Unit 2; The age of revolution

1. American revolution

The origins of independence

The first English settlers arrived on the east coast of North America (New England) in the early 17 th century. By the mid-18th century, they
had formed the Thirteen Colonies.

In the northern colonies, the economy was based, agriculture and trade. In the southern colonies, the as in activity was tobacco farming,
and the work was done by black slaves on plantations.

Britain wanted raw materials from their American colonies, but they had no interest in developing industry there. They also held a
monopoly on trade, which made trade difficult between the Thirteen Colonies and other areas of America. The economy was therefore
an important source of conflict: the colonies saw the British Crown as an obstacle to their development.

There were also political tensions. The Thirteen Colonies were subject to the authority of the king of England, but they also enjoyed
considerable autonomy. Colonial assemblies had significant powers, such as collecting certain taxes. Britain imposed taxes on the
settlers, but they often did not pay. This was a sign of protest, as the settlers were not represented in the British Parliament. 'No taxation
without representation' became a popular slogan.

Between 1764 and 1766, King George III tried to impose new taxes on the colonies, but the colonies responded by refusing to buy British
products.

In 1773, the British Parliament passed the Tea Act, which gave the English East India Company a monopoly on the sale of tea in the
colonies. This hurt American traders, who responded by attacking British ships loaded with tea in the Boston harbour.
This event is known as the Boston Tea Party, and was followed by the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775.

There were important political changes. In 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which outlined the
principles of national sovereignty, separation of powers and suffrage.

On 4th July 1776, the representatives of the Thirteen Colonies met in the Continental Congress of Philadelphia. There, they signed the
Declaration of Independence of the United States of America.
The American revolutionary war

During the American Revolutionary War, also known as the American War of Independence (775-17883). The American colonies
were supported by France and Spain. The colonies, led by General George Washington, won decisive victories at Saratoga and Yorktown.
Then, Britain recognised the United States as an independent nation in the Treaty of Versailles (1783).
The United States Constitution was signed in 1787. It was the first constitution in history, and established national sovereignty and
the separation of powers. Legislative power was held by two bodies: the House of Representatives and the Senate. Their members were
chosen in free elections, although only white males could vote.
Executive power was held by a president, and judicial power was held by independent judges.

In 1789 George Washington became the first president of the United States.

2. The outbreak of the french revolution (1789-1792)

The failures of the old regime

In France, the Old Regime was destine calures French Revolution (1789-1799), which had its origins in the failures of the system:
● Social unrest: The Third Estate, which paid taxes, resented the privileged estates that scarcely paid taxes at all. The weary
bourgeoisie was also frustrated by its lack of political power.
● The economy: A tax crisis was caused by overspending on the American Revolutionary War, as well as high expenditure at the
Amet Bad harvests caused rising prices in the 1760s, which led to widespread hunger and social unrest.
● The Enlightenment: The political thought of the Enlightenment encouraged people to question royal authority when it was
considered unfair and inefficient.
● Attempts at reform only made things worse. Commoners Altered Louis XVIs reforms ineffective while the privileged estates
were concerned for their way of life.

Opposition to the constitutional monarchy (1791-1792)

A Legislative Assembly was formed in October 1791. and France now had a constitutional monarchy. However, this assembly lasted for
less than a year, and failed to attract much support. Within France:
● There was fierce opposition from the nobility and the clergy, who did not want to give up their privileges. Many members of
the former. privileged estates emigrated, and conspired against the Revolution from abroad.
● In contrast, other groups believed that the reforms did not go far enough. These radical revolutionaries were supported by
the sans-culottes.
Abroad, other European monarchs felt threatened by the ideas of the French Revolution. In 1792, Austria and Prussia declared war on
France.

France suffered some early defeats in the war, and the king was widely blamed. In August 1792, there was an insurrection: the Tuileries
Palace was attacked, and the royal family was taken prisoner.
 3. The first French Republic (1792-1799)

The birth of French Republic (1792-1783)

Following the insurrection of August 1792, a National Convention governed France from September 1792. This assembly was electat n
adult males. The Convention immediately abolished the monarch and France became a republic. This was later called Year One of is
French republican calendar. Initially, the Girondins, or moderate republicans, controlled the assembly.

The Convention judged and condemned Louis XVI for treason, and he was executed by guillotine in January 1793. This produced a horrified
reaction abroad and led to the formation of the First Coalition, in which Britain and the Dutch Republic joined the other countries that
were already fighting France. Within France, there was a royalist, Catholice uprising in the Vendée region in western France (1793-1796).

The reign of terror (1793-1794)

guillotine

Believing that the revolution was in danger, the radical revolutionaries for Jacobins) used support from the sans culottes to seize power
from the Girondins in June 1793. The Jacobin leader Maximilien Robespierre assumed all powers, and established a dictatorship.

The danger of foreign invasion and the internal threat from French opponents of the revolution led to the Reign of Terror, which was a
ton-month period of violent repression. A revolutionary tribunal calley the Committee of Public Safety was established, led by Georges
Danton and Robespierre. This tribunal tried people who were suspee Dantposing the Republic, even if there was no prost against them Tig
were sentenced to death by the guillotine, which became a famous symbol of the French Revolution, Around obleso people were
executed including leaders of the political groups, nobles and clergymen.

Robespierre tried to ease the economic crisis by establishing maximum prices for basic items. However, he also limited salaries which
led to conflict with the sans-culottes. A new calendar was adopted, in which the names of the months were related to the seasons.

Robespierre gradually lost support. In 1794, moderate revolutionans arrested Robespierre and his followers, who were then executed by
guillotine.

The Dictory (1795-1799)

Following the execution of the most radical revolutionaries, a new Constitution (1795) established limited suffrage based on property
ownership. A moderate government was led by a five-member Directory while legislative power was held by two chambers.

The new regime never had very much support, and it faced challenges on all sides.
 ● Radicals conspired against the government. The Conspiracy of the Equals, led by Babeuf, was a plot to overthrow the
government and establish an egalitarian society.
● The royalists also led revolts and counter-revolutionary activities with the aim of restoring the Bourbon dynasty.
● In Europe, France won a series of victories against its enemies. The French general Napoleon Bonaparte conquered most of
Italy on behalf of the Directory between 1796 and 1799. However, in 1799 France's enemies, led by Britain, formed a Second
Coalition that reconquered many of the regions that France had occupied.

In November 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte carried out a coup d'état. A Consulate was created, in which authority was supposed to be
shared between three consuls; but in fact Napoleon was now the real ruler of France.

4. Europe under Napoleon

Reform under Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul in 1799, and a new constitution gave him the powers of a dictator. In 1802, he became Consul
for Life.

Although Napoleon's arrival in power marked the end of the French Revolution, some Napoleonie reforms consolidated changes of the
revolutionary period:

● The Napoleonic Code was a legal code that prohibited certain privileges, allowed freedom of religion, and simplified the
range of laws that had existed before the Revolution

● The Concordat of 1801 maintained state control over the Church, and confiscated church lands were not returned. However,
the clergy was allowed to resume religious worship.

The Napoleonic Empire

In 1804. Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French. Under his expansionist policy, France was constantly at war with other
countries.

Although he was defeated by the British at sea in the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), Napoleon conquered many parts of the European
continent in only a few years. He won notable victories against the Austrians in the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) and against the Prussians
in the Battle of Jena (1806).

Britain was now France's main enemy, and the Continental Blockade was an attempt to stop British trade in Europe. The Portuguese did
not accept this, so Napoleon invaded Portugal. He also occupied Spain, which led to the Spanish War of Independence that began in 1808.

A turning point in the war came in 1812, when Napoleon's forces unsuccessfully invaded Russia, and suffered terrible losses. A coalition of
Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria defeated him in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813. He was defeated in Spain in the same year.
Following allied advances, Napoleon abdicated in April 1814 and went into exile. He returned to power for a hundred days, but was
defeated at Waterloo (1815), and deported to the remote Island of Saint Helena where he died in 1821.

5. The Conservative Order

The conservative order

From 1815, the European powers attempted to create a new Conservative Order, based on the principles of tradition, order and
obedience to authority. These were its main characteristics:
● Monarchy. It was believed that peace was only possible it a legitimate monarch headed each country. The monarchs of the
Old Regime returned to power as if the French Revolution had never happened.

● Internationalism. The great powers could intervene in another country if a legitimate monarchy was in danger.

● countresses. Regular contact betweete ins great powers was seen

The congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

The great European powers met at the Congress of Vienna in

1814-1815. The Austrian Foreign Minister Prince Metternich played a leading role in their attempts to guarantee lasting peace and
avoid new revolutions:

● France returned to the frontiers it had before the Revolution.

● States were reinforced around France as a protective barrier against future French expansion: the new Kingdom of the
Netherlands acquired the region that is Belgium today.
● There were territorial gains for Austria, Prussia and Russia.

The Holy Alliance of Prussia, Russia and Austria was formed to combat liberalism and revolution. It was later joined by Britain and
France.

6. The liberal and National revolutions.

The challenge to the Conservative Order

A series of uprisings, revolutions and wars staged the Conservative order in 1820; 1830 and 1848. They were strongly influenced by the
following factors:
● Liberalism. The French absolution proved than Libs possible to end roval alisolutism, and spring was deals of Liberty, Equality
and Brotherhood throughout Europe. According to liberalism. fig constitution that respected the sovereignty of people, and
guaranteed individual liberties.
 ● National movements. National identities gren in many parts of Europe in response to the Napoleonic invasion. After 1815,
political boundaries did not usually reflect people's language and culture. There were national movements in states, like the
Ottoman and Austrian Empires, which ruled over many different peoples.

The revolutions of 1820 and 1830

● Spain. There was a period of liberal government in Spain (1820-1823) following a military uprising against the absolute
monarchy of Fernando VII.

● Greece The Greeks revolted successfully against the Ottoman Empire during the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829).

● France. In 1830, the absolutist monarch Charles X was deposed and replaced by Louis Philippe of Orleans, who was more
liberal.

● Belgium. An uprising in the Kingdom of the Netherlands led to the creation of the new state of Belgium (1830-1831).

● Poland. There was an uprising against the Russian Empire in 1831, but this was severely repressed.

Revolutions of 1848

There were many attempted revolutions in Europe in 1848. The bourgeoisie and workers of many countries supported liberal reforms and
democratic principles like universal male suffrage and freedom of the press. In addition, there were also attempts at independent national
states.

The following three countries were affected, but there were many other revolutions or riots all across Europe:

● Germany. Demonstrations in cities called for German n and liberal reforms guaranteeing individual liberties.
● The Habsburg Empire. There were many different nationalities, the territories ruled by the Austrian Habsburgs, and a national
movement in Hungary fought for independence.

In the end, the liberal and national revolutions failed. Nevertheless, they achieved some important advances, such as universal male
suffrage in France and the abolition of feudalism in Prussia and Austria.

7. The unification of Italy

Nationalism

Nationalism dovelopedamecuter century, when people who star themselves as a are and languages . poor to think of themselves as a
nation. At the same time, many nationalists wanted political Boundaries to coincide with religious, ethnic and linguistic boundaries. In
this way, a nation would Tive in a single country: a nation state.

Nationalism greatly influenced the political history of Europe in two different ways:
 ● Disintegration of states. Some nations considered that they were under foreign rule within a large empire and fought for
their independence. For example, the Ottoman Empire gradually broke up into smaller nations. The example of Greece (in 1829)
was followed by several Balkan countries. However, despite pressure from nationalist movements, the Austro-Hungarian Empire
survived until the early 20th century.

● Unification of states. Other nations, like Italy and Germany, were divided into many states, but gradually discovered their
shared identity. The new nation states of Italy and Germany were established in the 19th century.

The unification of Italy

In the early 19th century the Italian peninsula was divided into several states, some of which were under foreign control.
For example, the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia was under Austrian rule. However, the Italians shared a common language and history, and
this created a sense of unity.

The Kingdom of Piedmont in north-west Italy led the unification process under King Vittorio Emanuele II and his prime minister,
Cavour However, a revolutionary leader called Giuseppe Garibaldi also made a significant contribution:

● 1859: Cavour won French support for the Italian cause against the Austrians. In 1859, a French and Piedmontese army defeated
the Austrians, and the region of Lombardy became part of Piedmont.

● 1860-1861: Garibaldi's revolutionary forces (who were called the red shirts) took control of Naples and Sicily.

● In 1861, the first Italian parliament met in Turin and Vittorio Emanuele Il became King of Italy.

● 1866: Italy supported Prussia in its war with Austria; in exchange, it received Venice.

● 1870. The Piedmontese occupied Rome, which became the capital of Italy:
8. The unification of Italy
Germany before unification

In the early 19th century, German territory was in taed into 39 independent states Although these divide members of an associative mated
the German confederation, it did not have much influence.

The two dominant powers were Prussia and Austria, who were great rivals. In 1834, Prussia Organized a customs union of
German-speaking states but Austria was not a member.

In 1848 a parliament met in Frankfurt and offered the crown of Germany to the King of Prussia. However, the king refused because he was
hostile to the liberals.

After 1862, Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, and his prime minister, Bismarck, achieved the unification of Germany through military action.

The unification of Germany

German unification was achieved in just a few years under Prussian leadership:

● 1864. Following tensions in two states ruled by Denmark, Prussia invaded and annexed these territories.

● 1866: Prussia fought against its great rival Austria in the Austro-Prussian War and won a decisive victory in the Battle of
Koniggrätz (1866). Prussia then formed the North German Confederation under its own leadership.

● 1870-1871: During the Franco-Prussian War the Kingdom of Prussia and its German allies defeated France in the Battle of
Sedan (1870).

● In 1871, the French Emperor Napoleon If surrendered, and the regions of Alsace and Lorraine became German. The south
German states agreed to join the rest of Germany.

● In 1871, the Second German Empire, or Second Reich, was proclaimed, Wilhelm I was crowned Kaiser (or Emperor).

The new country, governed by Chancellor Bismarck, experienced rapid economic growth and became a great military power. Germany was
one of the leading European nations in the years before the First World War.