Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Religion

    Uploaded by

    Jitendra Jakhar
    23 views16 pages

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    23 views16 pages

    Religion

    Uploaded by

    Jitendra Jakhar

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 16
    11 RELIGION 11.1. WHAT IS RELIGION ? Religion is a universal and pervasive institysion in human society. Of all the manifestations of imfin’s intellectual and social life, religion stands most elusive. The belicf, thought, and action with which religion is concerned could be found at. all levels of culture, primitive or civilized . Religion may be defined as a ‘ system i band ractices by means of wi oup of le attempt to Me problems of human life.’ igion is the instiutionalized set of belief men hold about supernatural forces. 11.2. HOW IT WAS ORIGINATED ? y "Science will never be able to trace with absolute certainty, the first beginnings of human culture, still less the first beginnings of the belief in a supernatural world. In dealing with this problem we merely use hypothesis of greater or less probability, primarily based on the data concerning the religious ideas, rites, and ceremonies of so-called primitive people in different parts of the world."’ Religion has been regarded as a productof civilization | until Tylor” gave convine- ing proof that primitive societies have their own versions of religious activities, not very different from that of civilized societies, In fact, we donot find any primitive society without religious beliefs and practices, All religions consist of a mental at- titude regarding the supernatural. The most wide- spread manifestation of this at- titude is in the shape of beliefs and rituals, the former is regarded as the static part, and the latteras the dynamic part of religion. What differentiates the so-called higher religionsfrom the primitive varietiesis the relative absence of philosophical specula- tion in the latter. Primitive man has not been found to be given to philosophizing as much as modern man is. In other words, the whole primitive‘ phil hy ’ iscalled animism and the system of primitive ideas is constituted by so-called magic. _ Durkheim’ thinks that the primitives generally distinguish two component ele- ments in the supernatural fields: a sacred part and a profane part. He considers the sacred part as religion and the profane part as magic or primitive science. Now let us discuss the different hypothesis regarding the controversial problem of the origin of religion. At the time when Old Testament was regarded as an infal- lible authority on the early history of man, the first form of religion was supposed to have.been a Clear, although simple belief in one single god, a belief which later dégenerajéd into polytheism and demonism. This theory has frequently been 1. Kaphen, Refeal-The Origins of Religion, London, 1935. 2. Tylor, EB - Primitive Culture, 1871. 3, Durkheim, E-Etementary forms of the Religious life, 1914. 4. Ths discussion simplified presen ofthe amon ing of Rael Kaen onthe Origin af Relivian’. 1535. a bdddddd dd ld ddde Godd | oe bg Tntrodacing Social and Colmeal Amhropotogy: ged s Fenewed by scholars even now apparently founding it on a more sciertific basis, t Atthe end of the last century, several prominent historians of religion had found t Babyi ed & "primary monotheism’ in the religious histary of the ancient Egyptians, ) ans, and Indians. Max Muller rejected this theory of an original Tnatheism in the Vedic religion ofthe Indians. His theory of Renotheism (ic. belief ene Bod without asserting that he is the only god) inspired many of his contem- Retarics. Both monotheism and henotheism may be considered as old theory of Screwe ation in contrast to the modern theory of progress, supported by the Scientists of the evelutionary school. sate theory of degeneration centres round the idea that on essential points there ‘been a movement backward and not forward i.e. from higher forms to lower art underlies cerain other theories which assumes a relatively high standard of R “S0us thought in premeval times, For instance, at the end of the last century, ‘obertson Smith (his work on the Semites) considered that totemism was the original form of religion. Totemism as conceived by Smith was, in fact, alow form of monotheism. Early in this century the old theory of primary monotheism and the degeneration theory upon which it is based were revived by Andrew Lang. His theory of a monotheism among the lower races of mankind which is a survival from primitive times has | been reconsidered by Father Schmidt and his pupils | Anyhow, just as the degeneration theory recognizes progression, so of course, the progression theory recognizes degeneration as a powerful influence affecting the course of culture. Realizing the truth that human culture hasknown both advance. and retreat, we also acknowledge the necessity of using the word “evolution” with caution. w Then, let us point out the well-known theory founded by Sir James Frazer, according to which, in the evolution of human thought, the stage of religion was preceded by an earlier stage of magic. Amongst the followers of the evolutionary school who have tried to explain the origin of religion, thenames of Hérbert Spencer and E. B. Tylor should be mentioned above all others. According to them, religion has developed out of the primitive worship of departed soul (anima). An attitude of awe and reverence towa:ds intangible and non-materialistic supernatural and su- persensory spiritual beings forms the core of the earliest form of religion. Animism consists of such a belief in the role of spiritual beings in human life : itis a kind of polytheism and the progress was from polytheisn: towards monotheism, iB theory of animism. ; | ‘ eee {ax Muller and other critics of animism postulated that a pre imistic stage when religious belief: supposedly consisted mainly in the belie! Si oo eee hus life and is animate. This theory is known as animatism. More everything has Movolved a special form of animatistic theory which he cals cee Pea em the Melanesian term ‘riana” meaning power or force. manaism, “in i ental and psychical Malinowski considers religion as ad ee svc | Religion stability none individual’ life. Ithas been originated to bring abouta re-adjustment between man and the Supernatural in upset states of existence It may be said t be According to Radcliff-Brown, religion has been originated just as social survival ie out of a sense of dependenceon it. itis the fear of capemoncal control and punishment that brings about adherence to a norm of behaviour which is essential in forms of social survival. However, such opinions about primitive religion may have varied general view of which Tylor laid the foundation, has on the whole, retained its validity ‘Animism’ as sketched by Tylor, isa fact, however differently we may use to explain the details of ‘primitive philosophy’ and whatever place we may assign to it in the evolution of religion. By religion, Tylor simply means the belief in spiritual beings. The belief in spirits, thas on certain sénse 'animism’ must be regarded as the very essence of primitive religion. Moreover, we find in fact, the religious evolution has hardly any ‘stages’ of religion which can be distinguished clearly one from another. Thus, there never has existed a ‘pure’ monotheism. Still more impossible it is to draw a sharp line of demarcation between animism and polytheism. The different forms of religion, both higher and lower, blend or combined and how difficult it is to fix definite limits between them. 11.3. SUPERNATURALISM AS THE CORE OF ALL RELIGION : Tylor’s theory of animism has been of epoch-making importance to us. Its stimulating influence on the modem science can not be denied. There is no people in the present day world, however low in the scale of human development, which is wholly devoid of religion. The belief in spirits, thus in a certain sense ‘animism’ must still be regarded as the essence of primitive religion. Moreover, we find that ideas of the supernatural occuring as the core or nucleus of all religions, modern or primitive. Thus animism, in its full development, includes the belief in controlling deities and sub-ordinate spirits in souls, and in future state, the doctrines practically resulting in some kind of active worship. Further, according to Tylor, the theory of animism divides into two great dogmas, forming parts of one consistent doctrine : first, concerning the souls of individual creatures, capable of continued existence after the death or destruction of the body: second, concerning other spirits, extending to the rank of powerful deities. 'ylor’ s three vital propositions on the origin and development of human religion get empirical support. these propositions are : i) Religion developed out of fear. il) Though the conservatives think that religion is the product civilization, yet there are convincing proof that all the societies of the world, modern or Primitive, have their own versions of religion. not very much different so far the core matter is concemed. iti) all religions consist of a mental attitude regarding the supernature! 5. Malinowski, B-Magic, Science, and Religion and other essays, Glencoe, 1548 a ‘naturalism 1s thus, the product of the evolutionary development of the Super s san brain. Animals are too stupid to produce either religion or magic. : wilh 1 s{lects on the universe of expenences that engulf him and Lebepishs Meroe about their nature, their aussi, es Oe sorstatiy a nae 7 back the ey ¢ forms of a Palco ge and mystic thinking has contelled rave ofhuman life, The term ‘supernaturalism’ clearly implies a dichotomy of cae : that ich vis natural and that which is more than natural i.e. Superior to natur eae ‘ W hat seems natural and whatas supernatural is relative to the culture of Feaceat Nothing is inherently supernatural; it depends on how people eralutic, an oka things. It is often said that religion exists in the areas of things — nat understand, and that religion provides answers to the unanswerable. rhe essen difference between the natural and the supernatural lies in the quantitative emotion- al veffecuve, auitudes of mind and feeling. Prof. Lowie remarked “a sense of something wanscending the expected or natural, a sense of. the extraordinary, mystenous, or supernatural. Religious belief is essentially mystical, subjective, whereas naturalistic belie emphasizes objective and rational determination of the tacts. | Durkheim's profane part relates to natural works that are accepted as ordinary? ‘*hich are in accord with daily experience, On the contrary, the supematural works are looked upon as unusual and special. The ‘emotional connotations are consequent- ly different. They are the product of human mental States. “Urban culture contri ibuted io the birth of the age of enlightenment and the age a demon (rahu-grash). In these days of the present generation with growing scientific knowledge can nothave faith in such. funny myth. Again, natural causations like thunder, earthquake, flood, cyclone “tc were taken by the traditional Hindus as the outcome of the deities residing in them. They blow conch shell frequently during incessant rains and thunder to appease the anger of the deity residing in them, The earthquake was thought to be the Outcome of restless shaking of the body of the snake-goddess, Basti who is holding this universe upon her hood. Conch-shell is blown the advent of science and techi to appease her. So, with : nology, sphere of human knowled; increasing and the previous sphere ay. a ige is gradually I uperaturalism is found Greatly reducing. ‘The area of answerable is becoming more wide while the unans\ . of human knowledge is Steadily shortened, at web ea 6 Lowe, RH.-Primitive Rell igion, New York, 1924, 153 Religion : ‘ecties, itis still now, But he belie insypematural was therein all the human societies, itis tlt now, and it will have continued existence in future, In every human ioral an Pi cophet phenomenal experiences of natural transforming into superna ews, Ewo arms; Mohanymad,among the Muslims, was a natural man like us with wo ss mn orphan one eye and one nose. From the historical records,we know that ie vd Gradually, living in the house of his uncle and had to toil hard to fetch his bre oa himas on he proved his worth as a preceptor or a eligious:guide and People accep! hines nad extra-ordinary man, ar supernatural. The book which contains his preac| se arist teachings is the sacred Koran of the Muslims. So, also the case with oe Tea The Holy Bible ventilates extra-ordinary, superhuman quality ol ne Christ Ramakrishna Paramahansa and Swami Vivekananda were ordinary perso . living an the northem part of Calcutta. By dint of their meditations and OL like qualities, they elevated their statuses to the supematural order and at present, in almost every Bengalee house, the photographs are being worshipped with deep devotions. In their photographs; the symbol of rising sun is marked just behind their heads. This chhata of sun is also marked inthe photographs of Prophet Mahammad, Jesus Christ, Guru Nanak, Buddha ‘Deva, sold in the market. This clearly indicates that natural beings can be elevated to the. ‘Super-natural order and ultimately, people will start worshipping them to Set salvation, Incurable diseases may be cured by the religious prescription offered by them to their devotees. Among the rural and tribal people, some persons may possess some extra-ordinary spirits, permanently or temporarily for certain period of time, They are accepted by local people as supermatural. Permanent spirit-possessers may draw some devotees who consider. him as guru,This kind of Guru-Bandana is an age-old practice of the Hindus and other religious sects, In modem days, enlightened People are not too crazy about these self-styled gurus or sadhus, 114, FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION : . Nadel points out four main functions of religion, such as, “AY it has the capacity of certain supplements to the view of the world of experience (from cosmological aspect), ee Ti) ithas the Capacity to announce and maintain moral valu es. iii) it has the competence to hold together-sgcieties and sustain their structure, and - + ' | | ast Introdocing Social end Cultwral Anthropology Gifficutties or when our mental equillibrium is Lost, we sock the help of supernacural tO overcome the ctisis in life. In.a way, religion serves as a walking sk us ina Similar way as it does serve a blind man. The things which are beyond our contro, can be achieved by depending on supematural (God or Goddess). When the fear of ful natural'calamities haunted us. we seck the help of supernatural beings. Thus, ‘se find that rotigion ‘has the capacity to furnish certain supplements to the world Of experiences’, Life on earth is full of sorrows and miseries and not a happy, gay affairs all ogether. There are uncertainties in life. Our ambitions and hopes are sometimes ‘Dot fulfilled and unattainable. We get frustrations, Sometimes diaster befalls upon us. In these circumstances also, religion helps us in achieving Psychological adjustments and peace of mind. Moreover, religion is one of the sources of morality. ‘The Hindus take a sacred bath in holy Ganges at Prayag, Sagar-sangam on specific Sacred dates to wash off all kinds of sins they committed intentionally or uninten- Uonally. Kumbh-Mela bathing is taken seriously by Hindus for a similar cause. The S. during Medieval times, cocld purchase “sin-condoning’ certificates from the churches, They have the custom even now, that a person who has committed sin somewhere (including criminal offences) can chastify himself by declaring his crimes toa father ofa church, The latter never discloses it to any body. In this way, man gets ultimate men tal peace through religion, Precisely, religson is an aid for our social survival, " Betigion is an effective instrument for Our social integration too : i) Religion has a role in rationalizir justifyin [timate ends. ii) Religion Provides a means for constant ‘renew: ‘al of the common sentiments through its Collective rituals. iii) Religion furnishes a concrete reference for the valnes and rallying point for all persons who share the same values, iv) Religion provides ‘support for social standards i.e. social accepted ideal. valuesare boost up by religion, ¥) Religion acts as agent of social control by providing rewards for the din. ar punishments for the bad.” Z * Marz s outlook on religion was slightly different. He viewed atitas “the opi of the people”. Marx told us that religion is rooted in social oppression, "Region isthe sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless ‘world, and th of soulless conditions. Itis the opium of the people.” He continued with the remarks ‘Religion is the self-consciousress and self-fecling of man, who either has not yet found himself or has already found himself, But man is no abstract being, squatting outside the world. Manis the world of man, the state, society. This State, this society produce religion, a perverted world consciousness, because they are a prerverte world. Religion is the compendium of that world, its eneyclopetiic, its enthusiasm, its moral sanction, its solemn completion, its unive ersal ground for consolation and justification. It is the fantastic realizationiof the human essence because the human tification. feild ‘taeence has on'true reality.’ shattacharya, D.C.-Sociology, Calcutta. 1972 eR. Engels Basic Writings on Poitics and Phiacophy, Anchor Books, 1959. == Heligion lp Kingsley Davis roniarks that "Religion helps to integrate not only the eciet but also the personality,” Byery individual has a system of mmission wich he dequires Through communication wiih others!” t Max Weber, the German Sociologist, firmly believes that modern Western capitalism is the product of Protestant religigh {ls economic ethics, He fol 4s that before modern capitalism appeared it had been perceived, cultivated, and prepared in the realm of the Protestant religion. Protestantisin emphasized the worth of the gave an immense ethical value to worldly vocation and cal ing: if upheld the dignity of hanest labour and inspired honest money-making as 4 sinies duty. This led to the development of individualism at first, and then of an economy built around powerful individuals, i.e. Capitalism.” The role of Protestant religion in the development of Western capitalism 1s wide open for severe criticism. Summarily, we may say that ithad an indirect role but not direct one. 11.5, THE TWO WAYS OF EXPERESSION OF SUPERNATURALISM. (Animism and Animatism-Manaism ) F . Supernaturatism or belief in supernatural Beings © Se @ Profounded by { “expression of Supernaturalism PREUSS & MAX MULLER T ‘Animatism (animatus = living) or the Concept of life & Manaism (mana = power) peo y or the Concept of Power E.B, TYLOR i Animism (anima = soul) cor the concept of Soul —— profounded by R.R. MARETT jupernat ion i é th ANIMISM or the con \turalism finds nin two ways: 1) throug! _ tof soul and 2) through ANIMATISM or the concept of life. The Es e persion was profounded ‘by Edward Brunett Tylor, centering ze ie Gonccre “ soul, unsubstantial human oe The serene form ore geclared bene ‘Animatism, was profounded by Preusss an‘ . They st Se \ ™pre-animistic: SE none ‘human society had to pass before rane u e of soul stage’. More recently. RR. Marett evolved a speci’ _ a pun theory’ which he called Manaism, derived from the Ing power. 7 12. Davis, Kingsley Hunan Society, 1966. : 13, Weber, Max-Essary in Sociology, (ans Gerth and Mills) London, 1948 mmm aaa Untrestucing Sool and Cultural Anthropology NIMISM. Tylor witmessed the origin of uous the pemeas of pha also of Ife and death. The primitive people could not discover any p emcaee between a living and a dead man excepting the heart-beats which they perceive from outside, or was of the opinion that this made the carly men eve that something was there inside the living body which inidated the S of the living individ 's absence made it still and thereby, it could not rform acuyiues like the living, Thus, the primitive man reflected and concluded nat there Were (WO parts to man : the bodily self of mortal flesh and the spiritual ater ago, the soul. According to Tylor, the soul is the unsubstantial human image 1s made up of a sort of vapour-like substance which is impalpable, invisible but ‘ss power. The soul is indestructible i.e. it exists even after death. It may also be ined as a sort of elixir of life . Among the lower tribals, it is transferrable to ssumals but among the higher people it is a man inside a man. ‘The soul is the cause of life and thought. Absence of soul leads to an end of an individual. It is capable of leaving a body and it can enter the bodies of other man, animals or even inanimate objects. x From the primitive point of view, Warneck and Wundt Tecognized nwo kinds of in man the body-soul or the fixed soul and the free-soul or the shadow. The Sody-soul animates the body and pervades the whole of it. But the soul matter

    You might also like