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Atomic Structure Notes
Atomic Structure Notes
▪ Mass Spectrometry
▪ Electronic Structure
▪ Ionization Energies
THE STRUCTURE
OF
THE ATOM
1. Protons, neutrons and electrons
- Protons
- Neutrons
- Electrons
drawing pin.
➔ The basic properties of these three particles can be
standard.
–27
because its mass per nucleon (1.661 x 10 kg) is
around average, which means all the other nuclei
3, it is lithium, etc.
A
ZE
occurring isotopes:
24
12Mg: 12 protons, 12 neutrons
25
12Mg: 12 protons, 13 neutrons
26
12Mg: 12 protons, 14 neutrons
neutral atom.
E.g.
24 2+
12Mg : 12p, 12n, 10e
24 +
12Mg : 12p, 12n, 11e
24
12Mg: 12p, 12n, 12e
24 -
12Mg : 12p, 12n, 13e
3. Relative atomic mass
carbon-12.
1
1H 1 1.006
4
2He 4 4.003
9
4Be 9 9.012
27
13Al 27 26.919
59
27Co 59 58.933
➔ The masses of protons and neutrons vary slightly from
➔ E.g.,
16.0 = 44.0
MASS
SPECTROMETRY
The mass spectrometer is an instrument used for measuring
in five stages:
1. Gaseous material released into ionization chamber
to +1 ions (IONISATION)
ions
(ACCELERATION)
accelerate towards it
(DETECTION)
current
charge; the greater the mass, the less the deflection, and the
ratio.
100
80
relative 60
abundance
40
20
18 20 22 24 26
M/Z
isotope)/100
e.g. Using the mass spectrum of neon above:
complicated:
molecule, but the peak with the largest m/e ratio comes from
the molecular ion peak. The m/e ratio of this peak (72) will
approach infinity:
n=6
n=5
n=4
n=3
n=2
n=1
electron.
Orbitals can have a number of different shapes, the most
2py, 2pz)
level 1st sub- 2nd sub- 3rd sub- 4th sub- 5th sub-
1 1 x 1s
2 1 x 2s 3 x 2p
3 1 x 3s 3 x 3p 5 x 3d
4 1 x 4s 3 x 4p 5 x 4d 7 x 4f
5 1 x 5s 3 x 5p 5 x 5d 7 x 5f 9 x 5g
3. Shells
n=4 4f
4d
4p
n=3 3d
4s
3p
E 3s
N
E 2p
n=2
R
2s
G
Y
n=1
1s
Starting with the lowest energy, the orbitals can thus be
arranged as follows:
<5d<6p<7s<5f< 6d
grouped together.
1 1 x1s
2 1 x 2s, 3 x 2p
3 1 x 3s, 3 x 3p
4 1 x 4s, 5 x 3d, 3 x 4p
5 1 x 5s, 5 x 4d, 3 x 5p
6 1 x 6s, 7 x 4f, 5 x 5d, 3 x 6p
4. Electrons
same orbital.
sub-level electrons
1 2 x 1s 2
2 2 x 2s, 6 x 2p 8
3 2 x 3s, 6 x 3p 8
4 2 x 4s, 10 x 3d, 6 x 4p 18
5 2 x 5s, 10 x 4d, 6 x 5p 18
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
H ↑
He ↑↓
Li ↑↓ ↑
Be ↑↓ ↑↓
B ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
C ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
N ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
O ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
F ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Ne ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Na ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Mg ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Al ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Si ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
P ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
S ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
Cl ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Ar ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
orbital.
H: 1s1
He: 1s2
Li: 1s22s1
Be: 1s22s2
B: 1s22s22p1
C: 1s22s22p2 or 1s22s22p63s23px13py1
N: 1s22s22p3 or 1s22s22p63s23px13py13pz1
O: 1s22s22p4 or 1s22s22p63s23p23px23py13pz1
F: 1s22s22p5
Ne: 1s22s22p6
Na: 1s22s22p63s1
Mg: 1s22s22p63s2
Al: 1s22s22p63s23p1
P: 1s22s22p63s23p3 or 1s22s22p63s23px13py13pz1
S: 1s22s22p63s23p4 or 1s22s22p63s23px23py13pz1
Cl: 1s22s22p63s23p5
Ar: 1s22s22p63s23p6
square brackets.
represented as [Ar].
K [Ar] ↑
Ca [Ar] ↑↓
Sc [Ar] ↑↓ ↑
Ti [Ar] ↑↓ ↑ ↑
V [Ar] ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
Cr [Ar] ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
Mn [Ar] ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
Fe [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
Co [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
Ni [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
Cu [Ar] ↑ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Zn [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Ga [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Ge [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
As [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
Se [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
Br [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Kr [Ar] ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Note the unusual structures of chromium and copper.
repulsion which results from the fact that they are no longer
electrons
same sub-level
7. Effect of electronic
configuration on chemical
properties
properties of an atom.
This is in contrast with the neutron number however, which
on the nucleus.
properties since they have the same atomic number and the
properties of an element.
IONISATION ENERGIES
1. First ionisation energy
the process:
M(g) → M+(g) + e
2000
per mole)
1500
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20
atomic number
known as shielding.
- nuclear charge
- shielding
- electron repulsion
H.
are not shielded from the nucleus, it follows that He has the
remove.
So, Helium has the highest first ionisation energy of all the
elements.
He.
(1s22s2). Be has one more proton in the nucleus than Li, and
Li.
carefully:
1s 2s 2p
N ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
O ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
so repel each other. They are therefore less stable and easier
same.
charge.
3. There is also a drop from N to O because the electron in
easier to remove.
M+(g) → M2+(g) + e
bipositive ions.
M2+(g) → M3+(g) + e
M(n-1)+(g) → Mn+(g) + e
It always becomes progressively more difficult to remove
remove.
1s22s22p63s23p1:
than the 1st because 3s electrons are being removed and the
2s electron.
follows:
Variation of ionisation energy with number of
ionisations for aluminium
1000000
ionisation energy
100000
10000
1000
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
number of ionisations
Note that the largest jumps by far occur between the 3rd
and 4th ionisation energies, and between the 11th and 12th
in ionisation energy
1000000
ionisation energy
100000
10000
1000
100
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
number of ionisations
Large jumps occur between 4th and 5th and between 12th and
13th.