60 PART ONE History and Other Aspects of Group Development rant to the functioning of any type of, roup task, psychoeducational, counseling, and psychotherapy groups, discussion alloy, members to process information relevant to making decisions (Forsyth, 1999 Alternative courses of action can be considered more thoughtfully when the roy fs a whole discusses them. The amount of time spent in an active discussion o issues influences the quality of the group's decision (Laughlin, 1988). Sometimes groups will use their time unwisely and collectively engage in wha is known as the Law of Triviality (Parkinson, 1957). According to this law, the time 3 group spends discussing any issue is in inverse proportion to its consequences, Ro, example, in an hour-long. task group, 50 minutes might be spent talking aboy whether group celebration should be held on a Thursday or a Friday and 10 min. ties might be spent in planning the activities and considering 4 budget for the even, Group discussion is usually impor Members’ Roles ased on needs, cognitions, and A role is “a dynamic structure within an individual (bs values), which usually comes to life under the influence of social stimuli or defined positions” (Munich & Astrachan, 1983, p. 20). The manifestation ofa role is based on the individual's expectation of self and others and the interaction one has in particular d situations. For example, Mabel, a reflective and introverted person, ‘group. By so doing, groups an might take the role of a “group observer” in an active counseling she could give feedback to the group as a whole without exposing personal feelings. Every person has multiple roles he or she can fulfill. When groups change or when people change groups, roles are frequently altered. Roles are usually different from the overall identity of individuals. For example, persons may play certain roles in their vocational life, such as being a sales clerk or a computer operator, but not envision themselves exclusively as their occupation. Therefore, although Terri sells shoes, she does not consider herself as just a salesper son. Nevertheless, roles strongly influence how individuals act in a group (Shepherd, 1964). For instance, entrepreneurs may want to push their point of view regardless of how it affects their acceptance into the group. Sometimes roles become so strong, that persons have a difficult time separating themselves from the roles they play Such a situation may be enacted if persons mainly sce themselves in terms ofa role they played in childhood. For example, adult children of alcoholics (ACoAs) often play one of four roles to adapt to their environments: hero, scapegoat, lost child, OF mascot (Harris & MacQuiddy, 1991; Wegscheider, 1981). Unfortunately, in such circumstances, the persons may become trapped in dysfunctional ways of relating that will detrimentally affect them in all but psychotherapeutic groups. Types of Roles One way to conceptualize most roles in groups is to view them as primarily function ing in one of three ways: faciitativerbuilding, maintenance, and blocking (Capuz4i & Gross, 1992).CHAPTER3 Group Dynamics 61 A facilitative/building rote is one that adds to the functioning of a group in a posit ‘€ and constructive way. Members who take on such a role may serve as initiator S of actions and ideas, information seekers, opinion seekers, coordinators, orienters, evaluators, or recorders. Group facilitating and building focuses on helping everyone feel like a part of the group. Members who function in this way help the group develop while keeping conflict to a minimum, Group facilitators and builders do their best work during the initial formation of a group. For instance, in a task group, Dottie may take the role of being an opinion seeker, Before the group Moves on its decisions, she makes sure all views are heard by asking more quiet members for their input. A maintenance role is one that contributes to the social-emotional bonding of members and the group's overall well-being. When interpersonal communication in the group is strained, there is a need to focus on relationships (Wilson & Hanna, 1986). Persons who take on such roles are social and emotionally oriented. They express themselves by being encouragers, harmonizers, compromisers, commentators, and followers. For example, in a counseling group, Ned may help by serving in the role of a harmonizer as he assists members in seeing the differences they have and pointing out how these differences can give each group member a new perspective on the world, In group maintenance, group members are encouraged to openly express “both positive and negative feelings, supportive responses to member concerns and contributions, and acceptance of clfferences” (Shaffer & Galinsky, 1989, p. 25). A blocking role is essentially an antigroup role, Individuals who take this role act as aggressors, blockers, dominators, recognition seekers, and self-righteous morilists. For instance, thase who perceive themselves as outsiders, like Lucy who thas been placed in a psychocducational group for punishment, may actively attempt to keep the group from discussing a proposed topic. Such a member may also seck to divert attention away from the group’s goal by being negative and preventing the group from accomplishing anything. Fortunately, few members act out a pure role, Hansen et al. (1980, pp. 442-446) have compared two of the most prominent classifications of group member roles as described by Benne and Sheats (1948) and Bales (1951). Their classification differs at just described, but the basic roles and concepts they outline over- slightly from t lap considerably (see Figure 3.7). Problems in Carrying Out Roles Sometimes problems arise in the fulfilment of roles (Iare, 1962). Both internal and external factors contribute to these problems, and there is seldom a simple cause. Four major forms of role cificulties are role colsion, rote incompatibility, role confu- sion, and role transition. In role collision, a conflict exists between the role an in vidual plays in the outside world (eg, being a passive observer) and the role expected within the group (cg, being an active participant), In role incompatibility, a person is given a role within the group (ea, being the Jeacer) that he or she neither wants . Role confusion occurs when at group member simply derless groups in nor is comfortable exercisi does not know what role t0 perform. This often happens in le;62 PART ONE History and Other Aspects of Group Development The tasks undertaken by group members at this time help the group move toward accomplishing its goals, i it Roles Group Building and Maintenance (Positive Social-Emotional Roles) i r—In this ition, individuals play the role of a Facilitator or Encourager—In this position, f / ‘counselor's helper. They make sure everyone feels comfortable. Their motive often is to keep the focus off themselves. Gatekeeper or Expediter—Individuals in this role make sure the group operates within its proposed norms. They act like a counselor assistant and may generate hostility from others if they become too active. Standard or Goal Setter—This role is similar to that of gatekeeper, and individuals who take it push for establishing group norms and lofty goals. ‘They are often unsure of themselves. Harmonizer or Conciliator—These are group mediators who seek to keep conflict down and emotionally control the group. They are afraid of the group getting out of hand emotionally. Compromiser or Neutralizer—Persons who assume this role suggest cognitive solutions/altematives for group member differences. The same internal dynamics are probably occurring within them as with harmonizers; that is, they are afraid of too much emotion. Group Observer—These people provide feedback to the group by summarizing content or process within the group. They rarely participate directly in the group, though, because of the risk of exposing their thoughts and feelings. Follower or Neuter—The individuals who assume this role express a lot of ‘agreement with the group but are so unsure of themselves that they rarely offer their own opinions. Group Task Roles (Instrumental or Task Roles) Initiator-Energizer—Individuals who assume this is role prod the group to move and take action. They may be seen as hasslers. oor Gener aon ete role involves gathering more data, both gnitively, so the group may his Tole may push ober ee group may act. Persons who assume tl y ip members to disclose before they are ready. Information or Opinion Giver—P% r ~Persons in this role seek to give information, ecsica or open to others in the group. They assume they have correct pie eee, ‘They are offen annoying but can act as a catalyst t0 Figure 3.7 ‘classification of group membership rolesCHAPTER3 Group Dynamics P 3 Blaboraor a snd Cooter members in this position are reality , @ sure that the i i aoa group is, too. Their logic often gets in ‘ Orentorvalutor—Tho individual who assumes this role acts as the group's judge in evaluating how well itis doing in achieving its tasks, both uantitatively and qualitatively. * Procedural Technician—One ot more followers in the group may take this role, which involves concentration on the achievement of group goals. As such, this oes similar to the gatekeeper role previously discussed in the group-building ion. Individual Roles (Negative Social-Emotional Roles) Individuals who assume these roles are self-serving rather than group oriented. They lack solid interpersonal relationship skills and can benefit a great deal from a group. Yet, their presence within the group makes it difficult for the group to operate, Several of the most prominent of these antigroup roles as described by Vander Kolk (1985) are as follows: + Aggressor—This person disagrees with most group members’ ideas and behaviors. He or she may try to impose his or her ways on others. * Blocker—These individuals are very rigid about what should be discussed, and often they resist the wishes of the total group and impede its progress. + Recognition Seeker—The role consists of bragging and caling attention to self at the expense of others and the group in general. + Playboy/Playgi—The behavior of this person, for example, nonchalant or cynical, lets other group members know he or she is not invested in the group. * Help-seeker/Rescuer—People who assume the help seeker role elicit sympathy from the group and are dependent. Rescuers meet their own needs but do not really help members function better. + Monopolist—These individuals talk incessantly (because oftheir anxiety) ‘about issues only tangentially related to the group. They alienate other group members and must be controlled. + Do-gooderlinformer—The do-gooder wants to do what is right for others, whereas the informer wants to share information about someone in the group outside the group session, Both seek to enhance their image. + Withdrawn|Hostile Members—These individuals seek to avoid group interaction and participation by being silent or intimidating. Both behaviors result in greater self-protection. Figure 3.7, continued Source: Adapted from Group Counseling: James C. Hansen, Richard W. Warner, anc ‘Company, Used with permission. Theory and Practice (2nd ed., pp. 442-446) by Je J. Smith, Copyright © 1980 by Houghton-MiffinCHAPTER 3 Group Dynamics 57 Furth i : we Th exercises such as rounds provide the group leader with set tormao about the group and what needs to be done to move They increase the comfort level of participants and help them to relax and ave fun. Learning takes place best when itis enjoyable. ) asically, group exercises and games can be used anytime in the group process and May consist of different types, for example, written, "tal, art, movement, and joint Dossick & Shea, 1988, 1990). The important point to remember in using game techniques in groups is that timing and instructions are everything. A poorly timed event with unclear instructions may damage the group instead of promoting cohe- sion, insight, and movement. If employed too frequently, group exercises can nega- tively influence the group by taking the focus off its purpose. There are also some ethically questionable games and exercises that promote anxiety and do harm; Gazda (1989) thus advises that group leaders who use them do so cautiously.) _Sroup Interaction Group interaction can be described as the way members relate to one another. It consists of nonverbal and verbal behaviors and the attitudes that go with them. Group interaction exists on a continuum, from extremely nondirective to highly directive. For example, in some psychotherapy groups, members may be quite reserved and nondirect in their interactions with others, at least initially. In many task groups, however, members may be direct and verbal. The type of group inter- action (e.g., nonverbal, verbal communication) as well as its frequency makes a difference in how or whether the group develops. Each factor is examined sepa- rately here, even though none of these components operates in isolation from the others. Nonverbal behaviors make up “more than 50 percent of the messages com- municated in social relationships” and are usually perceived as more honest and Jess subject to manipulation than verbal behaviors (Vander Kolk, 1985, p. 171). The four main categories of nonverbal behavior, according to Vander Kolk, are body behaviors, interaction with the environment, speech, and physical appearance, Group leaders and members have many nonverbals to watch. For example, when Sue wraps her arms around herself, does it mean that (a) she is physically cold, (b) she is imitating Heather, of (©) she is psychologically withdrawing from the group? The meaning of nonverbal behaviors cannot be assumed. In addition, the eime nonverbal behavior from two different people may not convey the same mes- i ly associated with various group 1978) has charted behaviors frequent beanies main Nonverbal behavioral expressions should always be noted (See Table 3. oe i abo cruca ingroup dynamics. One of he tost important sabes in group work co track 1s who speaks (0 whom and how often each mem- variables in OUP asi, there are ways to chart such interactions, such ene 1 phenomenological methodology for investigating interpersonalCHAPTER3 Group Dynamics 59 relationships (Treadwell, Kumar, Stein, & Prosnick, 1997). For example, by using a sociogram (a tool of sociometry that plots out group interactions), a group leader might learn that Melissa addresses most of her comments in the group to one of three people. Such data might be helpful to the leader and the group in examining or modifying their interactions (see Figure 3.6). However, most leaders operate informally and map in their minds awareness of how group members speak and to whom. They also pay attention to silence and how it is observed and respected, It is difficult for some groups to deal with silence but less likely to be bothersome in certain psychoeducation and task groups in which members are not especially attuned to it. —— Mutual choice — Rejection igure 3.6 a Sega depicting choices and rejections of classmates.PP AE OPM MOLY IIT BUONO TBI WO} BUN ISUNOD ANOID UL nA 2? 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