

 L  MVC  Ma c   f i
center of mass

i Equation of motion of
Center of mass

The center of mass of the system moves as if all the forces

and masses are concentrated at the center of mass
Angular Momentum of a System
of Particles
Similarly, by differentiating the f1 m fi
1
angular momentum
mi
d
H o   ri  mVi   M O
 m2 ei

i dt ej
f2 mj
The resultant moment of all fj
EXTERNAL forces acting
on the system about O
O

The reference point must be a fixed point. However, the center of

mass of the system can be the reference point even when it is
moving
 Example: m2
Ry
Example: Calculate the angular acceleration l2
of the massless link  Rx
l1 O
Solution
Consider the two particles and the link as a
system m2g
m1
(1) Analyze the external forces
(2) Consider the angular momentum about O m1g
0  0 
d    
 M
H  0   0 
o o
dt     m gl cos   m gl cos  
(
 11m l 2
 m l
2 2
2
)   2 2 1 1 
(m1l1 m2 l2 ) cos
 
m1l12  m2l22
Linear and Angular Momentums
for Rigid Body
• Since a rigid body can be considered
as a system with infinite number of VC
particles, the linear momentum

L  mVC Center of mass

•The angular momentum about the

center of mass ω
H C  Iω
I : Inertia tensor matrix about C.
ω : angular velocity of the body
 Newton’s Equation and Euler’s Equation
• A general motion can be considered a f1
combination of a translation with the ni z1
center of mass and motion about the
center of mass
C
O  xo yo zo : A fixed reference frame z0 ri y1
C  x1 y1 z1 : A frame that translates with C x1
fi
The equation of translation: O y0
x0
ma c  F   f i
Newton’s equation
The equation of motion about C: Euler’s equation
dA
  ω ( A Iω)   ri  f i   ni
H C  M C  A Iω
dt
 Newton’s Equation and Euler’s Equation
(Cont’)
• The angular velocity is with respect to the
translating frame.
• The inertia tensor matrix is with respect to the
translating frame, so it will change its value with
rotation of the body.
• The force is the resultant of the EXTERNAL
force
• The moment is the resultant moment of the
EXTERNAL forces and moments.
 Example
• Derive the dynamic equation of the 2 DOF
manipulator. Here, the masses of links 1 and 2 are m1
and m2 respectively. Assume that the mass is
uniformly distributed over the link.
2
Solution: l2
(1) Analyzing forces acting on the links 2

2 1 l1
Rx 1
1
O
Ry Nx x0

Rx Ry
m2g Ny m1g
 Example (continued)
Rx
(2) Dynamics of link 1. As
link 1 is rotating about O, Nx
1
1
Ry

I O1  M o Ny m1g

Moment of
Resultant moment about O
inertia about O


 l1
I O1   1  m1 g cos 1  R y l1 cos 1  R x l1 sin 1 (1)
2
 Example
(3) Dynamics of link 2. 2
As link 2 is in a general plane motion C2
m2 a C 2  F Ry
C
 2  ω 2 C I 2 ω 2  M C
I 2ω B
Rx
2

Acceleration of C2: a C2  a B  a C / Bt  a C / Bn m2g

  l112 c1    l11s1  a Bt
a B  a Bn  a Bt   2        ...
  l11 s1   l11c1 

l 2   2   c12 
a C / Bn  (1   2 )   a 
l 2     s12 
(1   2 ) 
1
2   s12  C / Bt
2 c
 12 
   2 l 2   l2   2  a Bn
  l1 (1s1  1 c1 )  (1   2 ) s12  (1   2 ) c12 
a C2   2 2 
l l
  l ( c   2 s )  2 (   )c  2 (   ) 2 s  a

1 1 1 1 1
2
1 2 12
2
1 2 12
 C / Bt 1   2
Newton’s m2 a c2 x  R x (2)
equation: m2 a c2 y  R y  m2 g (3) a C / Bn
 Example (continued)
Consider Euler’s equation.
As the mass in uniformly distributed and the link is
symmetric, the inertia tensor matrix is diagonal.
 
 I 2 xx 0 0  0  0   I 2 xx 0 0  0   0 
 0 I 0  0   0  0 I 0  0  0

 2 yy          2 yy      
 0 0 I 
2 zz  1   2  1   2  0 0 I 
2 zz  1   l l
2    2 R s  2 R c 
 2 x 12 y 12 
 2 2 


  l2 l2
I 2 zz (1   2 )   2  R x s12  R y c12 (4)
2 2

From (2) and (3), we can solve Rx and Ry.

Substituting Rx and Ry in eqs. (1) and (4) leads
to the dynamic equation of the robot arm.
Formulation of Robot Dynamics
 Recursive Newton-Euler Formulation
We consider manipulators with revolute joints only.
zi-1 Link i-1 yi zi
Joint i

Oi xi
Joint i-1
si-1 ri Ci: center
yi-1 of mass
ai-1 i
 i 1 xi-1
Oi-1
Relative angular
Angular velocity relation ωi  ωi1 ωi /i1 velocity if link I
to link i-1
between link i-1 and i:
ω  ω z 
i i1 i i (1)
Differentiating
ω  i1 zii ωi1 zii
 i ω (2)
(1)
 Recursive Newton-Euler Equation (Cont’)

• Consider velocity and acceleration of Oi.

Vi : velocity of O i
Vi 1 : velocity of O i -1 Vi  Vi 1  Vi / i 1
Vi / i 1 : realtive velocity of O i to O i -1

As the relative motion of Oi w.r.t. Oi-1 is a motion about Oi-1,

Vi / i 1  ω i 1  s i 1  Vi  Vi 1  ω i 1  s i 1 (3)
Acceleration a i  a i 1 a Rt a Rn
at Oi:  a i 1  ω
 i 1  s i 1  ω i 1  (ω i 1  s i 1 ) (4)

a Ci  a i a Ci / Oi
Acceleration at the
center of mass:  ai  ω
 i  ri  ω i  (ω i  ri ) (5)
 Forward Equations
ω i  ω i 1  z ii (1)
ω  i1 zii ωi1 zii
 i ω (2)
a i  a i 1  ω
 i 1  s i 1  ω i 1  (ω i 1  s i 1 ) (3)
i=0
a Ci  a i  ω i  ri 1  ω i  (ω i  ri 1 ) (4)

Calculate i+1 from (1)

From (1), (2), (4) and (5), we
can recursively calculate .
the angular velocity and Calculate i+1 from (2)
acceleration of the links,
and the acceleration at the Calculate ai+1 from (3)
center of mass.
The initial conditions:
Calculate aci+1 from (4)
When i  0,
ω 0  0, ω
0 0
V0  0, a 0  0 No YES
i=i+1 i=n-1 END
 Dynamic equation of robot link

Derive the dynamics by applying -ni+1

Newton-Euler equations to link i.
(1) Draw the free-body diagram of link Oi+1
i. Assume that the links are rigidly
connected. Cut link i from the arm: si
fi: the force acting on link i by link i-1 Ci
ni: the moment applied on link i by link i-1 ni Oi ri -fi+1
Applying Newton’s Law
0  fi mig
mi a ci  f i  f i 1   0 
 m g 
 i 

0 
 f i  mi a ci  f i 1   0  (7)
m g 
 i 
 Dynamics of robot link (Cont’)
Applying the Euler’s equation
 i  ω i  I i ω i  n i  n i 1  ri  f i  (s i  ri )  f i 1
Iiω

ni  Iiω
 i  ω i  I i ω i  n i 1  ri  f i  (s i  ri )  f i 1 (8)
-ni+1
Eqs. (7) and (8) give the recursive
backward equation for calculating the Oi+1
interaction force and moment si
Relation between ni and joint torque Ci
ni Oi ri -fi+1
i  z Ti n i
as actuator produces torque about the joint axis only mig
fi
 Backward Calculation
Initial conditions: When i  k (for the last link) : f k 1  0, n k 1  0
k : the number of links

i=K

Calculate fi from (7)

Calculate ni from (8)

i=i-1

NO YES
i=0 END
 Lagrange Formulation of Robot Dynamics

• Lagrange formulation is an analytical

method for deriving the robot dynamics. It
is based on the energy and work principle
• Energy of Mechanical Systems
– Kinetic energy: energy due to motion of a
particle or body
– Potential energy: due to gravitational forces,
deformation of mechanical systems, etc.
 Kinetic Energy
• A particle (body) has kinetic energy when it moves.
Kinetic energy is always greater than zero
V
1
For a particle : K  mV 2
2
1
For a system of particles : K   2
miVi 2
ω
1 T
For a rigid body : K 
V
2
r rdm
C
Vc

1 2 1 T
 mVc  ω Iω
2 2
I: inertia tensor
 Potential Energy
• We here consider the gravitational potential
energy only.
For a particle : U  mgz
z: the height of the particle w.r.t. a reference level

For a system of particles : U   m gz i i z

For a rigid body : U  mgz c

The height of the center of mass
Potential energy is a value relative to the reference.
It could be positive, zero and negative
 Work
When a particle underwent a displacement r
under a constant force f, the work done by the
force on the particle is
T
W f r r

f
– Work is a scalar
– It could be positive, zero and negative
– SI unit: Nm
 Work done by time-varying force
Consider the work done by a
time-varying force on a particle V2
that moved from one position
to another.
2 V1 Position 2

T
W  f (t )dr
1
2 2
f(t)
dV

 m
1
dt
1

dr  mVdV Position 1

1 1
 mV22  mV12
2 2 Work-energy principle: The work done
 K
by a force acting on particle is equal to
the change of its kinetic energy
 Conservative force and Non-
Conservative force
• The force associated to the potential energy is
called conservative force. A force that is not
associated with the potential energy is called
non-conservative force.
• The work done by conservative force (gravity z2
force)
Wg  mg ( z 2  z1 )  U

• The work done by non-conservative forces mg z1

Wn  Wg  K
 Wn  K  U  ( K  U )
The work done by non-conservative forces is equal to the change of total energy
 Conservation of Energy
• If no non-conservative force acting on a system
(a particle, or a system of particles, or a rigid
body), does not do any work, the total energy of
the system is conserved.

K U  constant
 Lagrange Equation
• Generalized coordinates q: A set of parameters
for representing the configuration (position &
orientation) of a system.
– q must specify the configuration uniquely
– Once the values of q are fixed, the system cannot
move.
– The choice of q is not unique.
• Degree of freedom (DOF): The dimension of the
generalized coordinates vector q is called
degrees of freedom of the system
 Examples
2
l2
2

q   1 

1 l1
 2 
DOF =2
1
x0

 x 
 y 
 
q  
  DOF=4
  

(x,y)
 Generalized Force
Consider the work done by non-conservative
forces under a differential displacement of the
system
ri : differential displacement at the
action point of f i due to a differential
change q of the generalized coordinates q

The differential work W :

fi
W   f ri i
T

The generalized force F of the system is given by


F (W ) q : generalized coordinates vector
(q)
 Example
Calculate the generalized force of f
the 2 DOF arm 2

Generalize d Coordinate s : q   1 
 l2
 2  2
For differential motion q  1 ,  2 T
1 l1
The differential work 1
W   11   2 2  f T x x0
x : the differential motion of the end point

 x  J (q)q  W   11   2 2  f T J (q)q

当前无法显示此图像。
  1  2 q  ( J (q)f )T q

Generalized Force:
 Lagrange Equation
q: the generalized coordinates of a system
K: Kinetic energy of the system
U: the potential energy of the system
F: the generalized forces of the system
Define L=K-U: Called Lagrangian
The dynamics of the system is given by

d L L
 F
dt q q
Derivation of Robot Dynamics using
Lagrange Equation
1) Choose the generalized coordinates q (usually
use the kinematics parameters defined by the
D-H method)
2) Identify the non-conservative forces that are
exerted at the system and do work
3) Calculate the kinetic energy K and the
potential energy U, and then L=K-U
4) Calculate the partial derivatives
5) Calculate the generalized force F.
6) Apply the Lagrange equation.
 Example 1
Center
of mass
Example: Denote the mass of link i by mi. The mass is
uniformly distributed over the link. Derive the
dynamics of the 2 DOF arm. 2
l2
Solution (1) Generalized coordiantes : q     1  y
c2
2
 2 
(2) Non - conservative forces that do work : 1 ,  2 l1 1
(3) The kinetic energy: 1
1 2
 link 1 rotates about O,  K1  I o1 x
2
1 1
 link 2 in general plane motion,  K 2  m2Vc22  I c2  22
2 2
 l2
Position of  l c 
 c2 1 1 2 c12
x l 22   2
the Center   Vc22  x c22  y c22  l1212  (1   2 )  l1l 2 c21 (1  2 )
l 4
Of mass  yc2  l1s1  2 s12
 2
 Example 1 (continued)
The total kinetic energy
1 1
K  K1  K 2  ( I o  m2 l12 )12  m2 l1l2 c21 (1  2 )
2 2
1 1
 ( m2 l22  I c2 )(1  2 ) 2
8 2
The potential energy (assume y=0 is the reference
l1 l
U  m1 gyc1  m2 gyc 2  m1 g s1  m2 g (l1s1  2 s12 )
2 2
(4) Calculate the partial derivatives
L 1 1
 ( I 0  m2 l12 )1  m2 l1l 2 c2 (1  2 )  ( m2 l 22  I c2 )(1  2 )
1 2 4
L 1 1
 m2 l1l 2 c21  ( m2 l 22  I c2 )(1  2 )
2 2 4
L l l
  m1 g 1 c1  m2 g (l1c1  2 c12 )
1 2 2
L l 1
  m2 g 2 c12  m2 l1l 2 s 21 (1  2 )
 2 2 2
 Example 1 (continued)
5) The generalized forces:

F   1 
W   11   2 2 
 2 
d L L
6) Apply the Lagrange equation:  F
dt q q

 I o1  m2 l12  0.25m2 l 22  I c 2  m2 l1l 2 c2 0.25m2 l 22  I c 2  0.5m2 l1l 2 c2 1 

   
 2 
2 2
 0.25m2 l 2  I c 2  0.5m2 l1l 2 c2 0.25m2 l 2  I c 2
  m2l1l 2 s 2 (1  0.52 )2  (0.5m1  m2 )l1 gc1  0.5m2 l 2 gc12   1 
     
  2 
 2
0.5m2 l1l 2 s 21  0.5m2 l 2 gc12

 Example 2
Example 2: The moment of inertia of the first link is I1. The mass
of link 2 is m2. The mass is concentrated at the endpoint. An
external force f acts at the endpoint. Derive the dynamics of the
arm.
y3 x3
Solution: (1) Generalized coordinates z1
y1 l2
y2 x2 z3
Use the D-H method to assign
frames and select the joint angles as x1
f
the generalized coordinates z2
i  i 1 ai 1 di i
1 0 0 0 1
z0
2 90  0 0 2 y0
3 0 l2 0 0 x0

q   1 

Generalized coordinates:
 2 
 Example 2 (continued)
(2) No-conservative forces that do work:
joint inputs :  1 , 2 , and the external force f
(3) Kinetic energy, potential energy and Lagrangian
Kinetic energy:
1 2 1
Link 1 : K1  I11 Link 2 : K 2  m2V 2
2 2
To find the velocity V of the endpoint, we need to solve
the forward kinematics

 s2 0 1 0 0 l2 
 c1  s1 0 0  c2
0
0 0 1 0 0
s 0 0 1 0 2
T3  
c1 0 0
1
0
T1   1 T2  
0 s c2 0 0 0
0 0 1
 0
0 0 1  02 1  0 0 1 
 0 0 1   0 0 
 Example 2 (continued)
Forward kinematics:
 c1c2  c1s 2 s1 0  c1c2  c1s 2 s1 l 2 c1c2 
  s1s 2  c1 0 s c  s1s 2  c1 l 2 s1c2 
T2  0T1 1T2   s1c2
0 0 2
0
T3  T2 T3   1 2
s c2 0 0 s c2 0 l2 s2 
 02 0 0 1   02 0 0 1 
  

d  l 2 c1c2 
V l 2 s1c2  V 2  l 22 c2212  l 2222
dt  l 2 s 2 
 

The potential energy (Assuming that U=0 when z0=0).

U  m1 gh1  m2 gl2 s2
Lagrangian:
1 1
L  K  U  ( I1  m2l2 c2 )1  m2l2222  m1 gh1  m2 gl2 s2
2 2 2

2 2
 Example 2 (continued)
(4) Calculate the partial derivatives
L
 ( I1  m2 l 22 c22 )1
1
L
 m2 l 222
2
L
0
1
L 1
  m2 l 22 sin 2 212  m2 gl 2 c2
 2 2
 Example 2 (continued)
(5) Generalized forces:
W   11   2 2  f T x  F   1   J T (q)f
 2
x: the position of the endpoint

 l 2 c1c2  x   l 2 c1c2    l 2 s1c2  l 2 c1s 2 

x   l 2 s1c2  J (q)   l 2 s1c2  l 2 c1c2  l 2 s1s 2 
l s  q q  l 2 s 2   0 l 2 c2 
 2 2    
(6) Applying the Lagrange equation leads to the dynamics:

 I1  m2 l 22 c22 0 1   0.5m2 l 22 sin 2 212   0 

       
2   m gl c 
 0 m l 
2 2  2   0. 5m l
2 2
2
sin 2 
2 1   2 2 2
  1   J T (q)f
 2 
 Structure of Robot Dynamics
• The dynamics of the 2 DOF manipulator:
 I o1  m2 l12  0.25m2 l 22  I c 2  m2 l1l 2 c2 0.25m2 l 22  I c 2  0.5m2l1l 2 c2 1 
   
0
2
.25m2 l 2  I c 2  0.5m2l1l 2 c2 2
0.25m2l 2  I c 2  2 
  
H (q )
  m2l1l 2 s 2 (1  0.52 )2   (0.5m1  m2 )l1 gc1  0.5m2 l 2 gc12   1 
         
0 .5m2l1l 2 s 21 2
 0.5m l gc   2
 
2 2 12

C (q ,q ) G (q )

H (q) : Intertia matrix of the manipulator, H T (q)  H (q)  symmetric matrix

depending on the joint position
C (q, q ) : the centrifugal and Coriolisforces
Centrigualforce : Terms that depend on the square of the joint velocity of a joint.
Coriolis force :Terms that depend on the product
of the joint velo cities of two joints.
G (q) : The gravity force
 Structure of Robot Dynamics

• The centrifugal and Coriolis term can be re-written as

  m2 l1l 2 s 2 (1  0.52 )2 

C(q, q)  
 2 
 0 . 5 m l l s
21 2 2 1 
 
 
 1   m l l s   0.5m l l s    0  0.5m2 l1l 2 s 2 (1  0.52 ) 1 
  2 1 2 2 2

2 1 2 2 2    0.5 )   
2
 0 .5 m l l s  0 0. 5 m l l s ( 0 
21 2 2 2
   2  1 2 2 1
 2
 2 
 1 S (q ,q ) 
 2
H (q ) 

S (q , q ) is a skew - symmetric matrix, i.e.

T
S (q , q )   S (q , q )
T
For any x , x S (q , q ) x  0
 Structure of Robot Dynamics

• In general, the dynamics of a robot manipulator has the

following form:

1 
H (q)q  ( H (q)  S(q, q ))q  G (q)  τ

2
Inertial force Centrifugal and
Coriolis forces Gravity Joint inputs

H (q ) : Symmetric and positive - definite inertial matrix.

1 T
q H (q)q is the kinetic energy  0
2
S(q, q ) : a skew - symmetric matrix
 x T S(q, q )x  0, x  R n
 Linear Parameterization of Robot Dynamics
The dynamics of the 2 DOF arm:
 I o1  m2 l12  0.25m2 l 22  I c 2  m2 l1l 2 c2 0.25m2 l 22  I c 2  0.5m2 l1l 2 c2 1 
   
 2 
2 2
 0.25m2 l 2  I c 2  0.5m2 l1l 2 c2 0.25m2 l 2  I c 2
  m2 l1l 2 s 2 (1  0.52 )2   (0.5m1  m2 )l1 gc1  0.5m2 l 2 gc12   1 
  2       
 0 . 5m l l s
21 2 2 1   0 .5 m l gc
2 2 12   2

1  I o1  m2l12  0.25m2l 22  I c 2 The parameters depend

Define  2  0.25m2l 22  I c 2 on mass, length, moment
 3  0.5m2l1l2 of inertia. They are the
 4  (0.5m1  m2 )l
 5  0.5m2l 2 physical parameters
 1 
 
 θ1
 θ 2 c2 (2θ1  θ 2 )  2 s 2 (θ1  0.5θ 2 )θ 2 gc1 gc12  2   1 
     
   3   

 
0 θ1  θ 2  
c2 θ1  s1θ1  2
0 gc12     2 
  4 
Y (q ,q ,q ,q
 ) 5 
The result can be generalized to n DOF robot manipulator β Parameter
vector