ment of Depart

Chemistry
Faculty of Science
Al-Balqa Applied University
DR. Basel M. Alsaida
:Prepared By
Roa’a Shehadeh Ekram al-zghoul
Rania al-heta Taima’a al-saleem
Sara al-habahbeh
Contents:
Experiment 1: UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS

Experiment 2: molar mass of volatile liquid

Experiment 3: Thermodynamics and Electrochemistry

Experiment 4: Steam Distillation

Experiment 5: Binary Solid-Liquid Phase Diagram

Experiment 6: Particle in a Box

Experiment 7: Freezing point depression

Experiment 8: pKa of Methyl Red

Experiment 9: Nano-Materials technology

 Uncertainty in measurements
Introduction

All the measurements have a certain degree of uncertainty regardless of

their precision and accuracy. This is because of two factors, the limitation of
the measuring instrument (called systematic error) and the skill of the
experimenter doing the measurements (called random error). Too often,
we come across values that are very close to each other and their average
values. In such cases, we can say that the measurement is correct and
precise. Specifying the uncertainty formula chemistry is important as it will
help us to study the overall effect on output.
1.Random error: introduces variability between different measurements
of the same thing.
2.systematic error: skews your measurement away from the true value
in a specific direction.

Error Vs Uncertainty
Error is a difference between true value and measured value.
Whereas, uncertainty is a range.
Any parameter which cannot be expressed with certainty is
associated with uncertainty.
It exists in all quantitative measurements.
Uncertainty is quantitative indication of the quality of the result.
It is the interval around the estimated value between which the
true value of the measured parameter is expected to lie.`
Tools used:
1-Top loading balance 2-Analytical balance

3-Graduated cylinder 4- Pipette

Procedure
Part [1]
-fill 10 ml of water in Erlenmeyer flask.
-measure the mass of water that was filled on a top loading balance.
-Comparing the results of each flask to each other -Calculate the
error.
Part [2]
-fill 10 ml of water in Erlenmeyer flask.
-measure the mass of water that was filled on analytical balance.
-Comparing the results of each flask to each other.
Data and calculation
( avg ) x=
∑ xi
n

√|
N

∑ ( x i−x )2
i=1
( standard deviation ) σ=
N−1
x −x
( percentage error ) %E= E A ∗100
xA |
| |
x 1−x 2
( percentage difference ) %diff = ∗100
x1 + x 2
2

GC/AB P/AB P/TB Actual

10.2

10

9.8

9.6

9.4

9.2

8.8

8.6
9.65 9.7 9.75 9.8 9.85 9.9 9.95
%difference:
1. GC/TB and GC/AB: 4.924%
2. GC/TB and V(G)P/TB: 4.496%
3. GC/TB and V(G)P/AB: 1.804%
4. GC/AB and V(G)P/TB: 6.527%
5. GC/AB and V(G)P/AB: 6.76%
6. V(G)P/TB and V(G)P/AB: .231%

Conclusion
In this experiment we measured mass of water by
using four apparatuses (graduated cylinder, pipette) to
measure volume and (Top loading balance, Analytical
balance) to measure mass.
We used (GC with TB, GC/AB, P/TB, P/AB) to measure 10
ml of water and weigh it by balances and record the results
10 times to calculate uncertainty.
Our part was by using (GC with AB) .
|
( percentage error ) %E=
xA |
x E− x A
∗100
ȁ10−9.307ȁ
= 𝐴
∗ 100%

= 6.9303%

Sources of error in our exp:

1. reading of the cylinder (not from meniscus or the
bottom of the U-Shape)
2. maybe we misreading a weighing records .
3. graduated cylinder less accurate than pipette.

Analytical balance with pipette is the best

Tools with lowest percentage error

Thermodynamics and Electrochemistry

Introduction
 Thermodynamics
and Electrochemistry

galvanic cell electrolytic cell

A galvanic cell is the one in which an

oxidation-reduction chemical reaction
occurs spontaneously to generate electri-
cal energy.
Chemical energy is converted into elec-
trical energy.

An electrolytic cell is the one in which

electrolysis process takes place, a
chemical compound is disintegrated by
passing electricity through it. The
chemical reaction taking place is not
self-generated (spontaneous), it is
forced by employing a voltage.

The purpose of this experiment

study the electrochemistry of voltaic (galvanic) cells and in the process
determine the values of the thermodynamic functions ∆G, ∆H, and ∆S.
and construct electrochemical cells by combining different metallic sys-
tems and their solutions. Measuring the potential of the prepared cells at
various temperatures will render the values of the thermodynamic func-
tions ∆G, ∆H, and ∆S corresponding to the electrochemical system stud-
ied.
Theory:
If a piece of zinc metal is immersed into a solution containing cop-
per (II) ions, zinc will be oxidized by the copper (II) ions. Put dif-
ferent, Zinc loses electrons and is oxidized while copper (II) ions
gain electrons and are reduced. We can conveniently express these
two processes by the following two half-reactions, which add to
give the overall redox reaction

Reactions of Daniel cell at cathode and anode are:

At cathode: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu

At anode: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–

The potential of the cell under standard conditions (1 M for

solutions, 1 atm for gases, pure solids or liquids for other sub-
stances) and at a fixed temperature (25°C) is called the standard
cell potential (E°cell).
° ° °
Ecⅇll =Eoxd + Ered
The potential of the cell under non-standard conditions. The
Nernst equation gives us the relationship between the overall cell
potential difference for a redox reaction ∆Ecell and the concentra-
tions of the metal-ion solutions. The Nernst equation is:

° RT
Δ E Cell= Δ Ecⅇll− lnQ
nF

The mathematical form of ∆G is the following:

 ∆ G=∆ H−T ∆ S

The cell potential of a redox process is related to the

free-energy change as follows:
∆ G °=−nFE°

Procedure
Equipment and Reagents:
1. Nickel, Copper, Iron, and Zinc strips
2. Steel wool/sand paper
3. U-tube filled with KNO3 to work as a salt bridge
4. DC Voltmeter to measure the cell potential (electromotive force in mV)
5. 1.0 M solutions of Cu(NO3)2, , Zn(NO3)2 , Ni(NO3)2, KNO3 and 0.77 M
FeSO4.(This solution is prepared from ferrous ammonium sulfate hex-
ahydrate, 300g/L, and finally acidifying with 3M Sulfuric Acid.)
6. 50mL test tubes, clamps, wire and alligator clips

Part 1: Constructing various types of cells

In this part you will construct four cells using metallic electrodes,
1.0 M solutions, voltmeter and wires as shown in Fig :
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢
𝐹𝑒|𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀) ‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀) ‖𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐹𝑒
𝐶𝑢|𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖Al𝑎𝑞3+(1.0𝑀)|Al
Part 2: Measurement of emf at various temperatures
Select any one cell with constant emf to measure the potential at
various temperatures. The beaker should be filled with an
ice/water mixture and stirred to measure the emf at lower
temperatures.
Part 3: Measurement of emf at various concentrations.
Select any cell from part to measure the potential at various
concentrations.

Data and Calculations

Part 1:
Galvanic cell E°cell N ∆G° = -nFE°
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢 0.808 2 -155,920
𝐹𝑒|𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀) ‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢 0.650 2 -125,430
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀) ‖𝐹𝑒𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐹𝑒 0.300 2 -578,91
𝐶𝑢|𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖Al𝑎𝑞3+(1.0𝑀)|Al 1.650 6 -955,204
Part 2:
𝑍𝑛|𝑍𝑛𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)‖𝐶𝑢𝑎𝑞2+(1.0𝑀)|𝐶𝑢

Temperature Vs E°cell
0.95

0.9

0.85

0.8

0.75

0.7
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

temp(celsius) E°cell ΔG=-nFE°cell

10 0.901 -173866.5683
15 0.885 -170779.0376
20 0.85 -164025.0644
25 0.821 -158428.9151
30 0.797 -153797.6192
35 0.781 -150710.0886
40 0.772 -148973.3526
45 0.769 -148394.4406
Part 3:
M1V1 = M2V2

temperature Vs ΔG
-135000
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-140000
-145000
-150000
-155000
-160000
-165000
-170000
-175000
-180000
 M E°cell(V)

1 0.819

0.5 0.796

0.25 0.754

0.125 0.738

0.0625 0.729

0.0313 0.705

E°cell(V) Vs M
0.84
0.82
0.8
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.7
0.68
0.66
0.64
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Conclusion
The purpose of this experiment was to demonstrate the
different relationships between cell potentials and the various
values that are calculated with the cell potential value. The cell
potential of three reactions (Cu/Zn, Cu/Fe,Cu/Al and Zn/Fe)
were measured giving a cell potential of  0.808 ,0.650, 0.300 and
1.650 V, respectively. The voltage of a Cu/Zn cell was then
measured at different temperatures and then used to calculate
Gibbs Free Energy, which was graphed vs. the temperature in
celesuis. although it is clear that this is incorrect, because as
temperature decreased, Gibbs Free Energy should increase,
giving a negative slope. Never the less, this slope was used to
find a negative change in entropy value, which led to a cell
which is only spontaneous at low temperatures. This should not
be the case for a Cu/Zn cell, and thus, some appreciable error
must have occurred. This error most likely occurred due to a
problem with the voltmeter. The mechanism may have just
been faulty from the beginning, or perhaps the battery was
dying during the experiment. Either way, performing the
experiment again with a new voltmeter would most likely solve
the issues related to this experiment. Regardless of the error
that occurred, and the consequent inaccurate results, the
relationship of cell potential to half-cell potential, Gibbs Free
Energy, enthalpy and entropy was well represented, and from
that point of view, the experimental goals were met, yielding
the experiment to be a success.
 Binary Solid – Liquid Phase Diagram
Introduction
Binary System: The mixing of two substance is the multi
component solid – liquid equilibrium, and we will study the
equilibrium that occurs between the solid – liquid phases.

Theory:
Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical states of a
substance under different conditions of temperature and pressure. A typical
phase diagram has pressure on the y-axis and temperature on the x-axis.
As we cross the lines or curves on the phase diagram, a phase change
occurs. In addition, two states of the substance coexist in equilibrium on
the lines or curves.

Figure 1 Temperature–composition phase diagram for a binary system

exhibiting a eutectic point.

The purpose of this experiment s to use thermal analysis to

study naphthalene-biphenyl (two combined components) to
determine the freezing point of the system at atmospheric
pressure. From the experiment, it will be possible to develop
the resulting solid-liquid phase diagram.
Gibbs Phase Rule The Gibbs phase rule is a method of calculating
degrees of freedom of a system. Degrees of freedom are the
intensive properties (independent of system size) for the system.
The phase rule is given by the following equation:

F=2+C−π

where: F = degrees of freedom (intensive properties)

c = number of chemical species
π = number of phases in the system
In a system with two components and two phases, like the naphthalene-
biphenyl mixture used in this lab, the degree of freedom is 2
(2 + 2 components – 2 phases=2)

EXPERIMENTAL:

1. Hot Water Bath

2. Heat Resistant Test Tubes
3. Chemical materials include reagent grade naph-
pure naphthalene (5 g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
85 0
76 30
75 60
73 90
65 120
55 150
48 180
35.5 210
27.5
20
240
270 Data and calculation:
15 300
11.5 330
10 360
9 390
7.5 420
5 450
4 480
4 510
3.5 540
3.5 570
 Na(5g) + Bi (0.67g) Na (5g)+ Bi (1.67)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
80 0
pure Na (5g)
88
72.5 30 88
80
72 60 80
72
71 90 72
64
67 120 64
56
64 150 56

temp
48
59 180

temp
48
55 210 40
40
47 240 32
32
38.5 270 24
33 300 24
16
27 330 16
8
22 360 8
0
17 390 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
0 100 200 300 time 400 500 600
13 420 time
11.5 450
9 480
7 510
6 540
5 570
3.5 600
Na(5g)+Bi (1.67g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec) Na (5g)+ Bi (2.5g)
85.5 0 Na (5g)+ Bi (0.67)
80
82.5 30 76
8472
62.5 60 8068
61.5 90 7664
7260
60 120 6856
58 150 6452
6048
53 180 56
temp

5244
50.5 210 4840
temp

45 240 4436
4032
40.5 270 3628
36 300 3224
2820
32.5 330 2416
29 360 2012
16 8
25.5 390 12 4
21.5 420 8 0
4 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
18 450 0 time
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
15 480 time
10 510
5 540
4 570
Na(5g)+Bi (2.5g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
73 0
55 30
54 60
53 90
52.5 120
48 150
44 180
42 210
39 240
35.5 270
32.5 300
29.5 330
27 360
21.5 390
18.5 420
15.5 450
10 480
8 510
6 540
3 570
2 600
pure Bi(5g)
time(sec
temp (Celsius)
)
75 0
Bi (5g)+ Na (0.67g)
69.5 30 76
69 60 72
68
64 90 64
59 120 60
56
55.5 150 52
49 180 48
44
43 210
temp

40
39 240 36
32
27 270 28
22 300 24
20
18 330 16
14 360 12
8
11 390 4
9 420 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
7.5 450 time

6 480
5.5 510
4.5 540

Bi(5g)+ Na (0.67g)
temp (Celsius) time(sec)
69 0 pure Bi (5g)
60 30 80
76
58 60 72
Bi (5g)+ Na (1.67g)
68
56.5 90 64 96
55.5 120 60
56 88
54 150 52 80
52.5 180 48

temp
44 72
49.5 210 40
36 64
45.5 240 32 56
41 270

temp
28
24 48
36 300 20
31.5 330 16 40
12 32
28 360 8
4 24
23.5 390 0
016 100 200 300 400 500 600
19 420 time
8
15 450
12 480 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
10 510 time

8 540
7 570
6 600

Bi(5g)+ Na (1.67g)
tempBi(5g)+ Na (2.5g)
(Celsius) time(sec)
Temp 89.5 time(sec) 0
(Celsius)
58.5 30
71 0
50 60
49 30
46.5
40 60
90
45.5
37 120
90
43.5
35.5 150
120
41
35 180
150
40
35 210
180
33.539 240
210
31.537 240
270
31
34.5 270
300
30
32 300
330
29.5
27.5 330
360
28 360
25.5 390
27 390
18.5 420
25 420
23.515 450
450
11.5
18 480
480
9.5
10 510
510
7.5
7 540
540
5.55 570
570
4.5
3.5 600
600
 mix (Na ,Bi) Bi (5g)+ Na (2.5g)
temp time(sec 76
72
(Celsius) ) 68
51 0 64
60
39 30 56
37 60 52
48
36.5 90 44
40
temp

36 120 36
35.5 150 32
28
34.5 180 24
33.5 210 20
16
31.5 240 12
30 270 8
4
29.5 300 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
27.5 330
time
26 360
24.5 390
23 420
20.5 450
17.5 480
14 510
 11 540
7.5 570
5 600
4 630 Mixture
56
3 660
52
48
Mole fraction temp 44

0 69.5 40

0.33 47.3 figure (a ) 36

32

temp
0.25 52.5 28
24
0.12 61.2 20
0.5 36 16

0.67 54 12
8
0.75 62 4

0.88 72 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
time
1 77

CONCLUSIONS
• The solid-liquid phase diagram for naphthalene-
biphenyl is shown in figure a. It reflects closely the
sample data given, and the freezing points of both
components are precise to reference numbers.
• Error from loss of
substance 100% Bi
temp Vs mole fraction
0% Bi
accounted partially 8090
0% Na 100%
Na
25% Bi
for variances in 70 75% Bi 75% Na
12% Bi
points from the 60 88% Bi
12% Na
25% Na 88% Na
50
melting (freezing) 40 67% Bi
33% Na
33% Bi
67% Na

point line. 30
50% Bi
50% Na
• The eutectic point 10
20

Eutectic Point
calculated from this 00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
lab is
approximately 36.0°C. Melting point of biphenyl was
calculated to be about 69.5°C and that of naphthalene
was about 77°C.

Sources of Error:
• There were a few sources of error in this experiment, but the
largest source involved the mixing of chemicals. Each time
more biphenyl was added to the compound, some residue was
left in the plastic tray. Another aspect of this occurred because,
as the experiment progressed, the temperature was lowered.
This caused the solution, while in liquid form, to solidify on the
upper portion of the test tube. This inhibited the stirring and
lessened the volume of the solution that was being cooled to the
freezing point.
• To accommodate for solution solidifying at the top of the test
tube, it would be useful to use either bigger test tubes or less
substance so the test tube does not become overfilled – and can
therefore be completely submerged into the water bath to
above the level of the solution. This way, all of the solution
melts each
time more solid chemical is added.
• Test tube tongs and a scale closer to the laboratory site would
be beneficial for
safety concerns. Workers used bare hands (or latex gloved
hands) to carry hot test tube, increasing the risk of burns.
Carrying chemicals across the room is also potentially
hazardous should one trip. A shorter distance minimizes that
risk.

pKa of Methyl Red

introduction:
Methyl Red, also called C.I. Acid Red 2, is an indicator dye that
turns red in acidic solutions. It is an azo dye, and is a dark red
crystalline powder.
 Fig-
ure :
Struc- ture
of
Methyl Red.