Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly

The Canadian Journal of Metallurgy and Materials Science

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Low Temperature Physical Modelling of Slag

Foaming

A. Warczok & T. A. Utigard

To cite this article: A. Warczok & T. A. Utigard (1994) Low Temperature Physical Modelling
of Slag Foaming, Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, 33:3, 205-215, DOI: 10.1179/
cmq.1994.33.3.205

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1179/cmq.1994.33.3.205

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f!) Pergamon
Canadian Metallurgical
Copy(ight
Quarterly, Vol. 33, No.3. pp. 205-215. 1994
~) 1994 Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0008-4433/9457.00 + 0.00

0008-4433(93) E0004-0

LOW TEMPERATURE PHYSICAL MODELLING OF

SLAG FOAMING

A. WARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD

University of Toronto, Department of Metallurgy and Materials Sciences, 184 College Street,
Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada

(Received 21 January 1993; in revisedfarm 8 September 1993)

Abstract-In many metallurgical processes foamed slags are used to create large surface areas for multi-
phase reactions to take place, leading to improved process kinetics, heat transfer and energy efficiency.
However, there is still a lack of understanding of what controls the foamability of slags, and the maximum
utilization of foams has not yet been reached.
Low temperature physical modelling experiments have been carried out in order to investigate the
fOaming behaviour over a large range of gas flow conditions. Experiments were carried out at room
temperature using various water-alcohol and water-glycerol mixtures. The physical modelling experiments
show that the foaming index is a strong function of the superficial gas velocity, the mode of gas injection
and the physicochemical properties of the liquid. The foam decay measurements show that the "foam
stability" will be different depending on whether (i) the foam decay rate or (ii) the foaming index is used
as the criterion.

Resume-Dans plusieurs procedes metallurgiques, les laitiers mousses sont utilises pour creer de grandes
surfaces reactionnelles multi phases afin d'augmenter la cinetique du procede et l'efficacite du transfert de
chaleur et de l'energie. Cependant, il existe toujours une meconnaissance des parametres contr6lant la
moussabilite des laitiers et l'optimisation de ce procede n'a pas encore ete atteint.
Des experiences de modelisation physique a basse temperature ont ete entreprises afin d'etudier Ie
comportement moussant sous differentes conditions de debit gazeux. A la temperature ambiante, differents
melanges eau-alcool et eau-glycerol ont ete utilises. Les experiences de modelisation physique ont montre
que l'indice de moussabilite est fortement relie a la velocite du gaz superficiel, au mode d'injection du gaz
et aux proprietes physico-chimiques du liquide. Les mesures de resorption de la mousse ont montre que la
stabilite de la mousse est interpretee differemment selon qu'on utilise un critere (i) de resorption de mousse
ou (ii) un indice de moussabilite.

1. INTRODUCTION Interactions such as pressure shocks, gas diffusion, liquid drain-

The development of high-intensity metallurgical processes
requires in many cases a good understanding of slag foaming.
The future of several new ferrous and non-ferrous smelting
processes is related to in-bath smelting technologies [1, 2]. The
feed is introduced directly into the molten bath or together with
an oxygen-enriched gas. The bath is agitated by gases injected
by submerged tuyeres or by jetting on to the slag. The reactions
occur within a local three phase region of liquid, gas and solids,
where intensive mixing occurs. The very high heat and mass
transfer rates help to dissipate the smelting heat and promote
fast assimilation of the charge in the melt.
The injected gas and/or the gaseous reaction products may
induce slag foaming which is expected to be an integral part of
all in-bath smelting processes. Slag foaming phenomena have
been studied by several investigators [3-16] over a wide range of
conditions with various .slag compositions, additions of surface
active species, and over a range of temperatures. There appear
to be many similarities between the various experimental results
but there is still disagreement as to which physicochemical
properties are the most important [16].
Although foams are commonly found in several types of
industries and everyday life, there does not exist a general theory
to describe their behaviour [17-21]. The foam formation and
stability is determined by many different and varying factors.
205
age, bubble deformation, bubble motions, etc., between lamellae
and bubbles in the foam tend to destroy the system. The mag-
nitudes of these interactions depend partially on the properties
of the solution and on the conditions under which the foam is
formed and under which it exists. Therefore, the stability of
the foam will depend on a dynamic equilibrium between the
stabilizing and destroying forces. The foamability of various
slag mixtures may therefore depend on the operating conditions
and on the origin of the gas bubbles creating the foam.
Slag foamability can be described by the foaming index,
which was introduced by Bikerman [17] and adopted by other
researchers [8, 9, 16]. The foaming index is defined as:
where hF is the steady-state foam height and L's is the superficial
gas velocity (gas flow rate/cross-section area of the vessel). This
concept was introduced because of the observed proportionality
of the foam volume to the gas flow rate under steady-state
situations.
One very important question is whether the slag foaming
data obtained in laboratory experiments can be used to predict
the foaming behaviour in industrial scale metallurgical reactors.
As illustrated by Mukai [13], the range of superficial gas vel-
206 A. \VARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD:
Table I
Concentrations
Alcohols 1/5 Sat. 1/3 Sat.
Hexanol 0.012 0.022
Heptanol 0.0034 0.0057
Octanol 0.0008 0.0014
Nonanol 0.0002 0.0003
Decanol 0.000067
ocities used in laboratory scale experinlents varies from 0 to
0.05 m s - I, while in the case of steel making processes this value
varies from 0.1 to 5 m S-I. From a slag foaming point of vie\\'.
one important aspect of high-intensity processes is the gas jet
velocity. Laboratory scale values vary from 0 to 30 m S-1 while
supersonic lance velocities are experienced in some industrial
processes. It is known that the orifice diameter and the gas
velocity affect the gas bubble size [22. 23] which is one of the
factors controlling the foam growth and stability.
The mechanism of gas bubble creation has been of interest
for a long time and various models can be used to predict the
bubble size over a wide range of gas flow rates [22-29]. The
interaction between gas jets and liquids is important for the
kinetics of interfacial reactions. The induced stirring and emul-
sification accelerate the mass and heat transfer, intensifying the
smelting rections. However, there has been no research on the
influence of gas jetting on the slag foaming behaviour. It is
expected that the high gas flow rates during jetting into a liquid
may significantly change the foanl creation and stability. Exper-
imentally, it is very difficult to carry out laboratory scale inves-
tigations on the effects of high speed gas jets on the foaming of
liquid. Thus, it was decided to carry out room temperature
experiments on the foaming of liquids, the main aim being to
investigate foaming over a wide range of gas flow rates and
with various "gas injection modes.
2. EXPERIl\1ENT AL
A first series of foaming experinlents was carried out in vari-
ous water-glycerol and water-ethanol mixtures which by them-
selves would not foam. To promote the foaming, a surface
active detergent (Kodak Photoflow 200) was added to all these
solutions. The foanling experiments were carried out in a plexi-
glass container (55 x 75 x 300 mm) holding 300 nl1 of the liquid
mixture. To create the foam, air was injected through a glass
tube which was immersed vertically into the solution to a depth
of 20 nlm. The following variables were studied:
(1) water-glycerol mixture: 0, 25. 33, 50, 66 and 75 vol%
glycerol
(2) water-ethanol mixtures: 0,5, 10,20 and 30 vol % ethanol
(3) lance diameters: 1. J.D. = 4.0 nlnl O.D. = 6.0 mnl
2. J.D. = 2.0 nlm O.D. = 5.2 mnl
3. J.D. = 1.0 mm O.D. = 6.0 mnl
(4) air flow rates: 2.2, 3.7, 5.5, 8.7, 11.0, 13.2 and 16.5 I
min-I.
MODELLING OF SLAG FOAivlING
(111011- I)
1/2 Sat. Saturation 5 x Sat.
0.033 0.066 0.33
0.00S5 0.017 0.085
0.0021 0.0041 0.0207
0.0005 0.001 0.005
0.0001 0.0002 0.001
A second series of experiments \\"as carried out in \\"ater-
alcohol mixtures (hexanoI. heptanoI. octanoI. nonanol and
decanol) which foamed \\"ithout the use of a surface acti\"e
agent. To create the foam. a constant stream of air was injected
(a) through a top lance which was immersed \'ertically into the
solution at specifIc depths. (b) through a bottom lance and
(c) through a porous disc located at the bottom of the column.
The foaming experiments were carried out in a graduated
cylinder (I litre) holding 500 ml of the liquid solution. The
following variables were studied:
(I) lance inner diameters: 1.0. 2.0. 4.0 mm
(2) lance immersion depth: 3.5 and 8.5 cm
(3) air flow rates for graduated cylinder: 1. 3. 6. 9. 12 and
IS I min-I
(4) air flow rates for porous disk: same as above plus 1.3.
1.5. 1.8 and 2 I min - I
(5) relative alcohol concentration \\"ith respect to the satu-
ration limit (sec Table I).
A video camera was used to record the dynamic behaviour
of the foam. After starting the gas injection. the foam began to
grow until reaching a stable height. Using a scale (inches)
attached to the container (Fig. I). the steady-state foam height
was measured after 5 min. Owing to the gradual movement of
the foam surface at constant gas flow rate. the foam height
measurements are reproducible to approximately ± I5°/~. The
measurement of the foam height was repeated for difTerent flow
rates and nozzle diameters.
The measurement of the foam decay rate was carried out for
each liquid and each nozzle tested. After reaching the maximum
foam height for a given liquid and nozzle using the highest gas
flow rate. the air flo\\" was interrupted and the drop in the foam
height over two different time intervals was recorded.
3. RESULTS
The photographs in Fig. I illustrate the foaming behaviour
of water (plus one drop of detergent) for various orifice diam-
eters and air flow rates. \Vhen air \\"as injected at lo\\" flo\\" rates
(2.2 I nlin - 1) through a lance with an inner diameter of 4 mm.
large bubbles with diameters up to 10 mm were observed at the
surface (Series A). As seen in Series B. the usc of a 2 mm
diameter nozzle leads to increased foam height and foam density
and large bubbles are observed only in the surface layer. As
seen by the scale on the side of the container. the magniflcation
used is not the same for the pictures in Series A and B. In all
 A. WARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD:MODELLING OF SLAG FOAMING 207

(A)

d=4mm

2.2 5.5 8.7 11.0 IImin

(B)

d=2mm

2.2 5.5 8.7 11.0 IImin

(C)

d= 1 mm

2.2 5.S 8.7 11.0 IImin

Fig. 1. Foam creation in water containing 120 ppm -of detergent for different air flow rates and nozzle
diameters. The nozzle immersion was 2 em and the scale is in inches.

the experiments, the steady-state foam height increased with
increasing air flow. It was also observed that the foam along
the sides of the container consisted of the smallest bubbles.
At low flow rates, the use of the 1 mm diameter nozzle (Series
C) does not change the foam structure as compared with the
use of larger diameter nozzles. However, at flow rates above
5.5 -I min - I intensive foaming and emulsification occur. The
high kinetic energy of the jet increases the bubble frag-
mentation, creating a fine suspension of bubbles and a very
dense foam. At the highest flow rate (11 1 min- I) with a jet
velocity of 234 m S-I, intensive turbulence and emulsification
occur leading to the disappearance of the liquid-foam bound-
ary. The vessel is completely filled with a gas-liquid emulsion
with a gradual change in the apparent density from the bottom
to:the top.
The photographs in Figs 2 and 3 illustrate the foaming behav-
208 A. WARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD: MODELLING OF SLAG FOAMING

(A)

d=4mm

2.2 5.5 8.7 11.0 lImin

(B)

d=2mm

2.2 5.5 8.7 11.0 lImin

(C)

d= 1 mm

2.2 5.5 8.7 11.0 lImin

Fig. 2. Foam beha~iour in a 33 vol% glycerol-water solution for different airflow rates and nozzle
diameters.

iour of various water-glycerol solutions with 33 and 50 vol% remains clear with no sign of emulsification. Using the 1 mm
of glycerol, respectively. These experiments were carried out to diameter nozzle, we observe the creation of a fine gas emulsion
determine the effect of viscosity on the foaming behaviour. in the liquid at flow rates of 5.5 I min -1 and above. An almost
Figure 2 shows that in the case of the 4 mm diameter orifice, ~ identical behaviour was also observed for the 25 vol% glycerol
the foam grows proportionally with the flow rate and the liquid solution. As seen in Fig. 3, it becomes very difficult to create a
 A. WARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD:MODELLING OF SLAG FOAMING 209

(A)

d=4 mm

5.5 8.7 11.0 lImin

(B)

d=2mm

2.2 5.5 8.7 11.0 l/min

(C)

d=lmm

2.2 5.5 8.7 11.0 l/min

Fig. 3. Foam behaviour in a 50% glycerol-water solutionfor different air flow rates and nozzle diameters.

stable foam in the solution containing 50 vol? glycerol, and
with 66 and 75 vol'' glycerol no foam was formed under any
of the conditions tested.
3.1. Effect of chemical composition
The initial experiments showed that water-ethanol and
water-glycerol mixtures did not foam under any of the exper-
imental conditions.. It was only after one drop of a surface
active agent was added to the various mixtures that foaming
occurred. Figure 4 shows that for water-ethanol solutions, the
foaming index increases with the addition of ethanol up to 10
volo;O. With further increases of ethanol, the foaming index
decreases and no foaming was observed in solutions with 30
vol% or more ethanol. In the case of water-glycerol mixtures,
210 A. WARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD: MODELLING OF SLAG FOAivlING

4,--------------------------,

3.5 ---- -mI234 mls roo---oo- oo.---moo .. - -.mm- ~.u~::~

Water· Ethanol Mixtures;
~~sd'(:.r~~:.3 em's
0.8 - -
Hexanel
---.--..--
Immersion Depth = 3.5 em
Super. Gas Velocity = 5.3 cmJs

3 ..- ------- -.--

..- -------------
--.-.-------.-----
..----------
--.---- -.------.--.-
------- .

i 2.5 moo· 159 m's I-·- .. ·mm - -- ---- - ----- ._ _ m._._ moo _.. ._ m_moom
:§:
~ 0.6
-0
oS
-
Octanel
r.._ .. ===
__.~_=-_-===.
-0
c;
C
2 - ----.---- --..-.- ---..----- -- .----.-- ------.- -.---
..-.-.- -- -.------.-
..--- . g'
c '§ 0.4 .
'E ~
~ 1.5 -- -------------.-
..-.-.---------- -------- - ---- ------.-.--.. - -.-------
-- ---------

0.2 .-.

\15m1S I
0.5 ----.---------------------
-------
..----------
- -----.-----.-
--- -- --.-----
..-- ..--------
..-.------.--.---.-
..

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Concentration/Saturation Umit
5 10 15 20 25 30
Ethanol Content (Vol %)
Fig. 6. Foaming index of water-hexanol (heptano!. octanoL nommol
Fig. 4. Foaming index of water -ethanol solutions (120 ppm detergent) and decanol) solutions as a function of the relative alcohol con-
as a function of the ethanol content at a flow rate of 11 1 min - I with centration (actual concentration over concentration at saturation)
nozzle diameters of 4, 3 and 1 mm. The corresponding air injection when using a 2 mm J.D. top lance.
velocities are also given.

foaming behaviour of solutions is very complex and not easily

6,----------------- explained.
Bottom Porous Disk The present results are in general agreement with Bartsch [30]
Uquid Head = 7.0 em
5 - -- - .-------.---
..-- -- . Super. Gas Ve!ocity = 1.1 arJs .• who showed that. depending on the system. the foam stability
Hexanol peaked at a concentration of the surface active species cor-
:§: 4 .-.-.--- --..- ------- --..-.-.-.- -
responding to 5-30% of the concentration at saturation. \Vith
further additions. the foam stability decreased and the foam
became very unstable when the concentration approached satu-
ration. Since the surface tension decreases with increasing
additions up to saturation. the absolute value of the surface
tension does not. therefore. control the foaming behaviour.
This shows that there is no direct relation between foaming
and surface tension. As observed in this study \\'ith \\·ater.
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 5 ethanoL detergent and various long-chained alcohols. surface
Concentration/Saturation Umit
active substances are foam agents only under deflnite
Fig. 5. Foaming index of water-hexanol (heptanol, octanol, nonanol conditions.
and decanol) solutions as a function of the relative alcohol con-
centration (actual concentration over concentration at saturation) 3.2. Geometrical considerations
when using a bottom porous lance.
To study the foaming behaviour under various gas injection
schemes, the following conflgurations were used:
the foan1ing index decreases with increasing glycerol content.
(l) top lance (1. 2 and 4 mm J.D.)
In these experiments, the foam was created by a top lance and
(2) bottom lance (2 mm J.D.)
the superficial gas velocity was kept constant at 4.3 cn1 S-1 with
(3) bottom porous plug (80-150 Jim size range).
the use of nozzles with diatneters of 4,2 and I mIn. respectively.
in a second series of experiments the foaming behaviour of Using the following solutions (i) 10 ethanol in water plus %

water-hexanol, heptanol, octanol, nonanol and decanol solu- one drop of detergent. (ii) 1;'2 saturation octanol in water.
tions was studied using gas lancing or a bottom porous disk. (iii) 1/2 saturation hexanol in \\·ater. the foaming index \\'as
These alcohols have only a limited solubility in water and it measured at a fixed superficial gas velocity of 3.5 cm S-l for the
was found that they foamed without the addition of a surface above physical configurations. The results in Fig. 7 show that
active agent. Figure 5 shows the foaming index of various the foaming indices depend strongly on both the mode of injec-
concentrations of these solutions when a porous plug was used. tion as well as on the solution used. In the case of hexanol and
The foaming index decreases in the order from hexanoL octanol solutions. the foaming index was significantly higher
heptanol, octanol, nonanol to decanol which is also the order when using the bottom porous disk than when lancing \\'as
of decreasing solubility in water. Figure 6 shows the foan1ing used. The ethanol solution showed difTerent beha\'iour \\'ith the
index of various concentrations of the same solutions when the highest foaming index when using the I mm top lance.
gas was injected through a top lance. Although significantly
lower, the foaming index decreases in approximately the saIne 3.3. Effect oigas iJ~jccti(}11
rate
order. In either case, foaming did not occur beyond the satu- Figure 8 shows that the fOaIning indices for water-octanol
ration limits for hexanol, heptanol, octanol and nonanol and and water-hexanol solutions vary significantly with the super-
only decanol showed some foaming at a concentration 5 tin1es ficial gas velocity upon injection through the bottom porous
that of the saturation limit. These results den10nstrate that the plug. Initially, the foaming index increases rapidly \\'ith incrcas-
 A. WARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD: MODELLING OF SLAG FOAMING 211

18!..---------------------, 7011-------------;:::==================~
Bottom porous disk
16 ---. ~~~;.I!gl}!g.------------- injection into a water
60------------.--
octanol solution(1/2 sat.)
14

*12
w
] 1
OJ

.~ 8
ro
& 6·M-··----··------·--------··----···
20----------
-----.--------------.---
..----------------------------------------
----------------
-
5 em liquid head
4
10.--------
---.-----.---------------------------.----------------------
..---.---------
2
01+-"''--r-----r-----,-----.-----,--.-----,.----r---1
Ol-F=::IIIIIIIIJ~!::::;=
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Superficial Gas Velocity(cmls)

Fig. 9. Foam height of water-octanol (1/2 saturation limit) solutions

as a function of the superficial gas velocity and the amount of liquid in
the column.
Fig. 7. Foaming index of water-hexanol (1/2 saturation limit), water-
octanol (1/2 saturation limit), water-lO% ethanol solutions when using
(A) 2 mm J.D. bottom lance; (B) bottom porous plug; (C) 1 mm J.D. 10(h----------------------,
top lance; (D) 2 mm J.D. top lance; and (E) 4 mm J.D. top lance. 90 ----------------.------------------------------------- Bottom porous disk:
liquid head = 7.5 -10 em
80------------------.---------.-------.------------
..--------.-----------------------------------
14·..,.--..........,.,..--~----~-~-~---------,
70-----------
..----- ---..'*'------- -.-- -.. --- .. -.
E • + I 10% ethanol solution I
..-----.-.-----------------*-.-----.-.---.-----.------------.-------.-----.------------.--------
~ 60-- .
.§r 50 --------------------.-------------------------.-----------------------------------'!------------------.'!-

i12:::::::J:::~::_:::I-::::J::~':~E:-I:I:::::::_t=t=I::-:::-: :r:
~
•
40 -------.•----··... ---....• : •.. -------·----·- .•....•.• -----·1 33% glycerol solution r--------

'E ---. ----- i------------1----- ----t-··--------i-----·-·----t-----------t---·-------j-----------t--·--------

:: :::::::::::::::::::;~:~:::::::::::~:::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:
A tit A A A A

& 10 -----.------.,-=-----.--.-------------------.--- ..---.---.--------------.----~.-----------------:~-

+ ~II
, ::::--::l-m-m-::lm--n::t------j---::Jr-~lPJI---::---+--::---- oo • 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Superficial Gas Velocity(cmls)
-- -------r------I-------r------T-------r--- ~---------!---------T-----
Fig. 10. Foam height of water-l 0% ethanol and water-33% glycerol
solutions as a function of the superficial gas velocity.
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Supertieial Gas Velocity (em/s)

Fig. 8. Foaming index of water-hexanol (1/2 saturation limit) and

water-octanol (1/2 saturation limit) solutions as a function of the Bottom lance(2 mm 10)
15em liquid head

superficial gas velocity when using the bottom porous plug. The liquid 12--- injection into a water
octanol solution(1 /2 sat.)
head was 5 em.

E
~ 8 ...--------------.------------.----------------
. . ~9._~~_~~9!_!~9_~~_~::!
. ._..
ing gas injection rate before reaching a maximum at 2.5-3.0 cm C>
'Qi
s - I. Further increases in the superficial gas velocity lead to a :r:
E
decreasing foaming index. For both solutions the liquid head & 5 em liquid head

above the porous disk was 5 cm. As seen in Fig. 9 for a water-
octanol solution, the peak foam height increases with increasing
liquid head. However, the critical superficial gas velocity
remains fixed and independent of the liquid head. Similar
behaviour is observed in Fig. 10 also for water-ethanol and 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Superficial Gas Velocity(cmls)
water-glycerol solutions. Using a 2 mm J.D. bottom lance the
effect of the liquid head on the foam height is shown in Figs 11 Fig. 11. Foam height of water-octanol (1/2 saturation limit) solutions
as a function of the superficial gas velocity and the amount of liquid in
and 12 for water-octanol and water-hexanol solutions, respec- the column when using a 2 mm J.D. bottom lance.
tively. As opposed to when using a porous plug, it is observed
that the critical superficial gas velocity increases with increasing
liquid head. This is also the case for water-ethanol (l00/0) and
water-glycerol (33%) solutions. Although the foam height is height above a critical gas velocity, a series of experiments was
2-5 times larger for the water-hexanol solutions than for the carried out in which, after reaching a steady foam height by the
water-octanol solutions, the critical superficial gas velocity for use of a bottom porous plug, gas was injected into the foam by
a given liquid head is approximately the same for the two a top lance. In. the first series, a 10% ethanol-water solution
different solutions. was used. Foam was generated using a bottom porous plug at
To investigate the mechanism behind the decreasing foam a superficial gas velocity of 4.0 em s - I. As seen in Fig. 10, this
212 A. \VARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD: ivlODELLING OF SLAG FOATvlING

6·~--------------------r35
Bottom lance(2 mm ID) Combined bottom(porous disk) and top
60 injection into a water ........•........•.....•..•.....• . . lance injection into octanol·water. The 30
hexanol solution(1 /2 sat.) lance position was varied from 2 em into
the liquid to 20 em above the liquid.

15 em liquid head 25
E
u
E40 .
en
'Qj
I
E 10 em liquid head 15E
ell c:
~ ~
20 .
10

5 em liquid head

OI+--c:I""!.-.,---,---,----r---r--r---,----.--~
o 2 4 6
Superficial
8 10
Gas Velocity{cmfs}
12 14 16 18 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 2l
Overall Superficial Gas Velocity(cm's)

Fig. 12. Foam height of water-hexanol (1/2 saturation limit) solutions Fig. 14. Foaming index and foam height of a water-octanol solution
as a function of the superficial gas velocity and the amount of liquid in as a function of the superficial gas velocity during combined bottom
the column when using a 2 mm I.D. bottom lance. a~d top gas injection. \Vhile the gas flow rate to the bottom porous
dIsk was kept constant, an increasing amount of gas was injected
through the top lance.

is on the left side of the critical superficial gas velocity \\'here

foam height increases with increasing gas velocity. The results
in Fig. 13 show that when additional ;as was inj~cted into the
foan1 at various elevations. the foan1 height initially increased
before reaching a steady value. At superficial gas veI~cities (sum
of both streams) above 16 cm S-I. the foan1 height started to
decrease. This demonstrates that the foam Ina)' be....destroyed by
excessive gas injection. In the second series. a 1/2 saturated
octanol-water solution was used. Foam was generated using a
bottom porous plug at a superficial gas velocity of 6.0 em s':. 1.
As seen in Figs 8 and 9. this is on the right side of the critical
superficial gas velocity where foan1 height decreases with
increasing gas velocity. The results in Fig. 14 show that when
additional gas is injected into the foam. the foam height and
the foaming index start almost imn1ediately to decrease~ This is
consistent with the behaviour observed in Figs 8 and 9. Indeed.
the foaming indices reported in Figs 8 and 14 in the range from
6 to 18 em S-I are aln10st identical. These results indicate that
in cases where the foan1 height reaches a maximum. the foam
height is limited by the stability of the foam layer and that
increasing gas velocities lead to fOaIn destruction and decreasing
foam height.
3.4. Foam decay
In order to determine the foam stability. a series of foam
decay measurements was also carried out. Tile experiments \\"ere
carried out in such a \\"ay that after reaching a stable foam
height. the gas injection was interrupted and the time required
for the foam to decay to a single layer of bubbles \yas measured.
Upon foam decay. the last single bubbles could remain for a
signifIcant time period. and to obtain reproducible results it was
decided to measure the time until onl\' a single layer of bubbles
remained. Figure 15 shows foam dec~~\'time....\"s f~am height for
water-hexanoI. heptanoI. octanoI. no"nanol and decanol solu-
tions. The foam was generated either by injection through a
bottom porous plug or a top lance. \Vith the exception of the
decanol solution. the foam decay time is nearly proportional to
fOaIn height. This indicates that \\"hen a foam laver is formed.
the stability of the foam is nearly independent of"ho\\" the foam
is created (porous plug or top lance). Howe\·er. it must be noted
that the required superficial gas velocity to create a given foam
height was much higher for the top lance than for the bottom
.... porous plug. This is reflected in the results sho\\"n in Fig. 16
where the foam decay time is plotted \'s the foaming inde~ for

8:o-r---;:=========~-------~
Combined bottom 18:,-------------------~
and top gas injection ............•..•............•.......•.....••....•............... o 0
in 10% ethanol·water 16 g.:o ~.g ::: .
.••• 0 0 §@ 0

i:4:::~~~:~~=::::::~::~~~:::>:~
• • 4
.•...•...•.••••• ~ •••••••• }l( •••••.•.•.......•••••••• *. 1l'i.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••....•••

......
*.:.:
*: 5 ;* :; ~ • *
3
:2
* ; .. ;jK __ ..•.•••••
*. :t ..•• ~ ............~ 0 I Porous pug , ...
..*·i....•. ·.~..·.·· ~..~ ~................•..... )l(.)!( .•.••••• o
~
8
~ ...•.•...• 4 ...•...•
~ ....•. it" :.i.........................................................•............
4 ..•...•...•.
~ ..•.•• ..•...•.
i· ·
~ · ~ ~*
E
ell Dt. 4 ...•...• ~~ 0
0

....................
1: 10em above
.
*
~:::.l-~~n::::":::~::::::::~;:::I:=,i~·"=1
2: at foam level
3: 5 em into foam ..........•........•.....•....................•.....•...
4:5emabove

O-t:--.,---.---r--r---.----.,---,----,---l
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Superficial Gas Velocity(cmfs)
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Foam Height (em)
Fig. 13. Foam height of a water-10°;;) ethanol solution as a function of
t?e superficial gas velocity during combined bottom and top gas injec- Fig. 15. Foam decay time \"s foam height for \\"ater-hexanol (heptanol.
tIOn. The gas flow rate to the bottom porous disk was kept constant octanol. nonanol and decanol) solutions. The foam \\'as formed either
and gas was injected througn the top lance at various rates. by gas injection through a top lance or through a bottom porous plug.
 A. WARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD: MODELLING OF SLAG FOAMING 213

18:,.---------------------", indicate that while gas is injected and flowing through the foam,
>IE >IE

16----- ----.---
..-..
-- -.--------.~-~- * ~......
-.--
..~--- the foam is easily ruptured. However, upon interruption of the
)( >IE >IE *t >IE

14.-- ~ --.--- - -.----- - -··I····~·--····· gas flow the foam becomes very stable and decays very slowly.
Using the water-hexanol, heptanol, octanol, nonanol and

r---t~
_ 0)( >IE >IE >IE
~ 12'..""1<" .. "' .. " -·····)Ic·*·····················
~ + lance >IE decanol solutions, the average ratio is 5.7, which is a factor of
~ 10 I"""''"----,,~ ••---------------''-'''-------------------------- 10 less than when using the solutions with a detergent. The
~ 8···· ----- - ---------- -....... ..- . reason that the ratio is not unity is thought to be due to the
§ >IE >IE d~ ~~~~~~i~~ poor foam generation by the lance as discussed above. In the
o 6 ~ --)C.- •• -•••••••••••••••••••••••• ---- ••••••••••••• --- •••••••••••• ---- ••.•••••••
case of the porous disk experiments, the ratio is 1.5 for decanol

:
~ >IE~

and 1.1 for the other water-alcohol solutions and the foam can
- -::::::::::::_~:::~:::::::::::_:_:_::::_: :::::~::::-::::::::::::~:-:_:::_:::::~:::
__ be considered to be ideal.

o 2 4 6
Fig. 16. Foam decay time vs foaming index for water-hexanol (hep-
tanol, octanol, nonanol and decanol) solutions. The foam was formed
either by gas injection through a top lance or through a bottom porous
plug.
100
Surf. Act. Alcohol
Fig. 17. The ratio of average foam decay time over the average foaming
index for various conditions: (A) water-10% ethanol and water-33%
glycerol solutions with a drop of surface active agent; (B) water-
hexanol (heptanol, octanol, nonanol and decanol) solutions;
water-decanol; and (D) water-hexanol (heptanol, octanol and non-
anol) solutions.
the same solutions. In the case of the porous disk, the foam
decay time is nearly equal to the foaming index while when
lance injection was used, the foam decay time was significantly
larger than the foaming index. These results indicate that the
porous disk is much more efficient in creating foam than a single
lance. This is reasonable owing to the small pore size of the
disk (80-150 pm) as compared with the diameter of the lance
(1 mm).
Foam decay measurements were also carried out for the
water-ethanol and water-glycerol solutions (plus a drop of
detergent). Figure 17 shows average relative values of the foam
decay time over the foaming index for all the systems studied.
For the systems with the addition of a surface active detergent
and top lance injection, the ratio was 58-indicating a very
slow decay as compared with the foaming index. These results
8 10 12 14 16 18
Foaming Index (s)
4. DISCUSSION
The injection of a gas and solid feed materials into liquid slag
can induce slag foaming. A set of very complex phenomena
occur and the prediction of the foaming behaviour is nearly
impossible. Based on the properties of the liquid slag (viscosity,
density, surface tension, etc.) it is possible to predict only some
tendencies in the foaming behaviour. In the existing literature
describing laboratory investigations, the foaming behaviour has
been studied only at low gas injection rates with superficial gas
velocities from 0 to 0.05 m S-l. This is up to 2 orders of
magnitude lower than that experienced in some industrial pro-
cesses. Because the foaming characteristics cannot be fully
described by some specific liquid properties or by any given
equation, it becomes impossible to transfer the results directly
from this investigation to liquid slag systems. In the following
discussion an attempt is made to compare the trends and depen-
dencies observed in this study to that observed in liquid slag
systems.
The experimental results obtained in this investigation show
-----------/--\-------------- clearly that the foamability does not increase linearly with
increasing amount of the surface active component, or decreas-
ing surface tension. It was found that for the water-alcohol
Decanol Alcohol
solutions, the foaming index reached a maximum value for
a certain amount of the surface active component, before it
started to decrease with further additions of the surface active
component. This behaviour was also observed by Swisher and
(C)
McCabe [4] who carried out laboratory slag foaming studies in
the CaO-Si02 system with Cr 203 additions from 0 to 1.5 mol 0/0.
The foam decay rate reached a minimum value for a Cr203
content of approx. 0.25 mol%. Approaching saturation, in the
range from 0.8 to 1.20/0 Cr203, the foam stability is at a mini-
mum before it increases with increasing supersaturation. Hirata
et at. [31] found that the foam height increased with increasing
P20S content in the range from 0 to 1.0%. It is therefore clear
that the surface properties of the slag-foam have a strong
impact on the foaming behaviour. However, for the CaO-Si02-
Fe203/MnO slag system [32], the foam level reached a
maximum value near or at the Si02 saturation limit. With
further increases of Si02, which is a surface active con1ponent,
the foam height decreased. It must be noted that this behaviour
may also be due to the very high viscosity at Si02 super-
saturation.
Based on the experimental data from this investigation, it has
been demonstrated that the foam height does not necessarily
increase with increasing superficial gas velocity. For all the
solutions investigated, it was found that with increasing gas
214 A. \VARCZOK and T. A. UTIGARD: rvl0DELLING OF SLAG FOAi\'IIl\:G

flow rate the foan1ing index increased up to a maxin1un1 value
and then decreased with further increases in the flow rate. As
seen in Fig. 18 [16] this behaviour has also been observed for
liquid slags. The decreasing foam height at high gas flow rates
may be explained by bubbles within the foam being destroyed
rapidly by the Inomentum and turbulence of the gas. At
sufficiently high gas flow rates this destruction mechanism starts
to override the foan1 creation and the overall foam height will
decrease. If this observation is found to be of a general nature.
it may be possible to control industrial foalns by blowing
additional gas at the top surface of the foam. Although the
superficial gas velocities in a BOF may be as high as 6 m S-l.
which is a factor of 100 higher than those used in laboratory
slag foan1ing experiments [13]. it is interesting to note that the
foaming index data arc similar to those measured by several
investigators [5,9, 16] in laboratory investigations. This is some-
what surprising, considering that in these industrial reactors.
reactions take place, several condensed phases may exist. and there
are temperature gradients of hundreds of degrees celsius.
The results from this investigation demonstrate that the
foan1ing behaviour is affected strongly by the n10de 9f gas
injection. As expected, it was generally found that the foan1ing
index increased with decreasing bubble size and the highest
degree of foaming was created by the use of a bottom porous
disk. Although not investigated in this study. it is known that
the presence of solid particles may strongly afTect the foarning
behaviour. This foan1 stabilization may be due to the presence
of the particles themselves or by gas being generated by reac-
tions between the solids and the slag. leading to the formation
of a large nun1ber of small bubbles within the slag phase. To-
gether \'lith the complex behaviours observed in this simple and
straightforward roon1 temperature investigation. this dem-
onstrates clearly the complexity of foarning in industrial
processes.
velocity. superficial gas velocity. the mode of gas injection and
the physicochemical properties of the liquid. For all the solu-
tions tested, it was found that initially the foam stability
increased with increasing concentrations of the surface active
component. After reaching a maximum value. the foam stability
then decreased with further additions of the surface active com-
ponent until finally no foaming \vould occur.
Using various modes of gas injection. the highest values of
the foaming index were obtained using either the bottom porous
plug or the smallest lance (1 mm 1.0.). This is reasonable since
they would generate the smallest gas bubbles. increasing the
foam stability.
It was observed in several of the experiments that the foaming
index initially increased \vith increasing superfIcial gas velocity
before reaching a maximum value. Further increases in the gas
injection rate would lead to a drop in the foaming index. \Vhen
operating in this region of decreasing foam stability with
increasing gas injection rate. it was shown that the foam height
would decrease \vhen additional gas was injected into the foam
layer through a second lance. This indicates that the turbulence
and the momentum of the gas arc capablc of destroying the
foam and that this may limit the foam height.
Depending on the solution composition and the mode of
injection. it was found that the ratio of the foam decay time
over the foaming index \'aried from approximately 1 to 57.
\\Then foam was generated in water-hexanol (heptano!. octanol
or nonanol) solutions by means of a porous plug. the abo\'e
ratio was approximately unity. This indicates an ideal foam.
The other extreme case was obtained in wa ter-l 0% ethanol
(detergent) solution and top lance injection. These results sho\\'
that the foam breaks down easily when gas is OO\\'ing through
it and that it becomes very stable upon interruption of the gas
flow. An important aspect of these observations is that the
relative "foam stability" Inay diner depending on whether the
foam decay rate or the foaming index is used as the criterion.

5. CONCLUSIONS
AckIIOlr!cdgc/11cn!- The financial support prm'idcd by the Centre of
Chcmical Proccss Mctallurgy. NSERC and Ei\lR-CA~7\'lET is greatly
The physical modelling experiments show that the foaming appreciated.
behaviour is very complex and depends on the gas injection

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12:....--------------------..,
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