Seminar 6

1.General characteristics of the adverb.

Semantic features. The adverb is a word expressing either property of an action, or property
of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs. However, this definition
fails to demonstrate the difference between the adverb and the adjective. The adverb should
be defined as a notional word denoting a non-substantive property, that is, a property of a
non-substantive referent. This feature sets the adverb apart from the adjective which denotes
a substantive property.
Adverbs are divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial. Qualitative adverbs
express immediate, inherently non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities with -ly at
the end (The little boy was crying bitterly over his broken toy.).
Quantitative adverbs are specific lexical units of semi-functional nature expressing quality
measure or gradational evaluation of qualities. They may be subdivided into several sets:
1. Adverbs of high degree ("intensifiers"): very, quite, entirely, utterly, highly.
2. Adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse) also belonging to the broader subclass of
intensifiers: tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically.
3. Adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, astonishingly, amazingly.
4. Adverbs of moderate degree: fairly, comparatively, relatively.
5. Adverbs of low degree: slightly, a little, a bit.
6. Adverbs of approximate degree: almost, nearly.
7. Adverbs of optimal degree: enough, sufficiently, adequately.
8. Adverbs of inadequate degree: insufficiently, intolerably.
9. Adverbs of under-degree: hardly, scarcely.
2. Morphological characteristics of the adverb.
As to their word-building structure adverbs may be non-derived, or simple (e.g. here, there,
now, then) and derived (e.g. slowly, sideways, clockwise, apart, across). We can also
distinguish composite forms and phrasal forms of the adverb: sometimes, nowhere, anyhow;
at least, at most, at last. A source of adverbs is the adjective: many –ly adverbs are
transformationally related to respective adjectives. The suffix –ly is a typical marker of the
adverb. However, many adverbs related to adjectives may not be necessarily used with the
suffix –ly, e.g. fast, late, hard, high, etc.
Special mention should be made of preposition-adverb like elements that form a semantic
blend with verbs: to give up, to give in, to give out, to give away; to set up, to set in, to set
forth. The verb-adverb combination goes by several names: two-part verbs, composite
verbs, phrasal verbs. The verbs in such combinations are mostly one-syllable words; the
most common adverbs are those denoting place, e.g. in, out, on, off, over, etc. Some of the
adverbs may be separated by objective complements:
E.g. Please hand in your papers. vs. Please hand your papers in.
Others are non-separable:
E.g. John called on me. vs. *John called me on.
In verb-adverb combinations the second element may:
a) retain its adverbial properties of showing direction (e.g. to go out, to go in, to go away);
b) change the aspect of the verb, i.e. mark the completeness of the process (e.g. to eat – to
eat up; to stand – to stand up);
c) intensify the meaning of the process (e.g. to end – to end up; to finish – to finish up (off));
d) lose its lexical meaning and form an integral whole, a set expression (e.g. to fall out ‘to
quarrel’; to give in ‘to surrender’; to come off ‘to take place’).
These combinations have been treated by different scholars in different ways. Some scholars
have treated the second element as a variety of adverbs, as preposition-like adverbs, as a
special kind of adverb called adverbial postpositon, as postverbial particles, as a special kind
of form-word called postpositive and etc.
3. Semantic characteristics of the adverb.
Adverbs are divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial. Qualitative adverbs
express immediate, inherently non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities with -ly at
the end (The little boy was crying bitterly over his broken toy.).
Although the degree adverbs are traditionally described under the heading of "quantitative",
in reality, they occupy an intermediate position between qualitative and quantitative words.
Circumstantial adverbs are also divided into notional and functional. The functional
circumstantial adverbs are words of pronominal nature. They include numerical adverbs,
adverbs of time, place, manner, cause, consequence. Many of them are used as syntactic
connectives and question-forming words (now, here, when, where, etc.) Notional
circumstantial adverbs include two basic sets: adverbs of time and adverbs of place: today,
tomorrow, already, ever; far, outside, ashore, etc.
4. Syntactic functions of the adverb and its patterns of combinability.
In accord with their categorial meaning, adverbs are characterized by a combinability with
verbs, adjectives, and words of adverbial nature. The functions of adverbs in these
combinations consist of expressing different adverbial modifiers.
Adverbs combine with:
1. Finite or non-finite forms of the verb ( to cook well)
2. Adjectives ( very happy)
3. Adverbs ( very strong)
4. Nouns (the trip abroad)
Adverbs can also refer to whole situations; in this function, they are considered under the
heading of the situation-“determinants”. Adverbs can also combine with nouns acquiring in
such cases a very peculiar adverbial-attributive function, essentially in post-position, but in
some cases also in pre-position. Some adverbs are restricted in their combinability whereas
others may modify different words. Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers of
manner, place, time, the degree to a finite or non-finite form of the verb. Adverbs may also
function as adverbial modifiers to an adjective or another adverb. Usually, the modifying
adverb is an intensifier.
There are some adverbs that may modify nouns or words of the nominal character,
functioning as attributes.
Functions:
1. Adverbial modifier ( She is extremely shy)
2. Attribute ( the world today is different) – rare

5. Positional characteristics of the adverb.

We can put adverbs and adverb phrases at the front, in the middle or at the end of a clause.
The front position of the clause is the first item in the clause:
E.g.: Suddenly I felt afraid. Yesterday detectives arrested a man and a woman in connection
with the murder.
The end position of the clause is the last item in the clause:
E.g.: Why do you always have to eat so fast?
The mid position is between the subject and the main verb:
E.g.: Apples always taste best when you pick them straight off the tree.
Where there is more than one verb, mid-position means after the first auxiliary verb or after
a modal verb:
E.g.: The government has occasionally been forced to change its mind. (after the first
auxiliary verb)
You can definitely never predict what will happen. (after a modal verb)
We mightn’t ever have met. (after the modal verb and before the auxiliary verb)
In questions, mid-position is between the subject and the main verb:
E.g.: Do you ever think about living there?
Adverbs usually come after the main verb be, except in emphatic clauses:
E.g.: She’s always late for everything.
When ‘be’ is emphasized, the adverb comes before the verb:
E.g.: Why should I have gone to see Madonna? I never was a fan of hers. (emphatic)
6. General outline of the adjective.
1. Semantic features. The adjective expresses the property of an entity. Typically, adjectives
denote states, usually permanent states, although there are also adjectives that can denote
temporary states. Adjectives are characteristically stative, but many of them can be seen as
dynamic. The stative property of an entity is a property that cannot be conceived as a
developing process, and the dynamic property of an entity is a property that is conceived as
active, or as a developing process. E.g.: Mary is thoughtful. vs. Mary is being thoughtful
today.
Mary is very thoughtful today (unemphatic). vs. Mary is being thoughtful today (emphatic).
 
2. Morphological features. Adjectives are related either to nouns or verbs. Suffixes changing
nouns to adjectives are: - (i)al (essential), -ar (familiar), -ary (ordinary) or –ery (quarterly), -
ed (unemployed), -en (sudden), -esque (arabesque), -ful (wonderful), -ic(al) (critical), -ish
(childish), -istic (realistic), -less (poweless), -like (childlike), -ly (early), -ous (dangerous), -
ward (inward), -wide (worldwide), -y (busy). Suffixes changing verbs to adjectives are: -
able (variable) or –ible (irresistible), -ent (excellent) or –ant (pleasant), -ed (faded), -ing
(interesting), -ive (impressive), -(at)ory (mandatory).
3. Syntactic features. In the sentence, the adjective performs the functions of an attribute (an
adjunct) and a predicative. The more typical function is that of an attribute since the
function of a predicative can also be performed by other parts of speech.
Adjectives can sometimes be postpositive, that is, they can sometimes follow the item they
modify. Adjectives can often function as heads of noun phrases. They do not inflect for
number and for the genitive case and must take a definite determiner. An adjective can
function as a verbless clause (E.g. Anxious, he dialed the number).
7. Classification of adjectives.
Semantic classification. All the adjectives are traditionally divided into two large
subclasses: qualitative and relative. Relative adjectives express such properties of a
substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substance.
E.g. mathematics — mathematical precision; history — a historical event.
Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances
which admit of a quantitative estimation, i.e. of establishing their correlative quantitative
measure. The measure of a quality can be estimated as high or low, sufficient or insufficient,
optimal or excessive.
However, in actual speech the described principle of distinction is not strictly observed.
Substances can possess qualities that are incompatible with the idea of degrees of
comparison. So adjectives denoting these qualities and incapable of forming degrees of
comparison still belong to the qualitative subclass (extinct, immobile, deaf, final, fixed, etc.)
On the other hand, some relative adjectives can form degrees of comparison. Prof. Blokh
suggests that all the adjective functions may be grammatically divided into "evaluative" and
"specificative". One and the same adjective, irrespective of its being "relative" or
"qualitative", can be used either in the evaluative function or in the specificative function.
For instance, the adjective good is basically qualitative. On the other hand, when employed
as a grading term in teaching, so together with the grading terms bad, satisfactory, excellent,
it acquires the said specificative value; in other words, it becomes a specificative, not an
evaluative unit in the grammatical sense. Conversely, the adjective wooden is basically
relative, but when used in the broader meaning "expressionless" or "awkward" it acquires an
evaluative force and can presuppose a greater or lesser degree ("amount") of the denoted
properly in the corresponding referent.  
Adjectives that characterize the referent of the noun directly are termed inherent, those that
do not are termed non-inherent. E.g.: a fresh leaf of tea– the leaf of tea is fresh
Most adjectives are inherent, and it is especially uncommon for dynamic adjectives to be
other than inherent.
Syntactic classification. From a syntactic point of view, adjectives can be divided into three
groups:
1) adjectives which can be used attributively and predicatively (a healthy man – the man is
healthy);
2) adjectives which can be used attributively only (a complete idiot – *the idiot is
complete);
3) adjectives which can be used predicatively only (*a loath man – the man is loath to agree
with it).
Attributive adjectives constitute two groups: 1) intensifying;
 2) restrictive, or particularizing (limiter adjectives).
Intensifying adjectives constitute two groups: 1) emphasizers;
 2) amplifiers.
Emphasizers have a heightening effect on the noun (clear, definite, outright, plain, pure,
real, sheer, sure, true); amplifiers scale upwards from an assumed norm (complete, great,
firm, absolute, close, perfect, extreme, entire, total, utter). Restrictive adjectives restrict the
noun to a particular member of the class (chief, exact, main, particular, precise, principal,
sole, specific). They particularize the reference of the noun.
8. The category of adjectival comparison.
The category of comparison is constituted by the opposition of three forms of the adjective:
the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.
There are three ways of forming degrees of comparison: synthetic, analytic, and suppletive.
The synthetic way of forming degrees of comparison is by the inflections -er, -est; the
analytic way, by placing more and most before the adjective. The synthetic way is generally
used with monosyllabic adjectives and dissyllabic adjectives ending in -y, -ow, -er, -le and
those which have the stress on the last syllable. However, in the dissyllabic group we can
observe radical changes: adjectives formerly taking -er and -est are tending to go over to
more and most , e.g. more common, most common; more cloudy, most cloudy; more fussy,
most fussy; more cruel, most cruel; more quiet, most quiet; more clever, most clever; more
profound, most profound; more simple, most simple; more pleasant, most pleasant.
All this goes to show that English comparison is getting more and more analytic. As already
pointed out, the third way of forming degrees of comparison is by the use of suppletive
forms: good _ better, best; bad _ worse, worst; far _farther/further, farthest/furthest; little _
less, least; much/many _ more, most.
9.Specific nature of adjectives of participial origin.
Another major subclass of adjectives can also be formally distinguished by endings, this
time by -ed or -ing endings:    
-ed form: computerized, determined, excited, misunderstood, renowned, self-centred,
talented, unknown;
-ing form: annoying, exasperating, frightening, gratifying, misleading, thrilling, time-
consuming, worrying;
Adjectives with -ed or -ing endings are known as participal adjectives, because they have
the same endings as verb participles (he was training for the Olympics, he had trained for
the Olympics). In some cases there is a verb which corresponds to these adjectives (to
annoy, to computerize, to excite, etc), while in others there is no corresponding verb (to
renown, to self-centre, to talent). Like other adjectives, participial adjectives can usually be
modified by very, extremely, or less (very determined, extremely self-centred, less
frightening, etc). They can also take more and most to form comparatives and superlatives
(annoying, more annoying, most annoying). Finally, most participial adjectives can be used
both attributively and predicatively:  

Attributive Predicative

That's an interesting film  That film is intresting

 That was an exciting trip That trip was exciting

He's an experienced teacher That teacher is experienced

Many participial adjectives, which have no corresponding verb, are formed by combining a
noun with a participle:  
alcohol-based chemicals;
battle-hardened soldiers;  
drug-induced coma;  
energy-saving devices;  
fact-finding mission;  
purpose-built accommodation.
When participial adjectives are used predicatively, it may sometimes be difficult to
distinguish between adjectival and verbal uses:  
[1] the workers are striking. In the absence of any further context, the grammatical status of
striking is indeterminate here. The following expansions illustrate possible adjectival [1a]
and verbal [1b] readings of [1]:   [1a] the workers are very striking in their new uniforms
(=`impressive', `conspicuous')   [1b] the workers are striking outside the factory gates (=`on
strike')
Adjectival
This film is terrifying
Your comments are alarming
The defendant's answers were misleading
Verbal
This film is terrifying the children
Your comments are alarming the people
The defendant's answers were misleading the jury
Discriminating between adjectival and verbal constructions is sometimes facilitated by the
presence of additional context, such as by-agent phrases or adjective complements.
However, when none of these indicators is present, grammatical indeterminacy remains.
With -ed and -ing participial forms, there is no grammatical indeterminacy if there is no
corresponding verb. For example, in the job was time-consuming, and the allegations were
unfounded, the participial forms are adjectives.  Similarly, the problem does not arise if the
main verb is not be. For example, the participial forms in this book seems boring, and he
remained offended are all adjectives.  E.g.: John was depressed/John felt depressed.
10. Patterns of combinability of adjectives.
Adjectives are combined with several parts of speech.
1) They may combine with nouns, which they may premodify or postmodify: a black dress,
a chivalrous gentleman, the delegates present. If there are several premodifying adjectives to
one headword they have definite positional assignments. Generally descriptive adjectives
precede the limiting ones, as in a naughty little boy, a beautiful French girl, but il there are
several of each type, adjectives of different meanings stand like, for example, a large black
and white hunting dog, a small pale green oval seed.
This order of words is of course not absolutely fixed, since many adjectives may be either
descriptive or limiting, depending on the context. The adjectives are not separated by
commas, unless they belong to the same type: a nice little old man. However, if there is
more than one adjective of the same type they are separated by commas: nasty, irritable,
selfish man (all three belong to the type of ‘judgement or general characterization’).
In several noun-phrases of French origin (mostly legal or quasilegal) the adjective is
postpositional. Examples: attorney general heir apparent time immemorial body politic
Queen Regnant Lords Spiritual (Temporal).
These noun-phrases are very similar to compounds and some of them are spelt as a
compound, with a hyphen (knight-errant, postmaster-general). The plural ending is attached
either to the first element, or to the second: Examples: court-martials postmaster-general,
courts-martial postmasters-general.
Postmodification may be due to the structural complexity of postmodifiers (the children
easiest to teach, the climate peculiar to this country), or to the presence of only or all in
preposition (the only actor suitable, the only person visible, all the money available).
2) Beside their usual function, that of modifying nouns, adjectives may be combined with
other words in the sentence. They may be modified by adverbials of degree, like very, quite,
that, rather, most, a lot, a sort of, a bit, enough, totally, perfectly, so... as: very long, a bit
lazy, sort of naive, far enough, a little bit tired, a most beautiful picture, not so foolish as
that, she is not that crazy.
The adverb very can combine only with adjectives denoting the gradable properties. Thus it
is possible to say very tired (tiredness may be of different degree), but it is impossible to say
very unknown, very ceaseless, very unique, as these adjectives do not allow of gradation.
With the adverb too the indefinite article is placed between the adjective and the head-noun.
With the adverb rather the article is placed after it:
E.g.: This is too difficult a problem to solve at once. This is rather a complicated matter.
3. Predicative adjectives are combined with the link verbs to be, to seem, to appear, to look,
to turn, or notional verbs in a double predicate:
E.g.: He looks tired. She does not seem so crazy as before. She is quite healthy. She felt
faint. If sounded rather fussy. The food tasted good. The flowers smell sweet.
11. Syntactic functions of adjectives.
Syntactically adjectives may function both as 1) attributes and 2) predicatives, i.e. parts of
the predicate. Here are the examples of the attributive use: She returned in the early
morning. After careful consideration, we accepted the offer. Trying to conceal her
embarrassment she turned away her red face.
Sometimes adjectives used attributively may occur in postposition, i.e. after the noun they
describe: This is the only possible answer. — This is the only answer possible. In some
cases the postpositional use of adjectives is obligatory: I'll do everything possible to help
you.When used predicatively, adjectives are combined with link-verbs: be, feel, get, grow,
look, seem, smell, taste, turn. For instance: I was early for work today. When driving he is
always careful. They feel nervous. He looked happy. Honey tastes sweet. She turned red
with embarrassment.Such adjectives as long, high, wide, deep, etc. find themselves in
predicative position together with nouns denoting periods of time and units for measuring
height, length and so on. For example: The garden is 20 meters long and 15 meters wide.
The well is 25 meters deep.
The most frequently recurrent link-verb is the verb to be which enters a considerable
number of set expressions of adjective + preposition type: be ready for/with, be fond of, be
late for, be jealous of, be happy about, be afraid of, be frightened of, be dependent on, be
persistent in, be grateful to/for, be angry with, be certain about/of, be suspicious of, etc. The
predicative function of the adjectival collocations is often supported by their synonymous
verbal counterparts be fond of— love, be grateful to/for — thank, be suspicious of—
suspect of.
The predicative function may be performed by double comparative forms of adjectives in
the elliptical (or predicatively incomplete sentences with missing verbal elements): The
more expensive the hotel, the better the service. (The more expensive the hotel is...) The
warmer the weather the better I feel.
Adjectives with the a- prefix like afire, afloat, agape, ajar, akin, etc. usually function
predicatively: The house was aflame. The company somehow managed to keep afloat. The
problem facing him is akin to that of ours. However, in some rare cases, they may be used
attributively: He got down to work afire with enthusiasm.
12. Peculiarities of substantivised adjectives.
Substantivized adjectives have acquired some or all of the characteristics of the noun, but
their adjectival origin is still generally felt.
Substantivized adjectives are divided into wholly substantivized and partially substantivized
adjectives. Wholly substantivized adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns, namely
the plural form, the genitive case; they are associated with articles, i. e. they have become
nouns: a native, the natives, a native's hut. Some wholly substantivized adjectives have only
the plural form: eatables, valuables, ancients, sweets, greens.
Partially substantivized adjectives acquire only some of the characteristics of the noun; they
are used with the definite article. Partially substantivized adjectives denote a whole class:
the rich, the poor; the unemployed. They may also denote abstract notions: the good, the
evil, the beautiful, the singular, the plural, the future, the present, the past.
Substantivized adjectives denoting nationalities fall under wholly and partially
substantivized adjectives. Wholly substantivized adjectives are: a Russian — Russians, a
German — Germans. Partially substantivized adjectives are: the English, the French, the
Chinese.
13. Morphological composition of numerals.
The Cardinals
Among the cardinals there are simple, derived, and compound words. The cardinals from
one to twelve, hundred, thousand, million are simple words; those from thirteen to nineteen
are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -teen; the cardinals
denoting fens are derived from the corresponding simple ones by means of the suffix -ty.
The cardinals from twenty-one to twenty-nine, from thirty-one to thirty-nine, etc. and those
over hundred are compounds. In cardinals consisting of tens and units the two words are
hyphenated: 21 - twenty-one, 35 - thirty-five, 72 - seventy-two, etc.
In cardinals including hundreds and thousands the words denoting units and tens are joined
to those denoting hundreds, thousands, by means of the conjunction and: 103 - one hundred
and three, 225 - two hundred and twenty-five, 3038 - three thousand and thirty-eight, 9651 -
nine thousand six hundred and fifty-one.
The words for common fractions are also composite. They are formed from cardinals
denoting the numerator and substantivized ordinals denoting the denominator. If the
numerator is a numeral higher than one, the ordinal in the denominator takes the plural
form. The numerator and denominator may be joined by means of a hyphen or without it:
1/3 - one-third (one third), 2/7 - two-sevenths (two sevenths), etc.
In mixed numbers, the numerals denoting fractions are joined to the numerals denoting
integers (whole numbers) by means of the conjunction and: 3 1/5 - three and one-fifth, 20
3/8 - twenty and three-eighths.
In decimal fractions the numerals denoting fractions are joined to those denoting whole
numbers by means of the words point or decimal: 0.5 - zero point (decimal) five, 2.3 - two
point (decimal) three, 0,5   - zero decimal five, 0,005 - zero decimal zero zero five.
The ordinals
Among the ordinals there are also simple, derivative and compound words. The simple
ordinals are first, second and third. The derivative ordinals are derived from the simple and
derivative cardinals by means of the suffix -th: four-fourth, ten-tenth, sixteen-sixteenth,
twenty-twentieth, etc. Before the suffix -th the final у is replaced by ie: thirty - thirtieth, etc.
The compound ordinals are formed from composite cardinals. In this case only the last
component of the compound numeral has the form of the ordinal: twenty-first, forty-second,
sixty-seventh, one hundred and first, etc.
14. Morphological characteristics of numerals.
If we speak about morphological characteristics, the numerals do not undergo any
morphological changes, that is, they do not have morphological categories. In this, they
differ from nouns with numerical meaning. Thus, the numerals ten, hundred, thousand do
not have plural forms: two hundred and fifty, four thousand people, etc., whereas the
corresponding homonymous nouns ten, hundred, thousand to tens, hundreds of people,
thousands of birds, etc. Numerals combine mostly with nouns and function as their
attributes, usually as premodifying attributes. If a noun has several premodifying attributes
including a cardinal or an ordinal, these come first, as in: three tiny green leaves, seven iron
men, the second pale little boy, etc.
If both a cardinal and an ordinal refer to one head-noun the ordinal comes first: In English:
the first three tall girls, the second two grey dogs, etc.
Nouns premodified by ordinals are used with the definite article: The first men in the moon,
the third month, etc. When used with the indefinite article, they lose their numerical
meaning and acquire that of a pronoun (another, one more), as in English: a second man
entered.
Postmodifying numerals combine with a limited number of nouns.
Postmodifying cardinals are combinable with some nouns denoting items of certain sets of
things: pages, paragraphs, chapters, parts of books, acts and scenes of plays, lessons in
textbooks, apartments and rooms, buses or trams (means of transport), grammatical terms,
etc.;
In such cases the cardinals have a numbering meaning and thus differ semantically from the
ordinals which have an enumerating meaning. Enumeration indicates the order of a thing in
a certain succession of things, while numbering indicates a number constantly attached to a
thing either in a certain succession or in a certain set of things. Thus, the first room
(enumeration) is not necessarily room one (numbering), etc. Compare: the first room I
looked into was room five, or the second page that he read was page twenty-three, etc.
Postmodifying ordinals occur in combinations with certain proper names, mostly those
denoting the members of well-known dynasties: King Henry VIII — King Henry the
Eighth, Peter I — Peter the First, etc. As headwords modified by other words numerals are
combinable with prepositional phrases: the first of May, one of the men, two of them, etc.
15. Patterns of combinability of numerals.
Numerals combine mostly with nouns and function as their attributes, usually as
premodifying attributes. If a noun has several premodifying attributes including a cardinal
or an ordinal, these come first, as in: three tiny green leaves, seven iron men, the second
pale little boy, etc.
The only exception is pronoun determiners, which always begin a series of attributes: his
second beautiful wife; these four rooms; her three little children; every second day, etc.
If both a cardinal and an ordinal refer to one head-noun the ordinal comes first: the first
three tall girls, the second two grey dogs, etc.
Nouns premodified by ordinals are used with the definite article: The first men in the moon,
the third month, etc.
When used with the indefinite article, they lose their numerical meaning and acquire that of
a pronoun (another, one more), as in: a second man entered, then a third.
Postmodifying numerals combine with a limited number of nouns. Postmodifying cardinals
are combinable with some nouns denoting items of certain sets of things: pages, paragraphs,
chapters, parts of books, acts and scenes of plays, lessons in textbooks, apartments and
rooms, buses or trams (means of transport), grammatical terms, etc.; room two hundred and
three, page ten, bus four, participle one, etc.
Postmodifying ordinals occur in combinations with certain proper names, mostly those
denoting the members of well-known dynasties: King Henry VIII - King Henry the Eighth,
Peter I - Peter the First, etc.
As headwords modified by other words numerals are combinable with:
1) prepositional phrases: the first of May, one of the men, two of them, etc.
2) pronouns: every three days, all seven, each fifth, etc.
3) adjectives: the best three of them, the last two weeks, etc.
4) particles: just five days ago, only two, only three books, he is nearly sixty, etc.
16. Syntactic function of numerals.
Ordinal numerals are used as attributes.
"No, this is my first dance," she said.
Almost immediately the band started, and her second partner seemed to spring from the
ceiling.
... the young man opposite had long since disappeared. Now the other two got out. (subject)
Earle Fox was only fifty-four, but he felt timeless and ancient. (predicative)
And again she saw them, but not four, more like forty laughing, sneering, jeering ... (object)
At eight the gong sounded for supper. (Mansfield) (adverbial modifier)
Cardinals are sometimes used to denote the place of an object in a series.
... but from the corner of the street until she came to No. 26 she thought of those four flights
of stairs.
Exercises.
1. State the classification features of the adjectives and adverbs used in the given sentences.
1. 1) exactly – a qualitative limiting adverb;
2) beautiful – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
3) pretty – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
4) cruel – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
5) young – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
6) brilliant – a qualitative descriptive adjective;
7) extremely – a qualitative evaluative adverb;
8) modern – a qualitative descriptive adjective;
9) exquisitely - a qualitative evaluative adverb;
10) amazingly - a qualitative evaluative adverb;
11) well –read – a participial adjective;
12) the newest – the superlative form of the qualitative evaluative adjective;
13) the most delicious – the superlative form of the qualitative evaluative adjective;
14) really – a qualitative evaluative adverb;
15) important – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
16) quaint – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
17) terrifying - a qualitative evaluative adjective;
18) quite – adverb – a qualitative evaluative adverb;
19) presentable – a qualitative descriptive adjective;
20) amusing - a qualitative evaluative adjective.
2. 1) great - a qualitative evaluative adjective;
2) quiet – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
3) ebony – a relative adjective (through relation to material);
4) dull – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
5) faint- a qualitative evaluative adjective;
6) subtle - a qualitative evaluative adjective.
3. 1) beautiful – – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
2) big – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
3) wonderful - a qualitative evaluative adjective;
4) lacquer – a relative adjective (through relation to cover material);
5) gold – a relative noun (through relation to material);
6) blue – a relative noun (through relation to colour).
4. 1) hurriedly – a qualitative evaluative adverb;
2) straight (to) – can be regarded as the adverbial phrase;
3) apologetically – a qualitative descriptive adverb;
4) superb – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
5) perfectly – a qualitative descriptive adverb;
6) to be clear of – “clear” here is the predicative adjective (part of the predicate).
5. 1) helpful –a qualitative evaluative adjective;
2) pervasive – a qualitative descriptive adjective;
3) honest – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
4) hungry – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
5) loyal – a qualitative evaluative adjective.
6. 1) quick – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
2) plain – here (an adverb) –a qualitative evaluative adverb;
3) strong - a qualitative evaluative adjective;
4) physical – a relative adjective (through relation to type of condition);
5) greater – the comparative form of the adjective “great” - qualitative evaluative adjective.
7. 1) elder – here is depicted as an independent adjective – a qualitative limiting adjective;
2) proud – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
3) vacuous – a qualitative descriptive adjective;
4) intelligent – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
5) robust – a qualitative evaluative adjective.
8. 1) tall – a qualitative evaluative adjective;
2) homely – a qualitative descriptive adverb;
3) horn-rimmed – a relative adjective (through relation to the material (of the spectacle
frame);
4) deep (voice) – a qualitative evaluative adjective.

ex. 2 Give the forms of degrees of comparison and state whether they are formed in a
synthetic, analytical or suppletive way,
a) wet - wetter - wettest (synthetic);
merry - merrier - the merriest (synthetic);
real - more real - the most real (analytical);
far - farther - the farthest (suppletive);

b) kind-hearted - more kind-hearted - the most kind-hearted (analytical);

shy - shyer - the shyest (synthetic);
little - less - the least (suppletive);
friendly - friendlier - the friendliest (synthetic);

c) certain - more certain - the most certain (analytical);

comical - more comical - the most comical (analytical);
severe - severer - the severest (synthetic);
well-off - more well-off - the most well-off (analytical);

d) sophisticated - more sophisticated - the most sophisticated (analytical);

clumsy - clumsier - the clumsiest (synthetic);
old-fashioned - more old-fashioned - the most old-fashioned (analytical);
good-looking - more good-looking - the most good-looking (analytical).
ex. 3 Give the Russian equivalents for the English word combinations:
iron rations - сухой паёк
iron foundry (ironworks) - чугунолитейный (металлургический завод)
iron industry - металлургическая промышленность
ironware (iron mongery) - скобяной товар (железные изделия)
ferrous metal - черные металлы
ferrous oxide - оксиды железа
celestial map - небесная карта
sky-force - воздушные силы
celestial food - пища богов
sky-line - линия горизонта
skyway - эстакада
celestial navigation - астронавигация
sea-cock - морской петух
dog-fish - катран (акула)
echinus - эхинус (морской еж)
sea-boy - юнга
sea-water - морская вода
naval base - военно-морская база
"sea dog" - морской пес (бывалый моряк)
Admiralty - адмиралтейство (морское министерство)
Admiralty mile
sea-hedgehog - морской еж
starfish - морская звезда
sea-horse - морской конек
sea-dye - краситель морской воды (спасательое средство)
grass-wrack - рдестовые (вид водных растений)
sea kale - морская капуста
"old salt" - морской волк (опытный моряк, рассказчик историй)
sea-cliff - прибрежная скала
sea-cow - морская корова
sea-lane - морской маршрут