CATEGORIES OF

VARIABLES
 Categories of Variables

• Nominal Variables - if the categories cannot be ordered or

ranked.
Gender, Sex, Marital Status, Strand

• Ordinal Variables - if the categories can be ranked or ordered.

Physical Activity, Likert Scale, Socio-Economic Status
 Categories of Variables
• Interval Variables - are variables for which their central
characteristic is that they can be measured along a
continuum and they have a numerical value.
Temperature
• Ratio Variables - are interval variables, but with the added
condition that 0 (zero) of the measurement indicates that
there is none of that variable.
Weight, Height, Distance, Mass
VARIABLES
 Independent Vs. Dependent Variable
• Independent Variables are those that influence, or affect
outcomes in experiment. They are described as “independent”
because they are variables that are manipulated in an
experimental studies and thus independent of other influences.

• Dependent variables are those that depend on the independent

variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of
the independent variables.
 Predictor Vs. Outcome Variable
• PREDICTOR VARIABLES (also called antecedent variables)
are variables that are used to predict an outcome of interest
in survey method studies.

• OUTCOME VARIABLES (also called criterion or response

variables) are variables that are considered outcomes or
results of predictor variables in survey method studies.
PRELIMINARIES
ASSUMPTIONS FOR PARAMETRIC
TEST
• NORMALITY OF DATA
Kolmogorov Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk
• Equal Variances
Levene’s Test
Both should be greater than .05
PARAMETRIC TEST
 Parametric Test Vs. Non-Parametric Test
FOR TESTING THE DIFFERENCE
t-Test Independent Mann Whitney Test
t-Test Dependent Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
One Way-ANOVA Kruskal Wallis Test
One Way-ANOVA (Welch or Brown-Forsythe
FOR TESTING THE RELATIONSHIP
Pearson r (Both Continuous) Spearman’s Rho One Continuous,
One Ordinal
Kendall Tau b
 SAMPLE
INTERPRETATION
FOR TESTING THE
DIFFERENCE
 T-test Independent/ Independent
Samples Test
• A researcher is planning to compare the effectiveness of having test
preparation course before taking math exams. Determine which
group (with/without test preparation course) has the highest mean
scores in math and test its significance at 0.05 level. .503
• Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the
mean scores of the two groups (with/without test preparation) in
math.
Reporting the Output of the Independent t-test
The 31 students who completed the test preparation has a greater mean (M=68.35, SD=12.66)
compared to the 66 students who did not take the test preparation course (M=66.38, SD= 13.87). However,
this difference is not significant because the null hypothesis is not rejected, t(97)=-.672, p(.503)>0.05. In
other words, the test preparation course has no significant effect on the mean scores of students, despite
the higher mean of those who took it.
 T-test Independent/ Independent
Samples Test
• Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the
plants’ width of the two groups (with natural fertilizer and with
artificial fertilizer).

• Null Hypothesis: The plant’s width are equal.

Reporting the Output of the Independent t-test
The width of plant with artificial fertilizer has a greater mean (M=5.6117, SD=1.53890) compared to the
width of plant with natural fertilizer (M=3.5067, SD=.57092). Moreover, this difference is significant because
the alternative hypothesis is accepted, t(12)=-3.141, p(.019)<(.05). This only means that commercial
fertilizer contributes a lot to the width of plants compared to natural fertilizer.
 T-test Dependent/ Paired Sample Test

• A researcher is planning to compare the mean scores of the

students to see whether there is an improvement before and
after a particular interventions.
• Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between
the mean scores of the students before and after the
interventions.
 Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pretest 62.96 92 12.654 1.319
Pair 1
Posttest 67.64 92 14.323 1.493

Reporting the Output of the t-Test dependent

The results from the pre-test (M=62.96, SD=12.654) and post test (M=67.64, SD=14.323) scores before
and after the intervention program shows an increase of scores. This difference is significant because the
null hypothesis is rejected, t(92)=-14.551, p(0.00)<0.05. In other words, the intervention program resulted in
an improvement in the test scores of students in Math.
 Analysis of Variance/ ANOVA

• Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the

perception of the respondents on gender and development
concepts and their integration into classroom-based learning
when grouped according to strand.
Reporting the Output of the ANOVA
A one-way ANOVA was performed to compare perception of the respondents on gender and
development concepts and their integration into classroom-based learning when they are grouped according
to strand. It was revealed that there was a significant difference in their perception between at least one
group [F(4, 204) = 7.729, p=.000)]. Additionally, this difference in the perception is highlighted since STEM
strand students have shown greater variability in contrast to other strands. This means that students have
significant varying perceptions of these concepts based on their relevance, timeliness, inclusivity, promotion
of awareness and learners’ development as applied in the classroom-based learning.
FOR TESTING THE
RELATIONSHIP
 Pearson r/ Pearson Product Moment
Correlation (r)

•Null Hypothesis: There is no significant relationship

between the effects of bullying and the academic
performance of the respondents.
Reporting the Output of the Pearson (r)
A Pearson (r) correlation was run to determine the relationship between the effects of bullying and the
academic performance of the respondents. There was a positive low correlation between the identified
variables which was statistically significant [r 63 = .284, 𝑝 = .024]. Hence, the alternative hypothesis is
accepted, i.e. there is a significant correlation between the effects of bullying and the academic performance
of the respondents. It can be concluded that bullying can be identified as one of the reasons why a student
has low scholastic performance. However, we cannot actually say that this directly affects their performance
in totality since the test only projected a small correlation between the variables.
NON-PARAMETRIC
TEST
FOR TESTING THE
DIFFERENCE
 Mann Whitney U Test

• Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the

height of the plants (with/without rice water fertilizer).

• Null Hypothesis: The mean height of the plants are equal.

Reporting the Output of the Mann-Whitney U Test
It can be observed in the table above that there is a sizeable difference between the mean ranks of the
plants’ height with and without rice fertilizer. The Mann-Whitney U test obtained a Z score of -2.337 and a 2-
tailed p-value of.019. Since the p value is less than 0.05, this is considered a statistically significant result.
Therefore, rejecting the null hypothesis holds that there is a significant difference between the height of the
plants with and without rice water fertilizer. This only means that rice water fertilizer contributes a lot to the
height of plants compared to those who did not receive any fertilizer.
 Mann Whitney U Test

• Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in the parental

engagement of IP parents when attributed to sex.

• Null Hypothesis: The means of parental engagement are equal.

Reporting the Output of the Mann-Whitney U Test
It can be observed in the table above that there is a small difference between the mean ranks of the male
and female in terms parental involvement, financial support, and parent-teacher involvement. The Mann-
Whitney U test obtained Z scores of -.237, -.100, and -.749 with 2-tailed p-values of .813, .920, and .454
respectively. Since the p values is greater than 0.05, this is considered not statistically significant results.
Therefore, accepting the null hypothesis holds that there is no significant difference between the parental
engagement of the IP parents towards the education of their children. This only means regardless of sex,
there is similarities on how parents are involved in the education of their children.
 Kruskal Wallis Test

• Null Hypothesis: There is significant difference in the parental

engagement of IP parents when attributed to occupation
Reporting the Output of the Kruskal Wallis Test
A Kruskal-Wallis H test showed that there was no statistically significant difference in the
perception level of parental engagement of the IP Parents when group according to
occupation in terms of: parental involvement, X2(6) = 4.307, p=.635; financial support,
X2(6)=6.842, p=.336; and parent-teacher involvement, X2(6)=4.853, p=.563. This means that
regardless of the differences in occupation, there is similarity in their parental engagement
towards the education of their children.
FOR TESTING THE
RELATIONSHIP
 Spearman’s Rho

• Hypothesis: the greater the effects of online gaming, the lower the
academic performance of the students
• Null Hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between the
effects of the online gaming and the academic performance of the
students.
Reporting the Output of the Spearman’s rho
A Spearman’s rank-order correlation was run to determine the relationship between the
effects of online gaming and the academic performance of the respondents. There was a
moderate negative correlation between the identified variables which was statistically
significant (𝑟𝑠 49 = −.507, 𝑝 = .000. Hence, the hypothesis is accepted, i.e. the greater
the effects of online gaming, the lower the academic performance of the students. It can be
concluded that one of the factors affecting students’ performance is online gaming.