aiceseonens digest Pumps and Valves for Snow Generation (rage 2) Pumps and Systems Pumps for Heat Transfer Applications (Page 8) Materials Technolog The Significance of Nickel and Molybdenum in Steel (Page 16 xsB b,Pumps and Systems Fig, 1: Global warming costing the Alps thei sow: Pumps and Valves for Snow Generation According to current climate forecasts, the next 25 to 50 years will see the guaranteed-snow boundary in skiing areas recede from 1200 to Arnold Ofner Christoph P. Pauly \ Va ’ NS Fig, 2: Snow cyst 1500 metres above sea level (Fig. 1) jout snow, though, winter sports are impossible. Consequently, more and more skiclft operators in the Alps are installing snowmaking systems, ‘The basic technology was developed in the USA in the 1950s, Nowadays, 90 percent of al ski resorts have taken to producing artificial snow. More than 1500 snowmaking systems arein operation around the world, and roughly 500 of them are located in Europe. How does natural snow form? [Natural snow forms when a mass of mois, warm air encounters a cold layer (stratum) of air and cools down as a result. The air cooled this way is no longer able to hold the moisture that was in it before. The moisture precipitates. Ifthe surrounding temperature is extremely low, the precipitating water will begin to crystallize. If particulate matter (dust) is present, erystalliza~ tion will be triggered more quickly. The crystals descend through a number of different air strata with different moisture levels and temperatures and gradually assume the kind of shape we know as snow (Fig. 2). How is artificial snow made? ‘The generation of snow by mechanical means cop- ies the process that was just described. There are, however, certain differences: the temperature of the water used for making snow must be above 0°C. Otherwise, it would freeze on its way from the water tank to the snow gun. This means that the crystal nuclei (= seed crystals) needed for ‘converting the water into snow first have to be artificially generated by atomizing jets of pure ‘water in spray nozzles mounted on the snow gun. In the short time between the droplets’ ejection from the nozzles and their landing on the ground, they have to turn into crystals of snow. That, in tur, requires rapid super-cooling. Snowmak- ing works all the better the lower the ambient techno digest No, 12, anuary 2006 © KSB Aktiengeselchafttemperature and humidity: If the temperature is above -5 °C (21 °F), only very little water ean be passed thro and ifthe agiven snow gun perature rises above -3 °C (27 °F), snowmaking becomes uneconomical, Cold, dey air provides optimal conditions for making snow. The snow should beas “dry” and light as possible in order toachieve the favourable physical characteristics of high air permeability, low thermal conductivity and low icing tendency Two kinds of snowmaking systems ligh-pressure snow guns or snow lances (Fig. 3) Snow lances are often used on steep, poorly ac. cessible slopes. A central compressor station and a system of supply lines provide compressed air and high-pressure water to the individual lances, i.e. the hydrants only have connections for air and water no electric power is needed. The water is atomized as it emerges from the water no7- ale ‘ompressed air is blown into the atomized water. As the air emerges from the air nozzle, it expands and cools practically instantly. The resultant cold shock produces ice nuclei (or seed nuclei) around which crystals of snow can form, Snow lances stand as much as 10 metres high in order to give the precipitation enough time to form snow crystals before it falls to the ground, The disadvantage of lances is that wind can keep the snow from landing where the ski run operator Low-pressure blower / propeller-type snow guns (Fig. 4) Blower-type snowmaking machines have their ‘own compressors for producing the required com pressed ait, Consequently, they need both high: pressure water and electricity from their hydrants, bur no compressed air. The pressurized water and the compressed air are mixed together in a sprayer As the mixture emerges from the sprayer, the pres surized air expands and cools both the water and the surrounding aie. This produces ice crystal (nu clei). At the same time, atomized water is ejected froma ring of nozzles surrounding the nucleator nozzle to help the ice crystals turn into snow crys- tals. A large fan blows the mixture high up into the air to maximize the time available for snow techno digest 0 a exystals to form. Most propeller-type snow guns models that are hauled to the desired are mobi connecting point on the slope by helicopter or snoweat vehicle, Subterranean hydrants at the connecting points allow their pinpoint positioning to get the snow where itis needed. Fig, 3: High-pressure snow guns or snow lances Fig. 4: Lowpressure snow gu‘Water + energy = snow ‘The water needed for generating snow is taken from open waters, a reservoil ceven the local drinking water supply system. Any storage pond) or Fig. 6: Water io with suction heed condtions SORA omccmeamet Reservoir storage pona| ‘stream Fig. 5: Schematic cagram of a snowmaking system water taken dircetly from the latter, as well as groundwater, would he too warm for snowmak ing purposes and therefore has to be cooled down ntl, it is much easier to beforehand. Consequ draw water from a storage pond, where the water cools down by itself (the colder the weather, the better) and significantly reduces the overall energy requirement. Also, storage ponds can serve as re tention basins for surface runoff, hence helping to preventerosion. A typical snowmaking system and 2.8 kWh ly snow-covered ski id de sign of the system. A large system can consume consumes somewhere between 0. per square metre of artific run (30 em deep), depending on the size a 500,000 kWh or more ina season. That is roughly the same as the anm | power consumption of a yeat-round actficial ice rink,Pumps and valves Snowmaking systems (Fig. 5) havea low-pressure section and a high-pressure section ‘The low-pressure section comprises the water extraction, filtration and flow-merering equip- ment. If the water is taken from a lower point, submersible motor or borehole pumps are needed. The type of pump actually employed depends on the local terrain and, hence, the required head, as well as on how contaminated the water is. IF the water comes from a stream, iis likely to be contaminated with sand and gravel, Dry-installed process pumps (Fig. 7) are practice-proven for water catchment under suction head conditions (Fig. 6). Since all of the pipes are normally of ample size, so that the pressure stays below 16 bar, soft-seated, symmetric butterfly valves mostly used, The high-pressure section naturally includes the multistage pumps (Fig. 8) and their accompa- nying minimum flow, shut-off and drain valves. The hig ranging up to 250 mm, and the system pressures “pressure valves have nominal diameters are around 100 bat. Indeed, the pump discharge pressure cannot be any higher due to the hydrants and other field equipment. Consequently, shut-off valves and gate valves made of steel and belong, ing to pressure class PN 100 are used here most frequently (Fig. 9. High-pressure pumps for snowmaking applications c the required flow rate of Before weean calcula the pump or pumps to be used in a snowmak ing system, we first have to determine how much snow will be needed. The answer to that question is the product of the run’s surface area, in square metres, and the targeted depth of snow: Good skiing requires a snow depth of some 30 t0 40 centimetres. Artic gravity of 400 to 500 kg/m’, With water weigh- ing approx. 1,000 kg/m’, the water / snow factor figures to between 2.0 and 2.5. Dividing the re- quired volume of snow [m] by the water / snow snow asa specific factor, we arrive at the required water volume [m']. Next, we have ro decide how long it should take to apply the shere between 70 and 100 hours. ng the required water volume {m'] by tial snow cover. Normally, it will take son Now, divi the time (h] needed for applying the initial snow techno digest No. 12, anuary 20 \tiengesels Fig. 8: Highpeessvre gate valve (AKG)Pumps and Systems cover, we arrive at the requisite flow rate [m/s]. Finally, the discharge head {h, ]of the high-pres- sure pumpis obtained by adding the geodetic head Ih, and the pipe feiction (head) losses [h,..]t0 the required snowing pressure [h,,. atthe highest point (150 to 200 m). P= By Pe Bl Example: Area of ski run requiring snow: 10 ha Duration of initial application: 75 h Initially applied snow depth: 0.35 m Waterlaetifcia-snow factor: 2.25 Requited flow rate ~ 207 m'sh [~60 Vsec] Geodetic head: 400 m Required snowing pressure: 153m Pipe di Pipe lenge Example calculation of fluid warm-up in a pump when producing the total flow rate and discharge head ‘with one pump / two pumps (discharge head: 580 m). Q P a S ° CRT caer i meee menatrnie Selected pur i. a iin P.(-) At= ——___ OuiGhp KSB Full load 4.187 20°C= cy Withone "type" cperaton S01s#¢ 75% yg degree 1000 kom? At= 0.43 °C speed- : pum pet, Lowtow hig) 20 ereestt 1susec se FERN oie At=2.64°C Xe pane fulnd a 20% : mer iecicmeen OBER ™ done oto Hau Ala Oetic speed Lowflow 4187 20°C= w PUMPS controled cperaton SUC WRTIOW 57% — ys tree 1000 kgm? At= 1.03 °C techno digest No, 12, January 2006 © KSB Aktiengeseischalt‘+ Pipe material: cast iron with cement mortar lining + Coefficient of pipe roughness, k: 0. + Pipe friction losses ace. to Moody (60 Usec] ~ 30 m + Required discharge head ~ 583 m ‘The pump input power figures according to the {following well-known equation: Qim*/H] x Him] Pra (KAW = 367 X 7 error P.,= 460 kW Required motor rating: 500 kW. Heat problems under low flow conditions Duc to the rough treatment that ski runs have to contend with, today’s operators cannot avoid adding artificial snow at practically any outdoor temperature. Unsteady weather conditions and fluctuating relative humidity levels call for appro- priately adjusted snow-gun outputs. The warmer the weather, the less water that can be turned into snow. Frequently, this means that the pumps will have to run under low flow conditions. The resultant loss of efficiency tends - undesirably -to ‘warm up the pumped medium. In a large pump, the heat gain can be as much as 3 °C, and that can be quite disadvantageous when the outdoor temperature is hovering around the freezing point. ‘Consequently, itis often a good idea to connect ‘several pumps in parallel, so each individual pump can be kept operating at or near its best efficiency point, Mozeover, several pumps can provide more total throughput eapacity than can. single pump. ‘The required total pump input power remains unchanged. Another aspect that speaks in favour of equipping a snowmaking system with several high-pressure pamps is the resultant gain in oper- ating reliability. Even ifone pump unitshould fail, the system can at least remain in operation, ifnot at full output, Considering how the natural snow season is becoming shorter and shorter, major ‘economic damage can result from the outage of a single high-pressure pump. The multiple-pump ‘option also keeps the temperature rise much lower during low flow operation. With regard to the higher investment cost, however, parallel opera- tion can only be recommended for systems with total throughput of more than 40 litres per see- ‘ond. In principle, the gain in temperature can also be countered by use of a speed control system. Summary ‘Due to ongoing climate change, no winter sports region can get along without snowmaking equip- ‘ment. Experience gathered over the past few years shows that it is always a good idea to include enough pump power to cover future develop- ‘ments, to. This will ensure that there is adequate pump input power available should the number of snowmaking units be increased. Thus, when selecting the pump hydraulic systems, care should always be taken to make sure that the units will be able to cope with low flow conditions. In that connection, speed control presents itself asa good solution. The very first speed-controlled pumps for snowmaking systems were installed by KSB in Austria in the early 1980s techno digest No. 12, January 2006 © KSB Aktiengeselischaft Pumps and Systemsmps and Systems Pumps for Heat Transfer Applications Industrial and technical processes nearly always involve the release or absorp- Helmut Arneth Stefan Dotsch Fuel Exhaust gas Primary recirculation pump Filling pump tion of energy. By reason of their high specific heat capacity, water and steam are used for transferring heat at temperatures between 0 °C and 200 °C. At higher temperatures, i.e., between 200 °C and 400 °C, most plant operators use thermal oil for heating and cooling purposes. Diverse types of heat transfer fluid, a.k.a, thermal fluid, are available for use, depending on the tended application. While the details of the vari- ‘ous processes may diverge widely, the transfer of heat always follows one and the same principle. The make-up of a heat transfer cycle Let us assume that a certain quantity of heat has Flash orifice to be moved froma heat generator to aconsumer installation. The thermal fluid serves as the trans- port medium. A centrifugal pump is sed to make the hot or cold fluid flow along the walls of the heat exchanger It is through those surfaces that the heat enters or leaves the system. There are three different modes of operation for processes employing thermal fluids: Consumer installations Condensate tank Condensate pump Storage tank Fig. 1 Instalation employing a vapour phase eat tarsfer fd techno digest No, 12, January 2006 © KSB Aktiengeselsch‘+ below the boiling poine in the liquid phase, in unpressurized systems ‘+ above the boiling point in the liquid phase, i pressurized systems + in the vicinity of the boiling point in the vapour and liquid phase (Figs. 1+2), either in pressurized systems or under vacuum conditions. ‘Thanks to their lower investment and operating costs, unpressurized systems are preferred by most plant contractors and operators. Pressurized sys- tems are more expensive, because all components and piping have to be designed to cope with higher system pressures. Ifa uniform remperarare has to be guaranteed at the consumer installations - ina spinneret or in a shell-and-tube reactor, for ‘example - the thermal fluid is kept in its vapour- liquid phase. All three versions are found in actual practice, of course, and all three have different consequences for the structural design of the ‘mechanical seals used on the centrifugal pumps that are needed for keeping the heat transfer cycle in motion, Heat transfer medium Water is the most well-known and widely em- ployed heat transfer medium. At temperatures between 0 °C and 100 °C, icis an ideal thermal fluid. No other liquid can offer such good heat transfer properties within that range. At tempera- tures beyond 100 *C, however, the water eyelere- uites pressurization. The real drawback of using ‘water, though, i that its vapour pressure increases rapidly above 100 °C (Fig. 3). Attemperarures as low as 200°C, the system must be pressureproof to PN16, and at 250 °C the pipes, valves and pumps must be designed to handle an operating pressure of 40 bar. Water has another drawback inthe form of corrosion and encrustation (furring) problems. This necessitates the upstream inclu- sion of water treatment equipment,and extensive safety requirements must be satisfied. In order to avoid such drawbacks, organic heat transfer fluids are used at temperatures beyond 200 °C. Advantages over water ‘Their high boiling point at atmospheric pressure ‘enables the use of unpressurized systems up t0 350°C; the component materials do not corrode ‘Consumer installation N, Expansion vessel Heater with burner -o— ‘exhaust 995 primary e recirculation Filling pump pump ig 2: installation employing aliquid phase heat transfer fid or crust up; the heat transfer fluid requires no pretreatment, and since no volumetric expa ‘occurs due to solidification at low temperatures, no frost damage need be feared. Drawbacks in comparison to water At the same temperature, a litre of water con- tains roughly twice as much heat as does a litre of thermal fluids hence, in order to transfer the same quantity of heat, either more oil has to be pumped oa larger differential remperature gener- ated between the supply and return lines. Also, thermal oil is detrimental to health: in case of a leak, itean irritate the cyes and/or espiratory tract - and it gives off disagreeable odours. ‘Types of heat transfer fluids Most heat transfer fluids now on the market have a service temperature range of 50 °C0-+400°C. Depending on the technical and economic situa- tion, users can choose between myriad different thermal fluids, with heat transport and heat trans- fer properties, thermal stability and low-ternpera ture behaviour as major selection evteria. Theze are four groups of heat transter fluids: ase thermal fluids ‘This group includes all eat transfer fluids that big cil companies make from crude oil in multiple- techno digest No. 12, January 2006 © KSB Atiengesellschat Pumps and Systems ‘Consumer installation Secondary q recirculation pump Condensate tankPumps and Systems 114 7 Heating range Bolling point H,0 ‘100 320°C 450 Solidification point 470 200 250 © 300320 360 Initial boiling point (BP) ‘Applications: cooling and heating processes Fig. 3 Comparson of the pressure behawour of stem and thermal of step fractionating and distilling processes. They are always used in their liquid phase. Their ser- vice temperature range ends at about 300°C. Two different kinds of mineral cil are distinguished, depending on which group of hydrocarbons forms. the principal componen ‘+ paraffin base thermal fluids with saturated, linear or branched hydrocarbons ‘© naphthalene base thermal fluids with saturated, cyclic hydrocarbons. ‘synthetic organic thermal fluids “Thesynthetic-organie group of thermal fluids con- sists mainly of mixed isomeric and homologous hydrocarbons with aromatic bodies. Petrochem- ists systematically manipulate ther properties with deference tothe envisaged end products through techno digest No, 12, January 2 ‘careful selection of starting materials and control of reaction conditions. For example, the freshly synthesized fluid may be physically distilled or cleansed to remove undesirable by-products oF components, Actually, the term “synthet misleading, because all such fluids are based on crude oil, Their maximum service temperatures range between 300 and 400°C, Thermal fluids comprising a uniform substance or mixture Only few thermal fluids belong to this group. ‘The most well-known member of the group isa mixture of diphenyl (26.5%) and diphenyl oxide (73.5%). These fluids can also be used in their vapour phase. Their maximum service tempera- ture is situated at about 400 °C. If they are used in thei liquid phase at temperatures of approx. 255 °C ot higher, these thermal fluids require a nitrogen gas cushion to keep them from boiling Ac any temperature below that level, unpressu- rized liquid-phase service is feasible. Silicone base oils Silicone base oils are a special case. Their ther ral stability is superior to that of synthetic heat transfer fluids, Consequently, while they do cost more, they are worth it in the long run, Properties of organic thermal oils Thermal stability (decomposition) Allorganie thermal oils decompose under exces- sive thermal loads, leading tothe formation of gas- cous products (primarily hydrogen or methane) along with low and high boiling reaction prod- ucts, The gases and pare of the low boiling reac tion products are extracted from the system via an ‘expansion tank in the course of the process. The high boiling decomposition products, however, form heavy, asphalt-like substances that adhere to the tube walls as a solid, insoluble, coke-like residue, The decomposition process is tempera ‘ture dependent and begins as early as 50°C below the maximum supply temperature of a thermal fluid. In actual practice, decomposition becomes apparent ar the following temperatures: ‘+ 250 °C for mineral oil base heat transfer fluids and alkyl benzenes 6 © KSB Aktiengeselschatt+ 300 °C for partially hydrated terphenyls, dibenzyl toluene and benzyl toluene #350 °C for Diphyl and terphenyls Decomposition accelerates rapidly in the upper temperature range, where an increase of only 10°C suffices to double the decomposition rate. Accordingto DIN standard 4754, the temperature should be chosen such as to keep the thermal fluid in serviceable condition for at east one year. The othe circulating pumps. Coke-like residue in particular decomposition products can cause dam: damages plain bearings and the contact faces of mechanical seals, Oxidation or ageing Different organic heat transfer media react more ith atmospheric oxygen, i.e, they oxidize to an extent that depends on their or less strongly individual description. Such systems can be pro- tected against oxidation by keeping the expansion tank filled with nitrogen ata slight pos sure. This keeps air from entering the system. In cold condition, heat transfer fluids absorb more oxygen than in warm condition, Consequently, itisimportantto ensure uninterrupted exclusion ‘of oxygen from the fluid as long as it is in stor. age. Otherwise, oxygen would be able to enter the system whenever the fluid fill is replenished. ‘The formation and precipitation of polymeriza tion products as sludge is a process referred to as ageing, Heat transfer fluids readily creep and, when leaking out at the shaft seal, will form car bon deposits (carbonized oil) if the temperature is higher than 80 °C. The carbon residue collects between the contact faces of mechanical seals and destroys them. The reason that heat teansfer fluids are so ready to creep is that their surface tension is lower than that of water. Fig. 4 shows a mech- nical seal exhibiting carbon residue. Excessi temperatures in combination with ambient ait contact ead tothe formation of eracked produets and, hence, leaky mechanical seals. So, for the proper functioning of a heat transfer system, it is very important to choose both the ri and the right shafe seals. pump Pump types for handling organic heat transfer fluids According to DIN standard 4754, circulating pumps used for conveying heat transfer luis at atmospheric pressures above or below the boiling, point must be designed fora nominal pressure of 16 bar, and they must be equipped with a proven type of shaft seal and a long cooling path, Process pumps with mechanical seals in ac- cordance with EN 733 This engineering design (Fig, 5) is based on the standardized water pump according to EN 733, the mechanical seal of which is separated from ps hot the pul xerior by a long cooling path. This yields a lower contact face temperature ani Fig. : Mechanica sea with accumulators of carbonized techno digest No wry 2006 © Kmp oll or vapour escaping at the contact faces of the mechanical seal may dissolve the grease in the rolling clement bearing. This, of course, would cause the bearing to run dry and fail. To prevent that, development engineers inserted a shaft seal ring just ahead of the rolling clement bearing, The resultant space between the seat ring of the ‘mechanical seal and the shaft seal ring fills up with thermal ol in service and is connected to an unpressurized quench supply. The bearing system comprises grease-lubricated deep-groove ball bearings at the coupling end and product- the lubricated carbon bearings running direct shaft at the pump end, In order to meet all ATEX requirements for the conveyance of combustible fluids, all pressure-retaining parts must be made of nodulareast iron (GJS-400-18-LT) asa minimum requirement. Applications include the handli of organic, liquid-phase heat transfer fluids with vapour pressures situated below atmospheric pressure at operating temperature. Fig. 5: Process pump with mechanical seat acc to EN 733 Process pumps with mechanical seals in ac- cordance with EN 22 858/ISO 2858/ISO 5199 ‘These heat transfer pumps (Fi when liquid-phase heat transfer fluids are involved and the system is built to PN2S. Ifthe temperature ‘ofthe pumped fluid isabove 350% (GS-C25N) cast steel is specified. Thanks to the 6) are opted for back pull-out design, the volute easing can remain in place ifthe pump has to be dismantled. Myriad different types of mechanical seals were blended together to yield a new cartridge-type seal that can handle fluid temperatures up to 360 °C without need of separate cooling, They are available both as single seals with steam / nitrogen quench and as atande; sealing requirements. arrangement for particularly stringent Single-acting mechanical seal with quench In this type of construction, a single-acting metal bellows type seal of cartridge design is situated well tothe outside, far away from the hot interior 1 digest No. 12, Januar ¢ eselschatFig. 6: Process pump with mechanical seals acc. to EN 22 @SBNSO 2858/50 5199 of the pump. Introduction of low-pressure steam. or nitrogen to the atmospheric side via a quench connection prevents formation of decomposition products on the contact faces. In the as-delivered state, the seal isready-installed along with thecas- ing cover, the seal housing and the shaft protect- ing sleeve. Hence, the pump “installation” work consists solely of slipping the complete assembly. ‘onto the pump shaft, Tandem mechanical seal with liquid quench This double-acting metal bellows type cartridge seal isa tandem arrangement mounted ina stuff- ing box housing with cooling fins. The atmos- phere-side mechanical seal is supplied with cold, thermally unspent thermal oilas protection for the contact faces. This produces a thermosy- phon effect between the quench vessel and the seal chamber, which is supported by a pumping screw on the atmospheric-end mechanical sea. The “cold” quench return flow is routed around the product-end seat ring by way of a surrounding annular groove and a specially designed deflecting sleeve. This ensures optimal dissipation of friction heat from the contact faces. Like a single-acting ‘mechanical seal, this type also comes as a com- plete cartridge assembly that slips easily onto the shaft of the pump. Tandem mechanical seal with liquid quench and cooling for up to 400°C Variants with water-cooled mechanical seal spaces and quench vessels are available for service tem- peratures up to 400 °C. The cooling water, how ‘eves; must be neither aggressive nor tend toward encrustation. Otherwise, the cooling chambers would clog, A design incorporating a removable cooling jacket has proved to serve well in this range. To keep the heat transfer fluid from oxidiz~ ing due to the presence of atmospheric oxygen, the atmospheric-end mechanical seal is supplied with cold thermal oil. The quench system is sized on the basis of the amount of frictional heat vo be dissipated from the mechanical eal. The volume, the installed height of the quench vessel and the type of oil in use must be well-matched. During, pump operation, circulation inthe cooling circuit is maintained by the thermosyphon effect with the assistance of a pumping screw: A level sensor in the quench vessel monitors both mechanical seals. Ifthe level in the vessel rises, che mechan: ical seal on the pump end must be leaking, and ifPumps and Systems Fig. 7: Constituent ow inthe rotor space ofa magnetic coupling Mas°c 64,8 °C Fig. 8: Temperature dstebution ina moq-ive pump 14 the level recedes, the atmospheric-end mechanical seal must be defective. Hence, automatic oper- ation is possible, DIN standard 4754 recommends the use of sealless pump sets for heat transfer fluids used at atmospheric pressure and at temperatures exceed: ing their boiling point. Mag-drive pumps Inthiscase, partof the flow is conducted through the rotor space and into the area of the magnetic coupling, where the heat resulting from magnetic eddy currents has to be dissipated (Fig. 7). At the same time, the plain bearing needs liquid to keep it lubricated. The problem is that the magnets that serve to transfer the torque have the effect of a “metal filter”. They attract and retain fer~ rous particles out of the constituent flow. This, «an cause mechanical damage tothe containment shroud as wellasto the plain bearing. In some al- ternative solutions, filter element is provided for cleaning the constituent flow. However, in order to ensure the reliability and automatic operation of such components, the filter has to be moni tored for soiling and clogging, which, of course, significantly increases the cost of installation, operation and maintenance. There is, though, a special design principle that can alleviate those drawbacks: The cooling and lubricating cireuit has to be separated from the hot pumped liquid (Fig. 8). After the containment shroud and cooler have received their initia il ofclean thermal oil, the circuit stays full. A thermal barvier situated just behind the casing cover guarantees that the thermal load in the vicinity of the magnets and. the sealed-for ie rolling element bearings remains below the maximum permissible limit. ‘The pumps (Fig. 9) are filled with clean heat transfer fluid prior to commissioning, and the sealing effect of the thermal barrier prevents any ‘exchange of fluids between the hydraulic system and the containment shroud space in the course of pump operation, so no solid particles can get into the magnetic coupling. Low oil temperatures in the containment shroud, coupled with leak tightness, precludes thermal decomposition and ‘oxidation (and their various adverse effects) in the rotor space. An externally mounted, non-soil- ing annular cooler expels to the atmosphere the heat that is generated by induced eddy currents no digest No. 12, January 2006 © KSB Aktiengesellschaftin the containment shroud and by fluid friction of the internal rotor. The airstream from the drive motor provides the requisite cooling, so no exter- nal cooling system connection is required. This type of construction is used for pumping organic oilor synthetic based) heat transfer fluids «for liquid and vapour phase service Back pull-out type canned motor pump Canned motor pumps (Fig. 10) serve in appli- cations requiring zero leakage, quiet operation oo long service intervals plus compliance with environmental restrictions. The casings’ mat ing dimensions meet the requicements of EN 22 858/1SO 2858. The hyd ‘motor are rigidly interconnected to form aclose- ic system and coupled pump unit. The impeller, the rotor and the auxiliary hydraulic system common shaft. The shaft, in turn, is guided by and seated in product-ubricated plain bearings. all mounted on This pump design, roo, incorporates a therma ngcover) to separate the hydraulic system from the motor. The cover also serves asa ‘mount for the pump-end plain bearing. The plain bearing has very narrow clearances vis-A-vis the barrier (the ea hydraulic space to prevent any exchange of fluid and, hence, heat input into the rotor space. ‘The motor is cooled via an external liquid- to-liquid heat exchanger mounted on the motor housing, The heat exchanger is supplied wich site-supplied cooling medium. The continuously circulating flow that runs through the cooler and id of an aux the rotor space is produced with the iliary hydraulic system located between the motor housing and the casing cover. The can constitutes the boundary between the rotor space and the sta- tor space. Made of corrosion-resistant materi the can rests on the stator and support tubes for accommodating the forces resulting from intern- al pressure in the rotor space. A terminal box is provided for the electrical connections. Thanks to its double pressure boundary, can and pres- sure-proof stator casing, this type series offers maximum reliability and safety. Summary ‘Thermal fluid heated equipment nowadays con. stitutes the backbone of diverse production pro- ccesses, and the pumps employed have an equal diversity of sealing variants, Despite relatively low techno digest No. 12, January 2 pressures the high temperatures involved impose stringent requirements on both the jneering design and the chosen materials. Thus, in order to guarantee the safe, reliable and economical operation of a plant or system, to ferret out the optimal approach in terms of is very importa technical characteristics and costs Fig. 9: Magicive pump with annular cool Pumps and Systems Fig, 10: Canned motor pump with external kqud-o-quid heat exchangerMaterials Technology The Significance of Nickel and Molybdenum in Steel The prices of alloying constituents like nickel and molybdenum have gone up dramatically in recent years. The price increases have a major effect on Anja Dwars Fig. 1: Moybdenum Fig. 2: Nickel all parts and assemblies made of materials that contain these alloying con- stituents. This keeps raising the question whether one cannot do without these two cost boosters, at feast on some applications. Before proceeding to change the material com- position ofthe parts one manufactures, however, ‘one should remember that these two alloying con- stituents play a major part ina material's perform ance and also determine the fields of application for which itean be used. Molybdenum (Fig. 1) “Molybdenum takes its name from the Greek “mo- Iybdos”, which translates into “lead”. During the Middle Ages, this name was used forall lead like materials. Itis estimated that approximately 0.00018 weight-% of the earth’s crust consists of molybdenum. Although relatively rare, mo- Iybderum is found all over the world. In nature, molybdenum is only found as a compound. The ‘countries which export molybdenum are the Unit- ced States, China, Chile, Canada and Russia. The most important molybdenum-bearing minerals are molybdenite, powellite and wulfenite. These are often recovered as by-products of copper mining. Molybdenum is soft, formable, silvery- shining heavy metal with a cubic body-centered lattice. It does not corrode in air because it is protected by a thin oxide layer. Iris also resistant to water, most acidic and alkaline solutions. It does decompose in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid or nitric acid, however: Its chemi- cal properties are similar to those of tungsten. Important molybdenum compounds are molyb- denum oxide and molybdenum sulphide. In 2003, the annual production stood at approximately 129,000 tons world-wide. Ac the end of the 19th century, the engineers developing stecl armour plate for use in warship building discovered that the hardness, corrosion and heat resistance prop- erties of steel could be much improved by adding ceven.a small amount of molybdenum. In its pure form, molybdenum is used in filament supports in electric amps. A further area of use isin catalysts in the chemical industry. These are some of the reasons why there is an enormous demand for this element from all technical fields and why it is so expensive, While one ton of molybdenum cost around 5,900 US Dollars back in 1999, it cost 73,300 US Dollars in January ofthis year (reference: Federal Institute of Geosciences and Raw Materials, Germany) Nickel (Fig. 2) In medieval times, worthless nickel ores were techno digest No. 12, January 2006 © KSB Aktiengeslschafgenerally referred to as nickel”. Although the ancient Greeks already used nickel alloys, they ‘manufactured these materials without any know- ledge of the metal itself. In the Middle Ages, European miners considered it a useless substance that got into their way when extracting copper ore, Ie wasn’ until the Englishman Michael Fara- day introduced his electroplating process in 1843 that the metal frst gained some economic signifi cance. The earth crust contains approximately 0.009 weight-% of nickel. In small amounts, its minerals are found practically everywhere. The most important of these are garnierite, millerite, pentlandite, pyrchotte(pyrthotine) and nickcline. OF these, pentlandite and garnierite are of eco- nomic significance. Deposits worth being worked are found in Canada (pentlancite, the Common= ‘wealth of Independent States, Australia and Cuba. {In 2003, the annual production volume totalled approximately 128,000,000 tons world-wide. Nickel isa formable,silvery-white mecal wich a very dense lattice structure. It forms a thin oxide layer onitssurface, which makes i highly resistant toairand water. Iteasily formsan alloy with iron, ‘copper and manganese. Itis estimated that there are 63 million tons of nickel left in the world that are worth being worked. Today, between 500,000 and 900,000 tons of nickel are won all over the ‘world each year. Nickel isan important alloying constituent which has its principal area of use in steel refining. Metal surfaces are rendered corro- sion resistant by means of nicke-plating. Another use for large quantities of nickel isin the electrical industry, where itis applied in the manufacture of electric batteries and storage batteries. The price of aton of nickel was around 4,269 US Dollars in 1999; in January 20085 the same amount had price tag of 16,300 US Dollars (reference: Fed= eral Institute of Geosciences and Raw Materials, Germany} Molybdenum-free materials pose problems in acids and chloride-containing fluids The question whether substantial cost savings can be achieved by using a lower alloy macerial depends on whether the substitute materials suit- able for the intended use. It only makes sense to usea better priced pump or valve material, if the material has the requi the liquid to be pumped, and if the material has sd corrosion resistance in the specified mechanical properties. Possible sub: stitute materials are, for instance, stainless steel tgrades containing considerably less of the costly alloying constituent molybdenum. Anexample of such a steel grade is forged steel 1.4541, which contains no molybdenum. Below, the corrosion resistance as wells the mechanical properties of this molybdenum-fee alloy will be compared to forged steel 1.4571 and duplex steel 1.4462, ewo steel grades that contain molybdenum. ‘The majority of stainless steels are used in cor- rosive media. A material's corrosion resistance, therefore, is one of the main: tion, Corrosion resistance depends first and fore- ‘most on the chemical composition ofthe material Besides chromium, molybdenum is the alloying ‘constiruent which is of greatestimportance for the corrosion properties of stainless steels. Materials 1.4571 and 1.4541 differ considerably in terms of molybdenum content. As shown in Table 1, 1.4571 has a molybdenum content of between 2.00 and 2.50 %, whereas 1.4541 contains no molybdenum at all. A comparison of the other alloying constituents shows that the two materi- als do nor differ greatly. Molybdenum generally increases the resistance of steel to acids. In fluids containing halogen ions, for example chloride (Ch) and fluoride (F), molybdenum, in particular, substantially improves a material's resistance to ia for its selec pitting and crevice corrosion. PRE - a measure of a material's resistance ‘The pitting resistance equivalent (PRE) isa meas ture ofa stainless stee's resistance in chloride-con- taining media, Iris determined by the chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen contents. The higher the pitting resistance equivalent, the better the corrosion resistance of a material and the broader its field of application. PRE = %Cr + 3.3% Mo+16%N Figs. 3 to 5 show the influence of the alloying constituents on corrosion resistance using the ‘examples of sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid. Ferrous metals are deemed resistant to a given liquid ifthe corrosion rates ess than 0.1 mnvan- techno digest No. 12, January 2006 © KSB Aktiengesellschaft Materials Technology Equivalent cast ato ‘4208 14593014517Materials Technology ‘num. The conditions at which the corrosion rate is 0.1 mnvannum are marked with continuous lines. ‘The diagrams show that materials not containing molybdenum are decidedly less resistant to acids ‘than materials containing molybdenum. Fig, 4 shows the effects of chloride content on corro- sion resistance in sulphuric acid. It gives a clear indication ofthe positive effects of molybdenum. Ifaslitele as 200 ppm chloride is added, material 1.4541 is no longer suitable for use in this fluid, irrespective of the concentration of the sulphuric acid, When comparing the corrosion resistance of materials 1.4571 and 1.4541, the following points stand out: Material 1.4541 is an austen nickel stee! which is considerably less corrosion re- sistant in acids and chloride-containing fluids than ‘material 1.4571 which contains molybdenum. An chromium exception are oxidizing acids such as nitric acids in some applications, molybdenum-free mater- ials can be used in the presence of these acids Ina chloride-free, alkaline environment such as sodium hydroxide solution, the resistance levels of ‘materials 1.4571 and 1.4541 are very similar. The said facts also apply to other, highly cor- rosion resistant materials, for example to ferritie- austenitic material 14462 (Table 1), which, as far asits corrosion resistance is concerned, is clearly superior to both 1.4871 and 14541 Comparable mechanical properties? [As far asthe mechanical properties of 1.4571 and ASAI (molybdenum-free) are concerned, i. if we compare the strength and ductility figures, the materials are very similar (Table 2). 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