Chapter Two

2. Mathematical Modeling
of Physical Systems

By:- Mr. Tsegaye Paulos

 Chapter Contents
→Introduction to Mathematical modelling

→Laplace Transformation

→Transfer Equation

→Mechanical Systems Modelling

→Electrical Systems Modelling

→Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graphs

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 2.1 Introduction
• In studying of a control systems, we must be able to
model dynamic systems in mathematical terms and
analyse their dynamic characteristics.

• Mathematical modelling is the process of describing a

real world problem in mathematical terms, usually in the
form of equations, and then using these equations both to
help understand the original problem, and also to discover
new features about the problem.
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 How to study the system?

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• A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a
set of equations that represents the dynamics of the system
accurately, or at least fairly well.

• To understand and control complex systems, one must obtain

quantitative mathematical models of these systems.

• It is not unique to a given system. A system may be

represented in many different ways and, therefore, may have
many mathematical models, depending on one’s perspective.

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Model: is a simplified representation or abstraction of
reality. The reality is generally too complex to copy
exactly.
Model used for?
 Prediction/Forecasting
 Prognostics/Diagnostics
 Design/Performance Evaluation
 Control System Design
 Simulation
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The dynamic behavior is generally described by
ordinary differential equations.
The differential equations can be obtained by
utilizing physical laws governing a particular
system; for example, Newton's laws for
mechanical systems, Kirchhoff's laws for electrical
systems, etc.
We will consider a wide range of systems, in
mechanical dynamic systems.
Since most physical systems are nonlinear,
linearization approximations, which allow us to
use Laplace transform methods.
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 Laplace Transform method
• The Laplace transform is a method of solving ODEs and initial value
problems. It is the integral transform of the given derivative function with
real variable t to convert into a complex function with variable s.
• The crucial idea is that operations of calculus on functions are replaced by
operations of algebra on transforms.
• ODEs, we must first consider the Laplace transform of derivatives. For
suitable functions f, the Laplace transform is the integral:

Laplace Transform of Derivatives

• The transforms of the first and second derivatives of f(t) satisfy:-

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• Laplace transformation is a technique for
solving differential equations.
• Here differential equation of time domain form
is first transformed to algebraic equation of
frequency domain form.
• After solving the algebraic equation in
frequency domain, the result then is finally
transformed to time domain form to achieve
the ultimate solution of the differential
equation.
• In other words it can be said that the Laplace
transformation is nothing but a shortcut
method of solving differential equation.
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Why we need Laplace transform:
• In general, the control systems we analyze are
non-linear in time domain, such as the spring-
mass-damper system, or more complex machine,
ship.
• There are lots of integral and differential
operations.
• Their series or parallel connects would be very
difficult and complex.
• It is preferred to using some transform to convert
the non-linear operation into linear operation.
• The Laplace Transform is developed to solve this
problem.

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Some Functions ƒ(t) and Their Laplace Transforms

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 Ordinary Differential Equation(ODEs)
Linear systems: Linear systems are one in which the
equations of the model are linear.

A differential equation is linear, if the coefficients are

constant or functions only of the independent variable
(time).

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Non linear system: Non linear system are ones
which are represented by non linear equations.
Example:

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 2.1 Transfer functions
The transfer function of a linear time-invariant
system is define to be the ratio of the Laplace
transform ( transform for sampled data systems) of
the output to the Laplace transform of the input
(driving function), under the assumption that all
initial conditions are zero
Using Laplace transform, we can convert many
common functions into algebraic function of
complex variable s.
  at 1
 sin t  2 e  s    j
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s  2
sa 14
• Transfer functions: the ration of output
equation and input equation (already changed
to Laplace) under initial condition.

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• The basic idea of the transfer function comes from
looking at the frequency response of a system.
• The Laplace transform is a mathematical tool which is
useful in systems theory and which is the foundation of
transfer functions which is a standard model form of
dynamic systems.
• Furthermore, with the Laplace transform you relatively
easily calculate responses in dynamic systems by hand.
• Transfer functions are very useful in analysis and design
of linear dynamic systems, in particular controller
functions and signal filters.

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The main reasons why transfer functions are
useful:
• Compact model form: If the original model is a higher
order differential equation, or a set of first order differential
equations, the relation between the input variable and the
output variable can be described by one transfer function,
which is a rational function of the Laplace variable s,
without any time-derivatives.
• Representation of standard models: Transfer functions
are often used to represent standard models of controllers
and signal filters.
• Simple to combine systems: For example, the transfer
function for a combined system which consists of two
systems in a series combination, is just the product of the
transfer functions of each system.
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Simple to calculate time responses: The calculations will be
made using the Laplace transform, and the necessary
mathematical operations are usually much simpler than
solving differential equations.
Simple to find the frequency response: The frequency
response is a function which expresses how sinusoid signals
are transferred through a dynamic system. Frequency response
is an important tool in analysis and design of signal filters and
control systems. The frequency response can be found from
the transfer function of the system.

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2.2 Differential Equation of Physical Systems
Electrical Inductance Describing Equation Energy or Power
d 1 2
v 21 L i E  L i
dt 2

Translational Spring
2
1 d 1 F
v 21  F E 
k dt 2 k

Rotational Spring
2
1 d 1 T
21  T E 
k dt 2 k

Fluid Inertia
d 1 2
P21 I Q E  I Q
dt 2

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 Differential Equation…
Electrical Capacitance
d 1 2
i C v 21 E  M  v 21
dt 2
Translational Mass
d 1 2
F M v2 E  M v2
dt 2
Rotational Mass

d 1 2
T J 2 E  J 2
dt 2
Fluid Capacitance
d 1 2
Q Cf  P21 E  Cf  P21
dt 2

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 Differential Equation…
Electrical Resistance
1 1 2
i  v 21 P  v 21
R R
Translational Damper

2
F b  v 21 P b  v 21

Rotational Damper
2
T b 21 P b 21

Fluid Resistance
1 1 2
Q  P21 P  P21
Rf Rf
Thermal Resistance
1 1
q  T21 P  T21
Rt Rt

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 Six Step Approaches to Solve Dynamic System Problems

i. Define the system and its components

ii. Formulate the mathematical model and list
the necessary assumptions
iii. Write the differential equations describing
the model
iv. Solve the equations for the desired output
variables
v. Examine the solutions and the assumptions
vi. If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system
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 2.3 Mechanical Systems Modeling
Mechanical systems can be either translational
or rotational.
The fundamental relationships for both types
are derived from Newton’s law.
Translational systems analysis is based on
Newton’s second law: the sum of all forces
applied to a body equals the product of the
vector acceleration of the body times its mass.
The equation for Newton’s second law is, F=ma
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 Basic Types of Mechanical Systems
1. Translational or Linear Motion

2. Rotational Motion

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 Springs
Stiffness Element which Stores potential energy

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 Spring Connections
• Spring in series: KEQ=K1K2/(K1+K2)

Spring in parallel: KEQ=K1+K2

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 Dampers(Frictional) and Mass(Inertial) Forces

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Example 1: Develop the mathematical equation
for Automobile Shock Absorber shown below.
• Spring-mass-damper Free-body diagram

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Example 2:

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Example 3:

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• Example 4: Mechanical System

• Draw a free body diagram, showing all forces

and their directions
• Write equation of motion and derive transfer
function of response x to input u

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 Mathematical Modelling of Gear Trains
Gear is a toothed machine part, such as a wheel
or cylinder, that meshes with another toothed
part to transmit motion or to change speed or
direction.

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A most commonly used example of gear trains is the
gears of an automobile.

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 2.4 Electrical Systems Modeling
The fundamental relationships for electrical
system both is derived from Kirchhoff's law as
well as ohm’s law and Faraday’s law.
The circuit voltage is the sum of voltage
dissipated in all circuit elements through the
circuit is based on Kirchhoff's voltage law and
the sum of electric current of branched circuit
is zero based on Kirchhoff's current law.
The equation for ohm's law through resistor is,
V=IR
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Resistor: a device having resistance to the passage of an
electric current. In bellow the circuit model of resistor is
shown in Fig.

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 Inductor: a component in an electric or electronic
circuit which possesses inductance and
 Inductance is the property of an electric conductor or
circuit that causes an electromotive force to be
generated by a change in the current.

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Capacitor: a device used to store an electric charge,
consisting of one or more pairs of conductors separated by
an insulator. In bellow the circuit symbol of a capacitor is
given in Fig.

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 The system may be considered to be consisting of an inter
connection of smaller components or elements,
whose behaviour can be described by means of
mathematical equations or relationships.
 Most of the electrical systems can be modelled by three
basic elements: Resistor, inductor, and capacitor. Circuits
consisting of these three elements are analysed by using
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law and Current law.

Mesh equation for this

circuit is:-

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 2.5 Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph
i. Block Diagram: Pictorial representation of
functions performed by each component of a system
and that of flow of signals.

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1. Plant: A physical object to be controlled. The Plant G2(S)
, is the controlled system, of which a particular quantity or
condition is to be controlled.
2. Feedback Control System: A system which compares
output to some reference input and keeps output as close
as possible to this reference.
3. The Control Elements G1(S) , also called the controller,
are the components required to generate the appropriate
control signal M(S) applied to the plant.

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4. The Feedback Elements H(s) is the components required to establish the functional
relationship between the primary feedback signal B(S) and the controlled output C(s) .
5. The Reference Input R(s) is an external signal applied to a feedback control system in
order to command a specified action of the plant. It often represents ideal plant output
behavior.
6. The Controlled Output C(s) is that quantity or condition of the plant which is controlled
7. The Primary Feedback signal B(s) is a signal which is a function of the controlled output
C(s) , and which is algebraically summed with the reference input R(s) to obtain the
actuating signal E (s) .
8. The Actuating Signal E (s) , also called the error or control action, is the algebraic sum
consisting of the reference input R(s) plus or minus (usually minus) the primary feedback
B(s) .
9. The Manipulated Variable M(s) (control signal) is that quantity or condition which the
control elements G1(s) apply to the plant G2(s) .

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10. A Disturbance U(s) is an undesired input signal which affects the value of the
controlled output C(s) . It may enter the plant by summation with M (s) , or via an
intermediate point, as shown in the block diagram of the figure above.
11. The Forward Path is the transmission path from the actuating signal e to the
controlled out put C(s) .
12. The Feedback Path is the transmission path from the controlled output C(s) to
the primary feedback signal B(s) .
13. Summing Point: A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing
point. The ( +) or ( −) sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be
added or subtracted.
14. Branch Point: A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes
concurrently to other blocks or summing points.
Block Diagrams and their Simplification
Block diagram of a closed-loop system
with a feedback element.

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1. G(s) = Direct transfer function = Forward transfer function
2. H(s) = Feedback transfer function
3. G(s) H(s) = Open-loop transfer function
4. C(s)/R(s) =Closed-loop transfer function = Control ratio
5. C(s)/E(s) ≡ Feed forward transfer function.
For the system shown in Figure above , the output C(s) and input
R(s) are related as follows: C(s)=G(s) E(s).
Where: E(s) = R(s) –B(s) = R(s) - H(s)C(s)
Eliminating E(s) from these equations gives

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 Operations of Block Diagram and Transfer Function

block
summer pickoff point

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 Cont…

Y (s)  G(s) E (s)

E ( s)  R( s)  H ( s )Y ( s )
Y ( s)  G ( s )[R( s )  H ( s )Y ( s)]  G ( s ) R( s )  G ( s) H ( s)Y ( s )

Y (s) G ( s)
T ( s)  
R( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)

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 Cont…

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 Original Equivalent

A  A B A B C A  A C AC  B
 
   
B C C B

C

A  A B C
A  A B A B C

 

B B C

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 Original Equivalent
B
A A AG  B
A AG AG  B G G
G 
 
 1
B G
B

A A B ( A  B)G ( A  B)G
G A
 G 
 
B G
B

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 original equivalent

A AG AG
G A
G

AG AG
G

AG A AG
A G
G

A 1 A
G

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 Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is
having many blocks, summing points and take-off points.

• Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.

• Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.

• Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

• Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it

towards right.

• Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it

towards left.

• Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form

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Example 1

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Example 2

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 ii. Signal flow graphs
Signal-flow graphs are another method for visually
representing a system.

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 Cont…

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Exercise-1
Find Laplace transform and inverse of Laplace
transform of the following equations :
a) 𝒚ሷ + 𝒚ሶ + 𝟗 = 𝟎
b) 𝒙ሷ + 𝒙ሶ + 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟎
Exercise-2

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Exercise 3: Develop governing mathematical
equation and its transfer function

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Exercise -4

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Exercise 5: Consider the block diagram shown in
the following figure. Simplify (reduce) this block
diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

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 END!
//
THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENTION!

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