Publications of the

Astronomical Society of the Pacific

Vol. 105 1903 October No. 082

Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

105: 1081-1100, 1993 October

Blue Stragglers1

L. L. Stryker
Arizona State University West, 4701 West Thunderbird Road, Phoenix, Arizona 85069-7100
Electronic mail: stryker@phyast.la.asu.edu
Received 1993 July 6; accepted 1993 July 29

ABSTRACT. It is becoming clearer that several mechanisms, difficult to distinguish, must be

responsible for the blue-straggler phenomenon. It is also highly likely that more than one mechanism
occurs even within the same cluster to produce blue-straggler stars (BSs). There is still some ambiguity
about whether BSs are single or double stars, simply because of the possibility that some BSs have
merged. In the youngest clusters, perhaps high rotation in single BSs provide support for internal
mixing; BSs in young to intermediate-age clusters are likely to receive this mixing support from high
magnetic fields; in old-disk open clusters, globulars, and perhaps dwarf galaxies, binary mass transfer,
and binary merger are likely the major causes for the production of BSs, with a contribution from
binary-binary collisions and coalescence. There is considerable observational evidence of the existence
of binaries in these systems. Progress has been certainly made in the last 40 yr, but BSs remain an
intriguing challenge.

1. INTRODUCTION Norris, and Villumsen (1986) (globulars); Mathys (1987)

1.1 Definition
Blue-straggler stars (BSs) are found in all populations:
in the field, in open clusters of all ages (Population I,
young disk, old disk), in globular clusters (Population II,
halo), and in dwarf galaxies. These stars lie above the
main-sequence turnoff region in color-magnitude diagrams
(CMDs), a region where, if the BSs had been normal sin-
gle stars, they should already have evolved away from the
main sequence. These enigmatic stars lie blueward of the
turnoff and appear to linger or straggle in their evolution-
ary process, hence the name “blue stragglers.” BSs can
therefore potentially be recognized in any stellar system
with a well-defined age, although it is highly likely that the
origins of BSs differ in different-aged systems. Figure 1
illustrates an old-disk galactic open cluster with a popula-
tion of BSs; Fig. 2 shows a galactic globular cluster with
BSs. The actual positions of BSs in the CMD may have a
dependency on metallicity (Fusi Pecci et al. 1992), as
there appears to be somewhat of a trend for the loci to be
farther redward of the cluster ZAMS with increasing clus-
ter metallicity, see Fig. 3, and Sec. 3.2.3.
Several good papers and reviews discussing detections,
properties, and explanations of BSs have been McCrea
(1964); Mermilliod (1982) (young clusters); Da Costa,
invited Review paper.
(young OB associations); Nemec and Harris (1987)
(globular clusters); Renzini and Fusi Pecci (1988); Eggen
and Iben (1988) (young open); Eggen and Iben (1989)
(old-disk open); Leonard (1989); Nemec (1989, 1991)
(globulars); Mateo, Olszewski, and Welch (1991b); Sara-
jedini and Da Costa (1991) (globulars); Fusi Pecci et al.
(1992) (globulars); and Hut et al. (1992) (globulars). See
also the 1993 ASP Conference volume on Blue Stragglers,
containing papers presented at the STScI workshop, Octo-
ber 1992.
1.2 Importance
Whether BSs are single stars or binaries, they signal an
incomplete understanding of stellar evolution and perhaps
also of star formation within clusters. The new information
to be gleaned from studies of BSs as single stars will no
doubt involve processes deep in the energy-generation re-
gion of stars, regions where it has traditionally been diffi-
cult to obtain observational constraints. If, as is suggested
by mounting evidence, BSs in possibly all systems but the
youngest are the result of interactions involving binary sys-
tems, then BSs become highly visible tracers of binary pop-
ulations in addition to providing an opportunity to learn
how interactions in binary systems affect stellar evolution.
In the cores of the densest clusters, BS production rates
can provide the first constraints on stellar collision cross
sections for tidal captures and direct collisions. Dynamical

1081 © 1993. Astronomical Society of the Pacific

1082 STRYKER
9
10
11
12
V 13
14
15
16
17
0 .4 .8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4
B-V

Fig. 1—A color-magnitude diagram of a galactic old-disk open cluster,

NGC 7789, typical of several that show a healthy population of blue
straggler stars (BSs). The BSs are bluer and brighter than the main-
sequence turnoff. Other stars, which had earlier occupied the loci of the
BSs on the main sequence and which now have evolved, can be seen
forming the giant branch. The mystery is why the BSs still remain. (Fig-
ure is from the DDO Catalog of Open Clusters, Hagen 1970).

theories for globular clusters have appealed to primordial

binaries as an energy source to prevent “gravothermal col-
lapse” as part of the standard theory for nearly 10 yr, but
observational evidence has been slow to accumulate. But
now, we have a large amount of evidence for binaries of
many types within clusters. BSs may provide some highly
relevant observational data.
Regardless of the origin(s) of BSs, they do exist in sig-
nificant numbers in young and old populations and it is
therefore important to gather empirical information on Fig. 3—Possible effects of metallicity on the location of BSs with respect
their nature if we wish to characterize correctly stellar to the ZAMS of its own cluster. Comparison made of BSs candidates and
populations in other galaxies based on integrated light their distances d from their own cluster’s ZAMS; ranking is in order of
decreasing metallicity (Fig. 11, Fusi Pecci et al. 1992).

studies. The presence of numerous BSs may provide a sig-

nificant hot component in the integrated light of galaxies
(Gunn, Stryker, and Tinsley 1981; Manteiga, Martinez
Roger, and Pickles 1989), and the presence of BSs will
have to be accounted for in population synthesis studies of
ellipticals and bulges in late-type galaxies.

1.3 Brief Historical Background

Fig. 2—A color-magnitude diagram of a galactic globular cluster, M3.
Most globulars are now found to contain BSs. (Figure is from Buonanno
et al. 1986, also seen as Fig. 5 in Fusi Pecci et al. 1992).
Success at unraveling the “blue-straggler enigma” has
been bound closely with advancing technology. It was in
the 1950s that stellar photometry advanced to the state
where color-magnitude diagrams of portions of star clus-
ters could be made, first, tips of giant branches, then hor-
izontal branches, and later, main-sequence turnoifs. It soon
became apparent that all star clusters were not created
equal. Open and globular clusters showed themselves to be
of two types; ones without stars above the main-sequence
turnoff on the CMD, or ones with “blue extensions” (Figs.
1 and 2). Sandage (1953) first noted the “odd” population
in globular M3, and later in the CMD of old-disk galactic
cluster M67 (Johnson and Sandage 1955). Burbidge and
Sandage (1958) used the term “straggler” in referring to
the population seen in galactic cluster NGC 7789. Early
thoughts to explain the population were that these BSs

might simply be spiral-arm field stars, since NGC 7789 lies
at a low galactic latitude, or that perhaps BSs were evolved
horizontal-branch stars merely crossing the main-sequence
locus in the CMD.
However, proper-motion studies—to name but a few:
Vasilevskis, Klemola, and Preston (1958); Cannon and
Purcell (1968); Sanders (1977); McNamara, Pratt, and
Sanders (1977); Chiu and van Altena (1981); Cudworth
(1985)—indicated that most of these BSs are probable
members of their respective clusters (see Sec. 2.1.1). The
existence of stragglers was held to be highly unusual be-
cause stellar evolution theory leads us to expect that a star,
once its core hydrogen is depleted, will evolve away from
the main sequence in a timely fashion toward the giant
branch. Time scales are “known” and relative ages of clus-
ters can be measured by comparing their main-sequence
turnoff points. Clearly, these BSs were not doing the ex-
pected; while most cluster stars had evolved, BSs somehow
remained.
New thoughts in the 1960s were that BSs may be stars
which formed more recently than the majority of stars
(Iben and Talbot 1966), perhaps from intracluster or in-
terstellar material (Roberts 1960). The earliest thesis on
BSs (Williams 1963, 1964a,b) discounted the idea of re-
cent birth on the basis that more recent star formation
would contribute to a widening of the main sequence and
giant branch, which is not seen. Williams proposed instead,
that BSs accreted material from the surrounding medium,
thus adding to their mass and lengthening their lifetimes.
McCrea (1964) proposed that BSs might be close bi-
nary systems, one star filling its Roche lobe as it evolves
toward the giant branch, and transferring material to the
secondary through a Lagrangian point. The secondary now
becomes a newly more massive star and can remain on the
main sequence for a longer viewable period of time. The
star’s new mass could be close to twice the turnoff mass,
but not greater. McCrea suggested that observers look for
velocity variations to verify the binary status, and for he-
lium enrichment which may be present if mass has been
transferred. McCrea even allowed that perhaps a complete
merger may have taken place and that now a straggler
would be a coalesced single star.
In the meantime, Sargent (1968) concluded from spec-
tra and photoelectric scanner observations, that BSs were
horizontal-branch stars, after finding their surface gravities
(logg) to be lower than those of normal main-sequence
stars. This was soon shown to be quite wrong by several
workers (see Sec. 2.1.2).
In the 1970s, Strom and Strom (1970) tested the cur-
rent hypothesis by spectroscopy and Strömgren uvby and
/j-beta photometry in NGC 7789, a cluster rich with BSs.
They compared their photometry with model atmospheres
of Kurucz (1979) to conclude that masses were not low,
but appropriate for their main-sequence positions. For four
of five BSs they found radial velocity variations, based on
large external errors in the velocities. They concluded that
“most, if not all, BSs are members of binary systems.”
Other workers (Bond and Perry 1971; Bond and MacCo-
nnell 1971; Strom, Strom, and Bregman 1971; Hesser,
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1083
Hartwick, and McClure 1976) concurred that the surface
gravities of cluster and field BSs were those of normal
main-sequence stars and not “evolved pseudo horizontal-
branch stars.” Strom et al. (1971) further stated that
“most, if not all, BSs are spectroscopic binaries” based on
their findings of masses for most of the BSs as being be-
tween that of turnoff and twice turnoff. The masses found,
however, were highly dependent on the distance moduli
chosen. On the other hand, other workers (Hintzen, Scott,
and Whelan 1974; Conti et al. 1974) found no velocity
variations for eight bright BSs in six different clusters. And
later, Stryker and Hrivnak (1984) and Drilling and Schön-
berner (1987) found no velocity variations, based on
external-to-intemal error ratios, in the same bright BSs of
the Strom’s sample in NGC 7789. Velocity variations were
found for some BSs of M67 (Deutsch 1966, 1968; Peter-
son, Carney, and Latham 1984). However, it appears that
far from all BSs being binaries, many are in fact, single,
and even if binary, long periods above 20 yr probably in-
dicate a lack of mass exchange.
Throughout the 1970s, studies produced more CMDs
and proper-motion membership probabilities, finding many
more candidate BSs. Wheeler (1979a,b) reviewed mass
functions and other statistical properties of BSs in open
clusters, finding a steep mass function for BSs. That, along
with other features of BSs, led him at that time to conclude
that mass transfer, noncoeval formation, and coalescence
were not supported. (These findings are not consistent
with more recent work.) Wheeler (1979a,b) and Saio and
Wheeler (1980) suggested a new hypothesis: perhaps BSs
are single stars that have some internal mixing mechanism
supported by fast rotation or by higher-than-normal mag-
netism. This mixing would bring in more gas to the core
for a prolongation of the star’s lifetime.
Hills and Day (1976) showed that direct physical col-
lisions between two main-sequence stars could produce a
blue straggler. Eggen (1979) discussed ultra-short-period
Cepheids that had properties similar to those of BSs in halo
and disk populations, and he also introduced the concept
of “red stragglers,” those lying between the loci for BSs
and giants. The globular E3, may have “yellow stragglers”
(Hesser et al. 1984; Ferraro et al. 1991; Ferraro, Fusi
Pecci, and Buonanno 1992).
By the mid-1980s, there remained four viable explana-
tions for forming BSs: ( 1 ) more recent bursts of star for-
mation; (2) mass transfer in close binary systems; (3) an-
gular momentum loss in a close binary pair resulting in
coalescence of the components; and (4) internal mixing
extending the lifetime of a single star.
Important new studies such as that of Mathieu and
Latham (1986, 1988) on M67, showed that the BSs radial
distributions matched those of known spectroscopic bina-
ries. Nemec and Harris (1987) and Nemec and Cohen
(1989) revitalized studies of BSs in globulars, also finding
BSs in NGC 5466 and 5053 to be more centrally concen-
trated than (presumably single) subgiants.
The 1990s have brought many theories and observations
together, and clever new simulations and ideas have
emerged, partially because of improvements in technology
1084 STRYKER
and computers. The study of Mateo et al. ( 1990) on NGC
5466 showed that at least some BSs are mass-exchange
binaries; the simulations of Leonard and his co-workers
(e.g., Leonard 1989; Leonard and Fahlman 1991; Leonard
and Linnell 1992) have demonstrated that binary-binary
collisions are a possible source of some BSs, even in low-
density environments.
Studies are now being done in the cores of globular
clusters with ground-based charge-coupled device (CCD)
detectors and subarcsecond seeing (e.g., Nemec and Harris
1987; Nemec and Cohen 1989; Aurière, Ortolani, and Lau-
zerel 1990; Coté, Richer, and Fahlman 1991; Sarajedini
and Da Costa 1991; Boite 1992; Boite, Hesser, and Stetson
1993), and with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) (e.g.,
Paresce et al. 1991, 1992; Guhathakurta et al. 1992; De
Marchi, Paresce, and Ferraro 1993). With the increased
sample, the opportunity now arises to investigate whether
there are any correlations between the cluster properties
and the numbers and properties of BSs; this work has been
started by Sarajedini and Da Costa (1991); Fusi Pecci
et al. (1992); Boite et al. (1993). These and other new
studies are discussed below.
1.4 Outline of this Review
This review will present the evolving picture of our view
of the physical nature of blue stragglers, the scope and
limitations of our studies, and the current situation. There
are, of course, several different ways that one can proceed;
our approach is as follows.
In Sec. 2, we present theories that have been advanced
to explain the existence of BSs. In Sec. 3, we present ob-
served properties of BSs in population groups. We also
discuss lithium abundances, radial distributions, variabil-
ity, rotation, and magnetism as observed in BSs. We look
briefly at other passband studies. Section 4 lists needed
observations that could help advance our knowledge of the
nature of BSs. The summary is in Sec. 5. The bibliography
could have included dozens (hundreds?) of additional ar-
ticles, but those listed and the citations therein should offer
a very good reference list for the study of BSs.
2. THEORIES AND DISCUSSION
Several theories to explain the existence of BSs have
emerged, some being more readily testable than others, but
none seem to be without some ambiguities, and none is
unquestionably the sole explanation for the existence of all
BSs. It is not yet established whether BSs exist as a result
of unusual evolution of a single star or if interactions in a
binary system (mass transfer or merging) are required.
Because globular cluster stars are old, relatively low in
mass, and embedded in an environment where dynamical
interactions play an important role, it might be surprising
if BSs found in globulars had the same origins as BSs found
in younger open clusters with much lower density if colli-
sions are dominant, but not so surprising if mass transfer/
merger play the larger role. Do binaries play a role in the
development of BSs, at least at some stage? Are there dif-
ferent explanations for BSs depending on the age group
being studied? Are there multiple explanations for BSs
even within a single cluster? The answers appear to be
“yes.”
Briefly, the theories are as follows
2.1 Single Star Theories
2.1.1 Could BSs Simply be Superimposed Field Stars and
Not Actual Members of the Clusters?
No, in most cases, this is not so. The membership of a
large numbèr of BSs in open clusters has been established
unambiguously by proper-motion and radial-velocity stud-
ies and the BSs found near the centers of many high ga-
lactic latitude globulars with a distribution centered on the
clusters are clearly associated with the clusters. Member-
ships for the very brightest BSs, that is, ones which are
crucial to distinguishing between theories, since their
masses are at or above the limit allowed by binary mass-
transfer theory, remain somewhat ambiguous. Hagen
(1982) acknowledges that the brightest BSs were included
in her DDO Catalog of Open Clusters (Hagen 1970) even
when proper-motion membership was not well established,
because of the difficulties inherent in the measurement of
positions for very bright (large) images. In the following,
we assume that most BSs are physical members of their
systems.
2.1.2 Are BSs in a Post-Main-Sequence Phase (Le.,
Evolved, Perhaps Horizontal Branch), and Only
Coincidentally Appearing Near the Main Sequence as They
Evolve Toward Later Phases?
No. Evolved stars have lower surface gravities and
lower masses than those of main-sequence stars. An
evolved star undergoing full mixing at the helium flash
would end up blueward of the normal zero-age main se-
quence (ZAMS), whereas BSs lie on the ZAMS or to the
red. Partial mixing could place an evolved star on or near
the ZAMS, but the mass derived would still be less than
that for turnoff stars, and with mass segregation, BSs as
evolved stars should be less centrally concentrated than
single, more massive main-sequence stars. Most studies
have shown that this is not the case. Studies of the spatial
distributions of BSs within clusters (Mathieu and Latham
1986; Nemec and Harris 1987; and Nemec and Cohen
1989) show that there is a significant concentration similar
to that of known binaries toward the central regions, and
assuming mass segregation, this suggests that BSs either
are binaries or massive singles with masses at least 1.5M0.
Surface gravities and effective temperatures of BSs have
been determined to be those of unevolved main-sequence
stars, appropriate for their positions in the CMD, i.e., hav-
ing masses larger than those of stars at the cluster turnoff
(Strom and Strom 1970; Bond and MacConnell 1971;
Bond and Perry 1971; Eggen 1979).
In globular clusters, the vast majority of the BSs are
significantly fainter than the horizontal branch although
there can be some confusion of the brightest and bluest BSs
with extended HB stars in those clusters having a very blue
HB morphology, see for example, Sarajedini and Da Costa

(1991). We conclude that by far the majority of BSs are
main-sequence stars; this is assumed in what follows.
2.1.3 Are BSs Representative of a More Recent Era of
Formation than the Cluster Turnoff Stars?
Possibly, at least for BSs in the young clusters. Gener-
ally speaking, other evidence for more recent formation in
clusters is not often observed—evidence such as dark neb-
ulae, T Tauri stars, 21 cm excess indicating the presence of
neutral hydrogen, or signs of clumpy dust. Abundance dif-
ferences might be expected to be seen among stars of the
two (or more) epochs, but stellar births in clusters may be
spread over an interval of only a few 108 yr.
Halo field BSs represent an old population and so recent
formation is unlikely. Disk field stars may have had con-
tinuous production, with a constant initial mass function
(IMF) and a more-or-less constant birthrate. It is unlikely
that all BSs formed in the same manner as disk field stars;
star formation would have had to have continued for over
109 yr and only just ceased recently. Globular clusters’
orbits take them periodically through the galactic disk, so
that any gas and dust that might have remained to form
new stars would have been swept out.
More recently, Eggen and Iben ( 1988, hereafter referred
to as EI88) thoroughly discussed the idea of successive
modes of star formation within a supercluster for the very
young disk population. They propose mode A for low-mass
stars (0.3 to 5 Mq), where formation proceeds steadily
within the gas and dust. Mode B stars ( > 5 Mq) form in
bursts of star formation that occur periodically, after the
formation of most of the stars in the system. These B-mode
higher mass stars soon explode, their ejecta sweeping out
star-building materials and stopping further mode A activ-
ity. According to their models, which include very large
convective overshooting, mode B stars are young, and can
have twice the normal lifetime; these may be the ones
which appear as BSs. Other very bright BSs, such as 6
Carinae (Ap and a known binary), may be BSs which have
combined scenarios of delayed formation and evolutionary
mechanisms.
El 8 8 conclude that, in young groups and clusters, the
BS phenomenon has at least two distinct physical origins:
BSs may originate from ( 1 ) delayed formation starbursts
(DF) or (2) delayed evolution in some close binaries
(mass transfer from an evolved primary) (DE). They con-
clude that the majority of BSs in very young disk popula-
tions (such as a Persei, Pleiades, and IC 2602) and the
majority of BSs in the young disk clusters (such as the
Hyades and Sirius superclusters) come from DF with only
a few BSs arising from DE. Merger time scales for contact
binaries are too long to provide the BSs found in these
young groups. EI88 write, “It does not take two to straggle
in young-disk populations.”
2.1.4 Might BSs Have Increased Lifetimes Due to Some
Internal Nonthermal Pressure Support Which May Have
Contributed to Increased Core Mixing and
Quasihomogeneous Evolution?
Maybe. Stars undergoing quasihomogeneous evolution,
in which substantial mixing supplies the core with hydro-
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1085
gen well after the normal time of exhaustion, can remain
longer on the main sequence. Likely there is a nonthermal
source of support, provided by rapid rotation or magnetic
pressure, which lowers the temperature and luminosity,
thus lengthening the time scale for core hydrogen burning
(Wheeler 1979a,b; Saio and Wheeler 1980). Saio and
Wheeler conclude that extensive internal mixing is a viable
hypothesis to account for the existence of BSs.
Problems with this theory are that no answers are given
for why only BSs would have internal mixing and not all
stars, and what the mechanism causing the mixing is. Mix-
ing requires rapid rotation or a strong magnetic field as
mentioned, or close companions which may cause tidal
effects and/or mass transfer. There does seem to be grow-
ing evidence of this latter sort in populations where more
and more binaries are being discovered.
2.1.5 Could There Be Mass Loss for Certain
Main-Sequence Stars Which Then Evolve Downward,
Leaving the BSs Behind?
Unlikely. This new idea from Willson, Bowen, and
Struck-Marcell (1987) suggests that certain main-
sequence stars with masses from 1 to 3 Mq and lying in the
extended instability strip, might experience mass loss and
evolve downward on the main sequence, leaving BSs be-
hind. Clusters could then have turnoffs which indicate ages
older than their true age. (If correct, this could bring glob-
ular clusters’ ages more in line with possible younger ages
being proposed for the universe.) The stars we call BSs
would then be the more slowly rotating stars, outside the
instability strip, that are left behind; lithium abundances
should be normal in that case. BSs may be rotating more
slowly than normal stars of similar spectral type, but lith-
ium is not found in normal abundances in BSs, see Sec.
3.5.4. In addition, some BSs are pulsators and they are still
seen above the main sequence. Thus, the proposal of Will-
son et al. (1987), though creative, is highly unlikely.
2.1.6 Could Single-Single Star Collisions and Subsequent
Coalescence Account for the Production of BSs?
Perhaps. The three-dimensional simulations of colli-
sions between identical stars carried out by Benz and Hills
(1987) show two distinctly different mass-loss mecha-
nisms: ( 1 ) mass loss in head-on collisions increases from
0.1% to 100% as the impact velocity at infinity increases
from 0 to 2.3 times the escape velocity from the stellar
surface. Single-single collisions in star clusters have
V(approach) <0.1F(esc) and so only the very low veloc-
ities have relevance to the BS problem. Shock strength and
mass loss by jets decreases as the impact parameter in-
creases. (2) Mass loss in low-velocity encounters increases
sharply when impact parameters correspond to nearly
grazing collisions.
This latter mass-loss mechanism occurs in two stages:
(a) the two stars first become gravitationally bound into a
binary due to the dissipation of energy during the encoun-
ter, and (b) then the binary components coalesce violently
during a subsequent periastron passage (Benz and Hills
1086 STRYKER
1987). Angular momentum is redistributed during the fi-
nal merger, over a dynamical time scale. The maximum
mass loss by this second mechanism is about 5% by direct
ejection from the system and about 10% by the formation
of an accretion disk around the coalesced object. Mixing is
nearly complete in grazing collisions, so the coalesced star,
now appearing in the CMD as a BS, should exhibit a nearly
uniform helium distribution (Benz and Hills 1987; Bailyn
1992).
Single star collisions must be quite rare in sparse glob-
ulars, open clusters, and in the field, but can be very im-
portant in high-density environments.
2.2 Binary Star Theories
2.2.1 Have BSs Increased Their Lifetimes by Gaining
Additional Material Through Mass Transfer from a
Binary Companion?
Yes, at least some BSs have. Members in a binary
should show variations in radial velocity. Evidence for ve-
locity variations is often disputed, and it should be remem-
bered that, even if detected, velocity variations may be due
to intrinsic pulsation. Few orbits have been determined.
There is still debate on whether all BSs are members of
close binary systems since velocity variations are not de-
tected in most cases, but this could be simply due to low
amplitudes. If periods are long, say 100-1000 days, then
the semiamplitudes of velocity variation will be small, that
is, less than 10 km s-1, and hard to detect in faint, early-
type stars with relatively few spectral lines. More work
should be done to obtain improved radial-velocity mea-
surements, and orbital parameters for those BSs having
velocity variations, as begun by Milone et al. ( 1991 ). Note
that long-period binaries (20-100 yr) are irrelevant to the
formation of BSs via mass exchange, as this is so unlikely,
but long-period binaries do play a role in binary-binary
interactions to produce BSs (see Sec. 2.2.3).
The combined mass of the binary cannot be more than
twice the mass of stars at the turnoff luminosity, according
to McCrea (1964). Most BSs obey this constraint, though
there are a number of exceptions; cluster memberships of
these exceptions, though likely, are not yet well estab-
lished. This mechanism cannot account for all BSs, as
some are certainly single stars.
Collier and Jenkins (1984) simulated a cluster’s evolu-
tion after adopting an initial binary fraction of 0.50. For
N= 104, they followed evolution from the ZAMS to the
onset of He burning at the tip of the red giant branch. They
used a conservative case B mass-transfer scheme, and let
orbital angular momentum be conserved. A range of clus-
ter ages, 30 to 104 Myr were studied. They found a splitting
of the main sequence and the appearance of BSs. They
placed a limit on the pair mass ratio, qcrit, at 0.4 to retain
stability during the mass exchange. A linear relationship
between the initial and final orbital periods, and a relation
between orbital velocity, semiamplitude of the mass-
gaining star, and the final orbital period were found (see
Collier and Jenkins 1984 for details).
Collier and Jenkins found that while 10%-15% of the
simulated BSs remain in the semidetached mass-transfer
phase and have semiamplitudes > 18-20 kms-1,
periods < 10 d, the majority of the BSs have longer orbital
periods (10-1000 d) and lower radial-velocity semiampli-
tudes (6<K< 15 km s“1). If correct, this result could ac-
count for the few detections of velocity variations reported
in earlier surveys.
2.2.2 Have BSs Increased Their Lifetimes Through
Coalescence (Merger) with a Former Contact-Binary
Companion? ((Binary Merger”)
Probably, at least in old clusters. The definition of coa-
lesced stars is that the stars share a common envelope or
have completely merged. The existence of coalesced stars
can only be inferred, but their expected properties would
provide an explanation for some BSs and perhaps also for
anomalous Cepheids (ACs). Some contact binaries are
known, and coalescence is expected to follow that phase. A
good test will be to see if there are close binaries with
periods in the range 1-3 days, that will become next-
generation BSs.
A binary merger is a bound binary system in which the
two components gradually spiral together (Mateo et al.
1990); whereas, collisional mergers (see Sec. 2.2.3), are
formed from bodies produced by direct stellar collisions
(Hills and Day 1976; Leonard and co-workers).
Binary mergers are the more complex. Full-contact W
Ursae Majoris ( W UMa) stars evolve by a transfer of mass
from the original secondary to the primary. The secondary
can be completely absorbed, or “deep contact” can happen,
where more than two stars have coalesced rather soon. If
rapid coalescence mimics what occurs in shallow contact,
we expect material from the secondary to be mixed
throughout the envelope of the final merged product. Or, if
the two cores spiral together (as in double core evolution
inside a massive envelope), then material from the second-
ary could remain in the core of the final merged product.
Either way, the primary’s material will stay in the core of
the remnant. So, a binary merger will show less helium.
If a close binary has coalesced and merged, a high ro-
tational velocity would be expected. In general, rotational
velocities in field BSs are found to be normal (Carney and
Peterson 1981), while rotations in M67 are lower than
expected (Peterson et al. 1984). Eggen and Iben (1989,
hereafter referred to as EI89) invoke magnetic braking to
slow down BSs formed by coalescence, however, spectral
types of BSs in old open clusters are earlier than F5; it is
only at spectral type F5 and later than magnetic braking
begins to become important (but magnetic braking is really
not very well understood). In addition, there is a lack of
bright giants in the older clusters. Where are the evolved
products of the coalesced BSs? Fusi Pecci et al. (1992)
suggest that red horizontal branches in globular clusters
may be BS descendants.
Lifetimes would be increased by slow merger, where the
large primary absorbs the much smaller secondary without
much perturbation, thereby retaining the main-sequence
gravities as seen. An old coalesced star might more easily

resemble a BS, but it cannot be so old that the time for
evolution for that mass range has passed.
If coalescence follows as a result of contact, as in W
UMa binaries, then we should be able to observe whether
the fraction of such systems and precontact systems actu-
ally exist in clusters in sufficient supply to produce the
number of observed BSs. See Secs. 3.1.4 and 3.1.5 for cur-
rently known W UMas.
There is convincing observational evidence that some
BSs are binaries. The number of close binaries observed to
date, among well-studied BSs in intermediate-age and old
open and globular clusters, may be consistent with the
merger hypothesis. The comparison of the number of close
binaries and the total number of BSs in NGC 5466 is con-
sistent with the claim that all noneclipsing BSs formed as
the result of mergers of the components in close binary
systems, although the uncertainties in the analysis (Mateo
et al. 1990) are sufficiently large that one cannot really rule
out the possibility that other mechanisms produce BSs as
well.
The components of W UMa binaries are unquestionably
in direct contact and are therefore continuously interacting
and exchanging mass. Simple arguments show that such
binaries must eventually merge into a single star (Webbink
1976a,b; Webbink 1985b; Tutukov and Yungelson 1987;
Mateo et al. 1990). The NGC 5466 binaries suggest a pos-
sible close connection between BSs and merged contact
binaries.
Mateo et al. (1990) ask, what is the survival time for
such binaries in a dense system to reach contact? The den-
sity in the core of NGC 5466 is about 11 Mq pc-3. They
consider a binary with P= 5 d and equal, 1 Mq compo-
nents, then generously assume that such a binary will be
disrupted by a “collision” with any star that passes within
ten orbital separations. (They ignore binary-binary colli-
sions which harden one binary and accelerate the merger
process. ) The time between binary-single collisions would
be greater than 1013 yr, so binaries with initial orbital pe-
riods of up to 5 days could easily survive. Stars NH19, 30,
31 will coalesce either through angular momentum losses
on the main sequence, or at the time when one partner
evolves off the main sequence.
The following is taken from the discussion of Mateo
et al. (1990) concerning BSs as remnants of stellar merg-
ers.
T ( detach )= time that an initially detached binary
comes into mutual contact.
t ( merge )= time for a contact binary to merge into a
single star.
r(bs) = apparent age of BSs about to evolve off main
sequence (upper limits).
Assumptions adopted:
(a) individual stars lose rotational angular momentum
at the same rate observed in single stars with M < 3 Mq,
y (rot) ocr-1/2, where r=age of star;
(b) rotational and orbital periods are synchronized via
tidal interactions;
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1087
(c) binaries consist of — 1 Mq components, with initial
period ~4.5 d, and will come into contact in 18 Gyr (if
period is less, then contact will occur sooner);
(d) all BSs are merged binaries.
In NGC 5466, for 47 BSs; three are contact or near-contact
binaries, so that
t( merge) N( merge)
r(bs) N( bs)
^contact systems are/will be BSs
#already merged (i.e., BSs)
~ 1.3 X 3/47 ~ 0.084 ± 0.05,
where 1.3 is a factor correcting for systems missed because
of unfavorable inclinations. This result is a lower limit to
the true frequency, since inclinations, detection probabili-
ties, etc., are unknown:
r(merge)~5X 108 yr,
from estimates of 5Xl07 to 5Xl09 yr,
r(bs) <7X 109 yr,
from isochrones of VandenBerg and Bell
(1985).
This indicates that BSs do not evolve in the same way as
single stars born with the same total mass (but note that
both estimates are highly uncertain):
r( merge)
~^r>0-07’
the real range is something like 0.0 to 0.2. This is consistent
with the number observed in NGC 5466.
One would expect that the merger mechanism might
operate only in relatively old clusters, since the minimum
time for a detached binary to reach contact is about
( 1-5) X 109 yr, if the assumed initial minimum periods are
about 3 d, as observed, and the standard angular-
momentum loss mechanism is correct. So, the existence of
BSs in clusters with Mt0 > 2-3 Mq cannot be explained by
the merger model unless some efficient mechanism can be
found that removes angular momentum from the high-
mass stars in young open clusters and shortens the time
scale.
Mateo et al. ( 1990) do not conclude that contact-binary
mergers provide the only mechanism to produce BSs, but
that the observed fraction of binary BSs in intermediate-
age and old open plusters and in globular clusters is not
inconsistent with the merger hypothesis.
If we look at FK Comae stars closely, we may see direct
evidence for binary coalescence. FK Com stars are variable
GK giants, having very rapid rotation (50-110 kms-1);
they show chromospheric activity, but no signs of present
duplicity. FK Com stars are considered by some to be
remnants of coalesced W UMa systems. An FK Com-like
star has been found in NGC 188, a cluster which also has
a large number of W UMas and BSs. Because of the high
rotation velocities, it is thought that FK Corns were never
1088 STRYKER
single main-sequence stars, but may have come from
common-envelope systems, rather than from contact bina-
ries (Campbell 1986).
The contact binary merger theory remains a viable
mechanism for producing BSs in older systems.
2.2.3 Might BSs Be the Result of Binary-Single or
Binary-Binary Collisions and Coalescence? (“Collisional
Merger”)
Maybe. Intuitively, it seems likely that some BSs in the
cores of open and globular clusters could be the products
of collisional mergers. One would think that there should
be more BSs in clusters having short relaxation times,
small core radii, and/or those which are X-ray sources.
One might also expect to find correlations between chem-
ical inhomogeneities and dynamical properties. Coalesced
BSs should have a higher-than-normal helium abundance
and extended lifetimes due to the mixing of additional hy-
drogen into the core. However, since the observed binary
frequency seems to be higher in low-density clusters and
since high numbers of binaries can keep clusters from col-
lapsing to higher densities, it may well be that low-density
clusters will have a higher specific number of BSs than
clusters with high density.
So, for the two merger mechanisms (binary and colli-
sional), we can expect products with different chemistry,
different positions, and evolution in the CMD. These dif-
ferences, if real, would be observable in the UV. For ex-
ample, NGC 6397 has anomalous BSs and 47 Tucanae has
bright BSs with properties suggestive of collision. If the 47
Tue BSs exist because of collisions, then comparisons with
stars having normal He on the main sequence (such as
reported in Paresce et al. 1991 ) may be misleading (Bailyn
1992). Using the UV to study helium is, after all, indirect
and one must be cautious. A collisionally produced BS
may have a rapid internal rotation and this could contrib-
ute to the differences in the UV; rotation could make the
star fainter and redder than one which is not rotating
(Deupree 1990).
Because stars with masses 0.8<M/Mq< 1.6 generally
show a strong dependence of U—B with mass, this color
may be a better diagnostic of the BS mass function than
other colors, but note that companions and mass loss due
to collisions may affect colors (Bailyn 1992).
Most stellar collisions in globular clusters are likely to
arise from encounters with binaries, rather than from en-
counters between single stars (Leonard 1989). (See Fig. 5
for a typical binary-binary collision pattern, taken from
Leonard 1988.) But, since the binary fractions and distri-
butions of orbital parameters in cluster cores are unknown,
estimates for the number of collisional mergers may be
moot (Bailyn 1992).
Although the probability of coalescence in the not-very-
dense environment of open clusters and loosely concen-
trated globular clusters must be low for single stars, it
turns out that binary-binary collisions can provide an ex-
planation for a small number of BSs in low-density clus-
ters, if the cluster binary population is of order 10% pri-
mordially (Leonard and Linnell 1992).
Coalescent merging will lead to contamination of the
surface layers of the remnant by the material processed in
the cores of both of the colliding stars and thus may be
related in part to some of the CN anomalies commonly
observed in globular clusters. Many globular clusters show
a dichotomy in CN strength, and an anticorrelation of C
and N (Campbell 1986). Also mergers may account for
CN-strong stars on the main sequence and subgiant branch
in 47 Tue, and the central concentration of CN-rich giants
(Campbell 1986). (Cluster CN anomalies are a vast sub-
ject and beyond the scope of this review.) Note that the
ratio of CN-anomalous stars to normal stars does not ap-
pear to match either the close binary frequency nor the
numbers of BSs. Campbell adds that not finding W UMa
stars in the younger clusters could carry the implication
that detached systems can evolve to become contact bina-
ries.
In the 1980s, collision probabilities between identical
binaries, but with different binding energies, were com-
puted for binaries in the cores of several globular clusters.
The more tightly bound a binary, the smaller the chance it
will undergo a collision. HofFer (1983) found that a given
binary probably does not have more than a small number
of collisions; it may be broken into single stars, or become
so tightly bound that further collisions are negligible.
Very close encounters between stars occur during strong
dynamic interactions involving binary-binary interactions,
and these encounters can result in physical collisions. If a
cluster contains many binaries, then binary-binary colli-
sions may turn out to be a way of producing at least some
BSs (HofFer 1983; Leonard 1989; Leonard and Fahlman
1991; Leonard and Linnell 1992).
2.2.4 Production of BSs in Low-Density Clusters by
Collisional Mergers
In open clusters, using iV-body simulations and an ini-
tial population of equal-mass, equal-energy binaries, Leon-
ard and Duncan (1988) showed that binary-binary colli-
sions can occur in low-density clusters and that these
collisions produce BSs, if the merged stars are not ejected
from the clusters as runaway stars.
For low-density globular clusters, Leonard (1989) ex-
amined the hypothesis that BSs are produced by physical
collisions. If a fraction (10%) of main-sequence stars in
those systems are primordial binaries, then physical stellar
collisions might occur at a rate of 1 every ~ 108 yr. Pryor
et al. (1989) argue for a binary population >10%. Colli-
sions may happen because ( 1 ) mass segregation will result
in a high binary frequency in the cluster core (50%-
100%), (2) the cross section for a binary-binary collision
is approximately 102 times that for a single-single collision,
and (3) physical stellar collisions are likely to occur during
strong binary-binary interactions. Since a small fraction of
binaries cannot be ruled out in low-density globular clus-
ters, then the collisional hypothesis for the origin of BSs
remains a possibility for explaining a small fraction of the
observed BSs.
The detection of binaries in globular clusters is, of
course, observationally difficult and searches in dense clus-

ters tell us little about binary frequency in low-density clus-
ters. In a dense cluster, soft binaries can be disrupted; hard
ones can coalesce or be ejected from the cluster, if involved
in a dynamic interaction. Note that some fraction of the
disruptions may result in collisions themselves and BS can
be produced! Also, white dwarfs and neutron stars may
exchange their way into binary systems via dynamical in-
teractions, which may ultimately leave some binaries com-
posed of two dark remnants. Indeed, there are several mil-
lisecond binary pulsars in globular clusters (van den
Heuvel 1991; Hut et al. 1992).
Leonard (1989) assumes a binary frequency of at least
20%, as reported in the field for the halo population
(Stryker et al. 1985; Abt and Willmarth 1987; Carney and
Latham 1987; Latham et al. 1988; Torres 1991). There is
evidence for main-sequence binaries in globular clusters
(see Sec. 3.2), but these binaries appear to exist in some
clusters, and not in others, but this situation undoubtedly
changes when the central regions are probed (see Sec.
3.2.1). There are about six known giant binaries (in 47
Tue, M2, M3, Ml2, Ml3, and M71); this implies an av-
erage binary frequency for main-sequence stars of perhaps
10% for these clusters, but an initial fraction that was
likely higher (Pryor et al. 1989; Hut et al. 1992).
In a low-density cluster, binary-binary collisions lead to
stellar interactions. If two main-sequence stars touch, they
will merge with little mass loss (Benz and Hills 1987). So,
if low-density clusters contain primordial binaries, then
they should easily produce BSs because of the large
binary-binary cross section. Since the velocities of such
BSs may exceed the cluster escape velocity, some of the
field BSs can be explained as being merged stars ejected
from clusters (Leonard 1989). One concern is the number
of such stars which may be removed from the cluster. In
addition, concerning the radial distribution of BSs, “distri-
bution is not expected to be very centrally concentrated,
due to recoils—but BSs in low-density clusters are more
centrally concentrated than most stars, and thus relaxation
must be important for the collision hypothesis to be cor-
rect” (Leonard 1989). Note that the recoils depend on the
nature of the binary population.
Leonard and Fahlman (1991) carried out binary-
binary and binary-single scattering experiments for the
low-density globular cluster, NGC 5053, and found that
collisions between binaries with P> 100 d are the best at
producing merged stars that remain bound to the cluster.
Since there are a large number of binaries in NGC 5053
(Pryor et al. 1989), one cannot reject the possibility that at
least some BSs have a collisional origin (Leonard and
Fahlman 1991).
Some of the W UMa contact binaries observed by Ma-
teo et al. (1990) in globular clusters might be produced
during strong dynamical interactions involving binary stars
by encounters that are too distant for actual physical col-
lisions to occur, but are still close enough to produce tidal-
capture binaries. Such binaries could be W UMa stars
which perhaps later become BSs after suffering angular
momentum loss. Note that this process could also occur in
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1089
open clusters, since they also contain numerous binaries
(Leonard and Linnell 1992).
A high frequency of long-period binaries for the BSs
(Milone et al. 1992) can be explained by collisions, since
calculations of Leonard and Fahlman show that the ma-
jority of merged stars produced by binary-binary collisions
have distant companions. The result of typical binary-
binary collisions is that one star carries away binding en-
ergy, two stars collide and merge, while the fourth star
remains loosely bound to the merged pair in a long-period
orbit.
Leonard and Linnell (1992) studied the origin of BSs
and contact binaries in two old open clusters, M67 and
NGC 188. They investigated whether BSs form by physical
stellar collision and contact binaries by tidal capture, dur-
ing strong dynamical interactions. From their binary-
binary and binary-single scattering experiments, they
found that isolated interactions involving binaries com-
posed of main-sequence stars are unlikely to account for all
BSs and contact binaries, however, as in Leonard and
Fahlman (1991), such interactions can easily produce
~10% of the observed objects, given a core binary fre-
quency of 50% (Leonard and Linnell 1992).
The collision hypothesis has the potential to explain
many of the observed properties of BSs in old open clusters
and low-density globulars. Also, main-sequence BSs with
masses > 2Mt0 can be created if more than two stars in the
interaction collide—now, the maximum mass could be
4Mt0 (if all four stars in a binary-binary interaction
merge); this must be quite rare, but a combination of three
stars appears to be quite possible.
The existence of primordial binaries in low-density glob-
ular clusters allows that binary mass transfer, binary
merger, and collisional mergers will all likely occur. We
conclude that BSs even within the same cluster can have
different origins.
2.2.5 Production Rates of BSs from Collisional Merger
For binary-binary collisions, with a maximum impact
parameter of 10,000 AU, about one in 3000 collisions will
produce a merged star or a tidal-capture binary, whereas
for binary-single, only abut one in 18,000 will do so, ac-
cording to simulations of Leonard and Linnell (1992). If
binary-binary collisions were to account for all of the BSs
and contact binaries observed in M67 and NGC 188, then
the critical attempt-to-success ratio is about one in 1000
±50%. Experiments performed to date can account for
about a third ( ± 50% ) of the observed BSs, even given a
binary frequency of 100%, but this is using the most con-
servative assumptions. Compare the mass function of Le-
onard and Linnell (1992) to that in Table 2 of Mathys
(1991), for M67. One sees a consistency in spectral type
distribution, though different slopes.
Merged BSs in binary-binary interactions remain bina-
ries and can undergo further mergers. Possibly some BSs
can be old BSs rejuvenated from time to time by new merg-
ers, but with mass loss occurring so the BSs do not become
too massive, evolve, and disappear. Lack of the very bright
giants expected from evolved BSs can be explained if BSs
1090 STRYKER

are kept from evolving to that stage because of continued

merger collisions. Also, any observed unusual abundances
of CNO and metals may perhaps be explained if an already
highly evolved star is involved in the collision (Leonard
and Linnell 1992).
These experiments suggest that it is unlikely that 100%
of BSs and contact binaries can be accounted for by iso-
lated interactions involving binary systems composed of
main-sequence stars, assuming reasonable core binary fre-
quency and central velocity dispersion. “However, such
conditions are sufficient to easily account for —10% of the
observed objects; 40% if the long contact binary lifetime is
correct” (Leonard and Linnell 1992). If the core binary
frequency is higher than the 50% assumed, say instead
75%, then 80% of the BSs and contact binaries can be
accounted for.

2.2.6 Rotation Velocity Problem

We expect merged stars to be rapidly rotating. Since BSs
in M67 are rotating somewhat slower than average (Peter-
son et al. 1984; Mathys 1991 ), perhaps angular momentum
has been lost. Magnetic braking is unlikely to be the cause
of this loss, since the spectral types of the M67 BSs are too
early for this mechanism to be effective, but it should be
noted that magnetic braking is not at all well understood,
nor how it may depend on metallicity or stellar structure.
Other mechanisms can be evoked, such as introducing
more evolved stars into the collisions (e.g., subgiants), as
these could enhance the production rate, and angular mo-
mentum may have been lost during the extended envelope
ejection stage.
New work (Leonard and Clement 1993) suggests that
collisionally formed BSs might not rotate rapidly, since
they may imitate a pre-main-sequence star for a while
where winds or magnetic braking can spin down the enve-
lopes. BSs cores may still be rapidly rotating, thus extend-
ing their main-sequence lifetimes. This could explain why
only some cores rotate rapidly—they are the products of
collisions.
3. OBSERVATIONAL DATA
3.1 Galactic Clusters
3.1.1 Very Young to Young Disk (<2Xl08 yr old)
Numerous BSs are found in many young clusters, most
BSs being up to 2.5 mag brighter than the turnoff (see Fig.
4). In these clusters, over 60% of the BSs show abnormal
spectra, such as peculiar A (Ap) stars or metallic A (Am)
stars, but the exotic A stars, Ap(Sr,Cr,Eu), are absent in
clusters with ages less than 108 yr, and no Ap stars are
found in clusters younger than 106 yr (Abt and Cardona
1983). Diffusion theory and observations of clusters con-
firm that it takes from 106 to 109 yr to develop Ap stars; so
BSs likely do have “old” ages, i.e., ages as indicated by
their cluster turnoff (Abt 1985). Ap stars are generally
slow rotators and Am stars are mostly binaries; these often
fall in the extended instability strip where the ultra-short-
period Cepheid variables also lie. However, almost all early
Fig. A—A recent luminosity function for 130 BSs found in five globular
clusters (Fig. 10, Sarajedini and Da Costa 1991 ). The drop at Mv~ +2.6
corresponds to the mass which is twice that of turnoff stars.
(06-B2) BSs do have rapid rotation (Mermilliod 1982)
and unusually broad emission lines (Of,Be), some are ni-
trogen rich (OBN), and at least one OBN is known to be
a binary. Enhanced nitrogen on the surface can occur
through mass loss, but it may also occur through binary
mass transfer, and one could also conclude that core mix-
ing caused by rotational support is a more likely cause of
the lengthened lifetimes for the massive (40 Mq), fast
rotating stars. However, the carbon-rich early stars
(OBC), with the same rotational velocities, are not ob-
served to be BSs or binaries (EI88).
El 8 8 have discussed the idea of successive modes of star
formation within a supercluster for the very young disk
population, see Sec. 2.1.3.
Eleven of the 13 BSs in the young OB associations Scor-
pius OBI, Cygnus OBI, Carinae OBI, Centaurus OBI,
Persei OBI, Cassiopeia OB6, show an enhanced atmo-
spheric abundance of N, which Mathys (1987) interprets
as supporting the view that young BSs are probably quasih-
omogeneously evolved stars where the products of the
CNO cycle have become observable at the surface. This is
in conflict with the earlier studies cited above which sug-
gested that enhanced nitrogen might imply mass transfer;
so we are left with looking for nitrogen enhancement and
interpreting what its presence might mean.
Schild and Berthet ( 1986) also studied OBN BSs in five
associations and found that these BSs had enhanced nitro-

gen while later stars had normal amounts. They concluded
that the excess nitrogen must come from internal sources
and not from nitrogen-rich star-forming materials. Why
there might be turbulent diffusion causing the homogeni-
zation of the core is not clear. Mathys suggests that tidal
forces in close binaries may play a role, but except in the
case of Per OBI, there is no convincing evidence that single
BSs have abnormal rotational velocities.
The models of Maeder (1987) show, that, at least for
massive stars, a star that undergoes internal mixing has
tracks that rise blueward near the ZAMS, rather than
evolving along a standard (redward) track. Evidence of
interior mixing should appear as nuclear-processed en-
hanced C and N in the photosphere. The mixing could be
induced by turbulent diffusion that results either from ( 1 )
rapid rotation, (2) tidal forces in binaries, or by (3) mag-
netic buoyancy (Maeder 1987). Note that models of
Sreenivasan (unpublished) have the tracks rising redward,
opposite Maeder’s results, though both agree that rapid
rotation can extend a star’s lifetime.
W UMa systems are not observed in young clusters to
date. Searches for faint systems should be done. Young
clusters are normally quite sparse, containing only tens to
hundreds of stars, and, if frequency is similar to that of the
field, W UMas would not be expected to be seen (Rucinski
1992), but the lower main sequence should be more closely
examined. There are, however, early-type contact binaries
which are frequently seen in open clusters (Rucinski
1992). If W UMa systems are truly absent in young clus-
ters, then this lack would provide important clues to the
evolution of W UMas and probably also BSs.
3.1.2 Intermediate Age (3X108 to 109 yr)
As in the younger group, many BSs are seen, and again,
over 60% of BSs are found to be peculiar or metallic A
stars (Ap, Am). The Ap stars show strong silicon, chro-
mium, europium, titanium, and strontium features, have
small light variations, and some are known magnetic vari-
ables. In the field, Ap stars are generally slow rotators and
deficient in short-period binaries, but Am stars are often
binaries.
BSs in this age group present later spectral types, B3-
A2, and thus slower rotation, but have strong magnetic
fields ( ~ 103 G, at least ten times greater than the solar
field). Theory indicates that a moderate (105 G) internal
field is sufficient to mix stars of 2-5 Mq (B4-A5), in times
less than lifetimes of normal main-sequence stars (Schüs-
sler and Pähler 1978; Hubbard and Dearborn 1980). Mag-
netically mixed stars remain on the main sequence longer
than stars with unmixed cores. This is consistent with
Wheeler’s quasihomogeneous evolution models and sug-
gests that many intermediate-age BSs may be magnetically
mixed stars.
Evidently here too, cluster and super-cluster members
show some evidence for two or more bursts of star forma-
tion; the oldest and youngest members not now belonging
to a cluster (EI88). Further observations would be highly
useful.
Abt (1985) also proposes quasihomogeneous evolution
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1091
as the mechanism for the origin of the BSs in young and
intermediate-age clusters because of his findings that Ap
stars have the magnetic support needed to prolong age.
Most of Mermilliod’s (1982) BSs are Ap(Si) and Ap(Si,
Cr,Eu) types, which generally have photospheric magnetic
fields.
For young and intermediate-age clusters, internal mix-
ing within a single star seems a possible way to create BSs;
mixing being supported perhaps by rotation in the young-
est, and by magnetism later. But mixing induced by tidal
forces from a companion star cannot be ruled out in some
cases.
3.1.3 Old Disk (3-8X109 yr)
Blue stragglers seem to be present as a general feature in
many old-disk clusters. Numerous BSs are found and pro-
vide about 10% of the visual ( V) light of their clusters.
According to McCrea (1964) and others, based on the
binary mass transfer theory, BSs should be found only up
to about 2.5 mag above main-sequence turnoff. However,
there are a few notable exceptions which appear to stretch
this limit to more than twice the turnoff mass (Wheeler
1979a,b), for example: F81 in M67 and K1211 in NGC
7789. But note that masses and memberships for these
stars are still not well established.
There is convincing observational evidence that some
BSs are binaries, such as 6 Car, F190 in M67 (Deutsch
1968; Milone et al. 1991), and several others. Companions
might by (1) white dwarfs, which possibly could be de-
tectable in the ultraviolet ( < 1500 A) for BSs with spectral
types from mid- to late-A (see Sec. 3.5.5), or (2) red
dwarfs or infrared subgiants, perhaps with eccentric orbits,
thus having hard-to-detect, low-amplitude velocities
(Peterson et al. 1984). Kallrath, Milone, and Stagg ( 1992)
discuss contact binaries with BSs primaries in M67.
3.1.4 Binaries in Some Moving Groups, Intermediate-Age,
and Old-Disk Clusters
Here is a list of some binaries and unusual stars, some of
which are BSs, and which may be helpful in solving the BS
puzzle and/or provide data in support or against particular
BS theories.
Arcturus group: HD 39364, 88446, 176021 are subgiant
CH stars, probable binaries (McClure 1984).
HR 1614 group: HD 221148 has the strongest CN. AB
Andromedae is a contact binary, P=0.33 d. AW UMa, FK
Com ( =HD 117555, a red straggler) are eclipsing, contact
binaries, P=0.44 d, P—2 A d; possible member TY Pyxi-
dis, P= 1.6 d.
NGC 2420: star X is an 5-process, carbon-enriched Ba
star; star D has a quarter of the 5-process enrichment of
star X; both are spectroscopic binaries (Anthony-Twarog
et al. 1990).
NGC 2243: contains binaries (Bergbusch, VandenBerg,
and Infante 1991).
NGC 188: Seven W UMas, plus three FK Com types
(Efremov et al. 1964; Bahúnas and Guinan 1985; Kaluzny
and Shara 1987).
1092 STRYKER
Fig. 5—A typical binary-binary collision. Binaries approach each other
from the left and the right. Individual stars are point masses. Two single
stars and a tight binary emerge from the interaction (figure from Leonard
1988).
NGC 752: Two W UMas and DS And, a close system.
Tom 2: Six W UMas, two Algols, Rs CVn (Mateo and
Krzeminski 1990; Kubiak et al. 1992).
Cr 261: 20 contact binaries (Mazur, Krzeminski, and
Kaluzny 1993).
M67: AH Cnc is a contact binary with P=0.33 d, high-
est degree of contact; two other contact systems (Whelan
et al. 1979; Gilliland et al. 1991). Several spectroscopic
binaries (Mathieu et al. 1986; Milone et al. 1992). F190 is
a known variable BS, P— 4.5 d (Deutsch 1966, 1968;
Milone et al. 1991). Two pulsating ô Scuti BSs (Gilliland
and Brown 1992).
Be 39: Twelve contact, short-period eclipsing binaries;
11 are W UMas, four are BSs (Kaluzny, Mazur, and
Krzeminski 1993).
3.1.5 Some Properties of BSs in Old-Disk Clusters
As for M67, 11 BSs appear to have normal Teff and
surface gravities for their spectral types. They seem to have
slower than average rotation and apparently no organized
large-scale magnetic fields. They are underabundant in
CNO and overabundant in exotic metals (Mathys 1991).
It is not known whether these findings are generally appli-
cable.
There is a high binary frequency in a sample of open
cluster BSs (see Sec. 3.1.4). Old open clusters lack the very
bright giants that should correspond to evolved BSs. In
M67, BSs are underabundant in Li, which suggests that
large-scale mixing has occurred in these stars or that some
mass loss has occurred; only one of the 11 BSs is a short-
period binary, but several appear to be long-period binaries
(Milone et al. 1992). In general, many binaries are seen in
Hyades, Praesepe, NGC 2420, and NGC 2243, as a paral-
lel, brighter main sequence. Many contact binaries are
seen. In open clusters at ages around 4-5 Gyr, there ap-
pears to be an even greater formation rate of contact bina-
ries (Kaluzny et al. 1993).
In old systems, W UMa contact binaries (two main-
sequence stars) exist, which transfer mass to become BSs
and eventually merge. Perhaps about 16% of the BSs
formed by binary mass transfer and merger should be ob-
servable as precursors (see EI89). Since many contact bi-
nary systems are found in several old clusters, this implies
that many more such systems have already merged into
BSs. Note that mergers make it virtually impossible to
observe any characteristics associated with binaries.
In NGC 7789, rotational velocities of BSs are consistent
with observed rotation for early F stars (Pilachowski
1986), but in a small sample of BSs in M67, BSs may have
slightly slower than average rotation (Peterson et al.
1984). A general view of BSs rotation cannot yet be made.
There is a high proportion of peculiar CH and Ball
giants as well as contact binaries found in old open clus-
ters. There is a high incidence of binaries in field CH stars.
Luck and Bond (1991) present arguments that CH sub-
giants are a species of BS star. Many Ba stars are wide
binaries, with periods >100 d (EI89). Binaries may repre-
sent phases in the lives of precursors of many of the BSs in
these older groups.
3.2 Halo Clusters (17X109 yr)
With deeper CCD CMDs, hundreds of BSs have now
been found in several globular clusters, especially in those
systems known to have very low concentrations or densi-
ties, such as NGC 5466, NGC 5053.
About 150 BSs are likely members of their clusters
(Nemec 1989; Sarajedini and Da Costa 1991). A new cat-
alog of 425 BSs candidates found within 21 globular clus-
ters, appears in Fusi Pecci et al. ( 1992). Four to 15 contact
binaries should exist among the 150 likely globular cluster
BSs, if we use the frequency given above (Sec. 2.2.2) from
Mateo et al. (1990). There have been a few searches for
short-period variations in BSs: in NGC 5466 (Nemec and
Harris 1987; Mateo et al. 1990; Kallrath et al. 1992), NGC
5053 (Nemec and Cohen 1989), co Cen (Da Costa et al.
1986; Margon and Cannon 1989; Mateo et al. 1990), M3
(Da Costa 1987), NGC 4372 (Kaluzny and Rucinski
1993). Short-period variable BSs are confirmed in NGC
5466, co Cen, and NGC 4372. Some additional candidates
are, for examples, M71 with a possible W UMa type (Hod-
der et al. 1992); a possible eclipsing candidate in M55
(Irwin and Trimble 1984); and six possible eclipsing bina-
ries also in co Cen (Mateo et al. 1990). The anomalous
Cepheid V19 in NGC 5466 may be a prime candidate for
being an evolved BS that formed from the merger of two
components in a close binary.
Some old clusters have many close binaries, while others
do not. It is not known why. The frequency for W UMas is
about 1-2 systems per 1000 ordinary field dwarfs (Rucin-
ski 1992a,b).
Mass functions for globular clusters can be seen in Figs.
9 and 10 in Sarajedini and Da Costa ( 1991) for 130 BSs in

several globular clusters, Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9 of Fusi Pecci
et al. ( 1992), and Figs. 7 and 8 of Fusi Pecci, Ferraro, and
Cacciari (1993). Our Fig. 4 shows a luminosity function
from Sarajedini and Da Costa (1991) for BSs in globular
clusters. One sees that several BSs are brighter than 2.5
mag above turnoff.
3.2.1 Dense Globular Clusters and Cluster Cores
Sarajedini (1992) has studied 14 globular clusters and
finds BSs in all. As mentioned, Fusi Pecci et al. ( 1992) find
over 400 candidates in 21 globulars.
Of the known BSs in a field of co Cen, three are dwarf
Cepheids and one is an eclipsing binary, NJL 5, with a
P< 3 hr, showing small (0.1 to 0.8 mag) light variations
(Da Costa et al. 1986; Margon and Cannon 1989). Visual
spectra from 3500 to 5000 Á show no unusual chemical
characteristics (Da Costa et al. 1986). All the BSs lie red-
ward of the ZAMS between mixed evolved models, co Cen
also has peculiar giants: CH stars near the tip of the giant
branch and lower, stars with enhanced ^-process elements,
and ones with strong CN bands. Mixing of CN-processed
material and triple-alpha products may play a role in mix-
ing for BSs; and note that there is also a high incidence of
binaries in field CH stars. Luck and Bond (1991) suggest
that CH subgiants are a species of BS star.
In NGC 5897, Sarajedini (1993a) finds about 56
probable-member BS candidates. It is not yet known
whether these BSs are variable. In NGC 6101 are found at
least 27 candidates (Sarajedini and Da Costa 1991). IC
4499 has about 24 BS candidates; three appear to be vari-
ables (Sarajedini 1993a,b). In all of these clusters, the BSs
are more centrally concentrated than cluster subgiants at
the same magnitude. In studying the 130 BSs in five clus-
ters, Sarajedini and Da Costa (1991) suggest that the ex-
istence of BSs in globulars can be understood in terms of
binary mass transfer and/or merger process.
In M55, Irwin and Trimble ( 1984) found eight variable
stars. Mateo and Krzeminski ( 1990) find that at least two
of these variables are short-period binaries, one a definite
W UMa system.
M71 has 50 BSs in its central portion (Hodder et al.
1992), more centrally concentrated than the subgiants. So,
BSs are more massive than upper main-sequence stars and
subgiants and thus BSs may be binaries or massive singles,
if equipartition is assumed. The contact binaries are BSs.
M71 also contains two possible eclipsing variables, one a
BS. Among the six or so BSs in or near the instability strip,
only one is an SX Phe (ultra-short-period Cepheids, uspc).
Few BSs have really been monitored well for variability.
In M3, a moderately dense cluster, BSs are less centrally
concentrated than giants, but are found more in low den-
sity regions, where there would be a lower frequency of
collisions to disrupt binaries (Boite et al. 1993). But, ac-
cording to Leonard’s experiments, binaries cannot be dis-
rupted without producing some BSs in the process.
Searches are now underway for BSs in the cores of dense
globulars. It is difficult to find evidence of binaries because,
in these old systems, the contact binaries may have already
merged, or in the case of moderately dense globulars, such
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1093
as M3, disruption mechanisms may have occurred. Cores
are particularly difficult to study, even with the HST or
ground-based telescopes at superb-seeing sites, neverthe-
less, numerous core BSs have been found. Virtually all
studies suffer from incompleteness, so the numbers of ob-
jects reported must be lower limits to true numbers.
The newly discovered dozens of BSs in the dense core of
47 Tue (Paresce et al. 1991; Guhathakurta et al. 1992)
show characteristics such as a centrally peaked space den-
sity and an increasing population gradient inward, which
may be more easily explainable if the BSs are highly mas-
sive and formed from collisional mergers. High-velocity
stars are also found in the core (Meylen, Dubath, and
Mayor 1992), and several millisecond and binary pulsars
are present (van den Heuvel 1991; Hut et al. 1992); bina-
ries definitely exist in cluster cores.
In the core of NGC 6397, Aurière et al. ( 1990) report
findings BSs too hot for their luminosity, relative to sub-
giants. They find five BSs within 0.7 pc of center, which are
1 mag brighter than the other BSs. They suggest that BSs
formed from coalescence which would have been forced
during the cluster’s core collapse, or that BSs are primor-
dial close binaries, not coalesced, but transferring mass.
But even single-single collisions can operate effectively in
this environment.
Harris (1993) finds 27 candidate BSs in NGC 6366, in
his survey for variable stars. No BSs were found to be
variable, which, he discusses, may be due to the higher
metallicity of NGC 6366, and the possibility that SX Phoe-
nicis stars are rarer in these environments.
3.2.2 Low-Density Globular Clusters
NGC 4372 was searched for short-period binaries and
SX Phe variables (Kaluzny and Krzeminski 1993). About
40 stars were identified as BSs candidates. Nineteen vari-
ables were found, eight of which are BSs/SX Phe types,
concentrated toward the center, eight are W UMa-type
eclipsing contact binaries, two of which are faint BSs, and
there is an Algol-type or cataclysmic eclipsing variable as
well. A much more complete survey needs to be done in
this cluster.
In NGC 5466, Mateo et al. ( 1991a) find that, of over 50
BSs (Nemec and Harris 1987), two (NH19, NH30) are
A-type contact binaries, that is, eclipsing W UMa systems,
and are unusually blue for their periods, or .equivalently,
the orbital periods are too short for the colors, when com-
pared with Population I W UMa systems (Rucinski
1992a,b). This may fulfill a prediction by Webbink (1979)
about very restrictive conditions on old contact systems
that would result in small mass ratios, shallow eclipses,
and short periods (Rucinski 1992a,b). A third (NH31),
not in contact, is either a short-period semidetached Algol
type or a fully detached binary. The photometric properties
of all three stars are consistent with cluster membership.
Mateo et al. ( 1990) find nine variable BSs, six of which are
pulsating SX Phe stars. Analysis of the SX Phe stars yields
masses of around 1.3 Mq for BSs, depending on the pul-
sation mode adopted (Nemec 1989), their dynamic masses
range from 1.5 to twice the mass of stars at turnoff, i.e.,
1094 STRYKER
those stars contributing most of the cluster light. The no-
tion that BSs are single and partially mixed in post-helium
flash stage is inconsistent with their large masses. Mateo
et al. (1990) assert that we are probably seeing the effects
of partial mixing due to some nonthermal pressure support
(rotation or magnetic fields) or merging, where the BSs
were bom with initial masses of 1.2 Mq.
3.2.3 BSs and Possible Correlations with Globular Cluster
Properties
Sarajedini and Da Costa (1991) compare a sample of
130 BSs from five globular clusters (NGC 6101, NGC
5466, NGC 5053, M3, and co Cen), where they find that
the magnitude of the brightest BS is similar (Mv—f-1.9)
in all clusters, and the BSs occupy similar loci in each
CMD. It appears to those authors that, at least in these
clusters, BSs can be understood in terms of binary mass
transfer and/or binary merger as hypotheses for their ori-
gin.
Fusi Pecci et al. (1992) reviewed the properties of 425
BSs in 21 globular clusters and report that stars that were
formerly BSs may appear on the red horizontal branch
(RHB). At least a partial connection is made between the
properties of BSs and horizontal-branch morphology. All
clusters with BSs have a few RHB stars, the more massive
evolved stars; this may support a binary origin for BSs.
But, of course, identifying an RHB star as a former BS is a
nontrivial pursuit; and checking central concentrations
may help. Other possible BSs relatives may be CH stars
(see Luck and Bond 1991), strong CN stars (Campbell
1986), or anomalous Cepheids (RMS).
There may be a trend for the loci of BSs in the CMD to
be farther redshifted with respect to their own cluster
ZAMS as cluster metallicity increases (Fig. 3). If the trend
turns out to be a real effect, then this new evidence will
have to be incorporated into any explanations for the ori-
gin and evolution of BSs. The reality of this proposed trend
remains to be seen.
Boite et al. ( 1993) made an inventory of BSs in the core
of M3, finding many candidates. Because of the complete-
ness of their survey, Boite et al. were able to define a “spe-
cific frequency” FBSs of BSs:
FBSs=A(BSs)/[A(RG+HB)],
where iV(RG + HB) are those above an adopted fiducial
(see their paper for discussion). For M3, Boite et al. derive
a specific frequency of BSs in the core that is ~3.5 times
lower than that measured in the outer areas of M3 or
within the low-density cluster NGC 5053. The use of a
specific frequency can be of tremendous importance to
finding correlations of BSs with cluster properties and to
making intercomparisons between clusters. Much addi-
tional work needs to be done in this area.
3.3 Field Stars
Any Population II field star having a B—V bluer than
that of globular-cluster turnoffs, a main-sequence surface
gravity, and certain kinematic properties (either high
proper motion, large radial velocity, or both), is a prime
BS suspect (Bond and MacConnell 1971; Carney and
Peterson 1981).
Some field BSs are Ap(Si) types. They are generally
known to have large magnetic fields, which can cause sub-
stantial mixing in stellar cores and outer layers in less than
their normal main-sequence lifetimes, so magnetic stars
can live longer on the main sequence. Field Ap(Si) stars
show a deficiency of binaries, especially short-period ones,
which may indicate that Ap(Si) BSs are also unlikely to
have high binary frequency. There appears to be normal
(40%-50% ) binary frequency in visual binaries in field Ap
stars; normal in spectroscopic binaries of type
Ap(Hg,Mn) (though none have P<3 d); and low (20%)
for type Ap(Si,Sr,Cr,Eu) (again, none with P< 3 d). For
P< 7 d, stars in the binaries are likely to have synchronous
rotations and orbital motions; and maybe partially syn-
chronized for P> 1 d. Ninety-seven percent of Ap stars are
slow rotators, with V sin z<100 km s“1. Having P< 3 d is
inconsistent with the low rotation velocities in Ap BSs,
hence Ap BSs are unlikely to be members of close binaries
now. The low frequency of binaries in field Ap(Si) sug-
gests that BSs are not mass transfer binaries (Abt 1985).
No chemical abundance anomalies were found in a
high-resolution study of three nonvarying field BSs (Car-
ney and Peterson 1981).
3.4 Dwarf Galaxies
Dwarf galaxies in the Local Group all have large pop-
ulations of BSs, containing from —102 to 103 examples
(Mould and Aaronson 1983; Da Costa 1984; Olszewski
and Aaronson 1985; Carney and Seitzer 1986; Da Costa
1987; and Mateo et al. 1991b). Because the central con-
centrations in these systems are so low, at first glance it
would seem that collisions would be an unlikely way to
form BSs. However, Leonard (1993a) has suggested that
binary-binary collisions are a viable mechanism for pro-
ducing at least some fraction ( 10%-20%) of BSs in these
and similar systems, assuming a binary frequency of 50%.
The presence of many variable stars, BSs in the mass
range 1.3 to 1.6 Mq, and anomalous Cepheids (ACs) in
dwarf galaxies allows a test of the binary merging hypoth-
esis to be made, by looking at the ratio of BSs to ACs. This
ratio is predicted to be from 1 to 10 if coalesced binary BSs
are precursors of ACs (Renzini, Mengel, and Sweigart
1977, hereafter referred to as RMS). Draco has a ratio of
about 14 to 100 (Carney and Seitzer 1986) and Ursa Mi-
nor of about 10 to 25 (Olszewski and Aaronson 1985;
Nemec, Wehlau, and Mendes de Oliveira 1988), which
researchers claim is not greatly far from that predicted by
RMS. The simultaneous presence of BSs and ACs, and
comparisons of their relative numbers, appear to support
the RMS hypothesis that there may be an evolutionary
connection between the two. However, the interpretation
of these ratios is open to question if many dwarf galaxies
are young or multiple star-burst systems, as they may turn
out to be.
A small population of BSs in the dwarf galaxy Sculptor

may be interpreted as either (1) normal, but young (5
Gyr), main-sequence stars, or (2) BSs. If these are genu-
inely intermediate-age stars, this would imply ongoing star
formation. There may be small age differences with differ-
ing He abundances. Sculptor may be a “young” galaxy
(Da Costa 1984).
In the old classical Population II dwarf galaxy, Ursa
Minor, Olszewski and Aaronson (1985) find about 20 BSs
candidates.
Draco also has numerous BSs (Carney and Seitzer
1986). It is not clear whether the Draco BSs represent a
large number of mass-transfer binaries, an intermediate-
age population, or perhaps both. A younger-population
component would help explain the red color of the galaxy’s
horizontal branch, and signs of a younger population are
seen in the CMD, where the high S/N data hint that star
formation in Draco may have been episodic, with bursts
separated by several billion years. Draco shows a red hor-
izontal branch and a spread in metallicity on the giant
branch. These features may indicate that more than one
era of star formation has occurred, although lower helium
or higher CNO abundance could also be the cause.
Mateo et al. (1991a) published deep CCD photometry
of the Sextans dwarf spheroidal galaxy. This dwarf galaxy
contains BSs, an extended but predominantly red horizon-
tal branch, and a well-defined red giant branch. The insta-
bility strip is well populated with well over 300 RR Lyrae
and ACs.
In many cases, it is possible that stars appearing as BSs
are simply just young. Perhaps multiple star-formation ep-
ochs are common in these systems. This makes forming
conclusions about the origin of BSs in dwarf galaxies dif-
ficult, if not impossible, at the present time.
3.5 Additional Observational Data
3.5.1 Variability
In old systems, about 25% of known BSs are light vari-
able, with periods from 45 min to 10 hr. At least 14 SX Phe
stars have similar periods and amplitudes, and are found in
globular clusters and perhaps in Draco. The masses of
ACs, BSs, and SX Phe stars are all similar, that is, higher
than masses of stars at turnoff (Nemec 1989; Mateo et al.
1990). Some BSs are the Ô Set type, i.e., nonradial pulsa-
tors with very low amplitudes. Of course, some fraction of
BSs are expected to vary, since some lie in the extended
instability strip and some are known to be ultra-short-
period pulsators, the SX Phe types. SX Phe stars can be
monitored for possible O—C variations which may help in
distinguishing between hypotheses.
Light curves for BS variables can be found in Da Costa
( 1987) for M3, and in Mateo et al. ( 1990) for NGC 5466.
3.5.2 Magnetism
The hypothesis that BSs have strong magnetic fields
receives some indirect support, at least for the BSs in
intermediate-age clusters 108*3 to 109 yr old (Abt 1985).
Perhaps all BSs in this age range are Ap (Pendí and
Seggewiss 1976), as a significant fraction of BSs in
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1095
these clusters are Ap(Si) and Ap(Sr,Cr,Eu) types, as men-
tioned earlier. Ap are the only nondegenerate stars known
to possess a magnetic field with large-scale organization,
detectable by observing circular polarization in their spec-
tral lines. The order of magnitude of the magnetic field is a
few kG, but the measured field of most Ap varies period-
ically because of rotation. Also, it has recently been dis-
covered that several BS A stars have a deficiency in flux
between 1200 and 2000, similar to that observed in Ap(Si)
stars, which may be related to the presence of a magnetic
field (Duran and Graziati 1986).
Mathys (1988) looked for evidence in M67 of two pos-
sibilities that might be responsible for mixing in BSs: rapid
rotation and magnetic field strength. Lines of eleven BSs
were studied in 6900-7900 Á for CNO abundances, and
the four sharpest-lined BSs (FI31, 153, 185, and 283), in
5300-6250 A for Zeeman splitting. He detected no large-
scale organized magnetic fields in the four BSs. This does
not mean that BSs do not have a field like that of Ap stars,
but it is unlikely that all four would have magnetic fields
and all be simply observed at undetectable phases (Mathys
1988). (Mathys cautions that the Zeeman instrumentation
is not yet calibrated with other spectropolarimeters, but he
believes it to be essentially correct. )
Mathys infers that BSs in old open clusters do not gen-
erally possess large-scale organized magnetic fields similar
to those of Ap. So, large-scaled organized strong magnetic
fields do not appear to be responsible for the BS phenom-
enon in old open clusters, or at least we can say that all BSs
in such clusters cannot be explained by the presence of
such fields. Note that this does not rule out the possibility
of quasihomogeneously evolved BSs, because a large-scale
organized magnetic field is not needed for mixing in the
interior (Mathys 1988). It should also be noted that seeing
a high magnetic field on a star’s surface does not tell us
much about the magnetic state of the interior.
3.5.3 Radial Distributions
Spatial distributions of spectroscopic binaries in com-
plete samples of giant and main-sequence turnoff stars
show that binaries are centrally concentrated relative to
“single” stars, i.e., those showing no velocity variations.
For example, in NGC 7789, the central concentrations of
BSs and single giants are virtually the same (but NGC
7789 is half the age of M67); while in M67, the projected
half-mass radius pf single stars is 2.4 pc, that of binaries is
0.9 pc. Estimates have giants at 1.5 and BSs>1.5 Mq
(Mathieu and Latham 1986). BSs often have spatial dis-
tributions very similar to those of binaries, both being well
fit by 2 Mq in a multimass equipartition isotropic King
model (Mathieu and Latham 1986). The similarity of the
binary and BSs spatial distribution suggests that a binary
population may be the progenitor of BSs, but other origins
cannot be ruled out (Mathieu and Latham 1986; Nemec
and Harris 1987; Sarajedini and Da Costa 1991).
Of the 48 BSs in NGC 5466 found by Nemec and Harris
(1987), 88% are located inside R=2.5 aremin, the radius
containing half the light, while the rest are within 9 are-
min. BSs are more centrally concentrated than subgiant
1096 STRYKER
stars with the same magnitude. From King models they
derive a mean mass for the BSs at 1.5 to 2 times larger than
the masses of the stars contributing the light from which
the core and tidal radii were derived, that is, Mbs
~1.3 ATq± 0.3. The central relaxation time is much less
than the cluster age, so that radial distributions are attrib-
uted to mass segregation (energy equipartition). The low
stellar density and small escape velocity of NGC 5466
make a more recent epoch of star formation highly un-
likely.
Based on their findings, Nemec and Harris suggest that
BSs are either close binary systems or coalesced stars. The
low frequency of single-star collisions expected in the cen-
ter of NGC 5466 argues for BSs to be primordial binaries
(note that binary-binary collisions are neglected here).
BSs are significantly more concentrated than giants in
NGC 188 and M67, so are more massive than turnoff stars.
BSs have radial distributions similar to giants in NGC
7789. In M3, core concentration of BSs is down, which
may be attributed to disruption. So, residing in a cluster
with a high degree of central concentration does not nec-
essarily imply a large BS frequency, since binary BSs may
be destroyed (though the disruption process will produce
some BSs via collisions).
All of the above has assumed that redistribution of
masses has occurred through equipartition of energy. It
may not be correct to estimate mean masses for BSs by
comparing their radial distributions with those of other
stars since the assumption of energy equipartition may not
be valid and central concentration not necessarily indica-
tive of masses (Hut et al. 1992). But note that the masses
one determined by other means agree with the masses as-
signed under the assumption of equipartition.
3.5.3 Lithium Abundances
The 7Li(p,a)4He reaction at temperatures higher than
2.5 X 106 K destroys Li, so observations of surface lithium
can be a diagnostic tool in the investigation of stellar evo-
lutionary problems. The coolest BSs, then, should allow
the best opportunity to observe lithium.
Six Am stars (including one BS, 68 Tau) in Hyades
have been observed for lithium, aluminum, silicon, and
iron abundances (Burkhart and Coupry 1989). Five of the
sharp-lined stars have kept the “initial” (normal) amount
of lithium, have no enhancement of A1 or Si, and show a
moderate enhancement of Fe. These stars have surface
temperatures from 7350 to 9050 K. For these and similar
ones in Coma Ber, the lithium abundance is found to be
normal.
In NGC 7789, the lithium abundance in stars on the
main-sequence turnoff is normal, i.e., log e(Li) = 3.0. Stars
just beyond the turnoff show evidence of lithium depletion
or dilution. Lithium in the low-mass giants is higher than
average and there is a smaller amount of main-sequence
depletion in cluster giants than in field giants (Pilachowski
1986). The suggestion has been made that star K301 may
be an evolved BS star, and that there may be a link between
weak g-band stars, some Ap stars, and BSs (Pilachowski
1986). This should be further investigated.
In M67, prime candidates are FI31 and 136. F136,
sometimes called a “yellow straggler,” is a single-line,
long-period (1495 d) spectroscopic binary (Hobbs and
Mathieu 1991). Boesgaard (1990) found no lithium in
three BSs (FI31, 153, 156) in M67. Her interpretation is
that the observed depletion is consistent with a merger
scenario where thorough mixing has destroyed all the lith-
ium, although this is also expected if BSs were produced by
collisions.
Hobbs and Mathieu ( 1991 ) also observed two field pop-
ulation II BSs, and FI31 and 136 in M67 and found no
detectable lithium. The upper limits of surface lithium,
deduced from model atmospheres, are significantly lower
than the initial abundances assumed for these populations.
If these BSs have followed standard evolutionary tracks for
\.5M0 stars during post-main-sequence evolution, why is
lithium not observed? The lack of lithium in M67 BSs
suggests that these stars do not result from a new epoch of
star formation, because, if young, they should have de-
stroyed very little of their original lithium. The suggestion
is made that BSs also do not result from interior mixing,
unless their surfaces also mix. If, however, BSs result from
mass transfer or coalescence in binary systems or from
coalescence in stellar collisions, then lithium would not be
expected to be observed (Hobbs and Mathieu 1991).
Results are consistent with an hypothesis of BSs forma-
tion which requires a widespread redistribution of stellar
material, that is, a complete mixing from core to surface,
because mass transfer or coalescence will dilute material.
Recall that hotter BSs do show abundance peculiarities
(such as Am, Ap, etc.) (Hobbs and Mathieu 1991).
Schramm, Steigman, and Dearborn (1990) suggest that
mass loss, such as that in 8 Set stars, could account for the
deficiency of lithium observed in Population I dwarfs with
low masses ( 1.2M0). This lithium dip occurs in clusters of
the appropriate age where the instability strip intersects the
main sequence (for example, as occurs in the Hyades, but
not in younger ones, such as the Pleiades), but see King
( 1991 ) below. Willson et al. ( 1987) describe a mechanism
of mass loss whereby the main-sequence stars located in
the extended strip have rapid rotation, lose mass, and
evolve downwards on the main sequence. The Willson
et al. hypothesis explains BSs as slow rotators with no mass
loss and no evolution down the main sequence. If this were
the case, then we would expect to observe “normal” lith-
ium abundances in BSs as well as slower rotation, and no
mass loss.
However, King (1991) shows that the locations of the
lithium dip and the instability strip are not coincident as
suggested by Schramm et al. Lithium abundance determi-
nations in BSs and 8 Set stars are still too few to make
definitive statements on the validity of the mass-loss hy-
pothesis, but at present the scenario that 8 Set stars are the
progenitors of lithium dip stars is not supported (King
1991).
Pritchet and Glaspey ( 1991 ) also observed seven BSs in
M67, including FI31, and found upper limits less than that
considered normal for their temperatures. Results are sim-
ilar to Hobbs and Mathieu (1991) above. Pritchet and

Glaspey conclude that some form of mixing has affected
the outer envelopes of BSs. Virtually all mechanisms for
the production of BSs other than mixing, mass transfer,
binary merger, or collisional merger appear to be ruled out
by these observations. The lithium abundance of M67 BSs
appears to be in marked disagreement with that of other
stars with comparable temperatures in that the M67 BSs
are deficient in lithium by a factor >7. This great a defi-
ciency cannot be caused by mere diffusion (Pritchet and
Glaspey 1991).
These observations provide some support for the main-
sequence lifetimes of BSs being prolonged by internal mix-
ing. An origin of this mixing may be binary coalescence;
however, the possibility of some other form of mixing,
driven, for example, by rotation, turbulence, or magnetic
fields, cannot be excluded. Also it is still not possible to
rule out that BSs formed from binary mass transfer, al-
though the success of this theory suffers because few radial-
velocity variations have been seen in BSs. This lack could
be explained if some BSs have already merged into a single
product. Nor can collisional mergers be ruled out, as they,
along with mixing or mass transfer, are a good way to
destroy lithium.
3.5.5 UV and IR Observations
Peterson et al. (1984), from JHK photometry, interpret
BSs as widely separated binaries, with perhaps red dwarf
companions in highly eccentric orbits.
Duran and Graziati ( 1986) obtained IUE spectra for 27
BSs in the field and in open clusters, in the wavelength
range 1150-3200 Â. BSs are normal, that is, have spectra
like those of stars with similar temperatures. All A-type
BSs which have absorption between 1200 and 2000 Á, look
similar to Ap(Si) stars.
Gerbaldi et al. (1987), used the IUE to obtain low-
resolution spectra of 13 BSs in nine open clusters and
found that all show spectral characteristics of classical
magnetic Ap stars. Some of these BSs had already been
detected by Didelon (1984) to have magnetic fields.
Stryker and Garmany (1993) looked for white dwarf
companions in seven A-type BSs in three open clusters,
M67, NGC 752, and Praesepe, with the IUE. In the mid-
to-late A stars of these clusters, a white dwarf companion
would easily have been detected as a far UV excess, but the
spectra appear normal for their temperatures, compared to
Kurucz model atmospheres. No evidence for any such
companions were seen. Carney and Bond (1986) had also
found no detections of white dwarf companions in three
halo field BSs, using IUE. It is possible that the white
dwarfs may already have cooled below the detectability
level, and their existence still cannot be ruled out.
Paresce et al. (1992) found, while using the FOC on
HST to search for the optical/UV counterpart to a low-
luminosity X-ray object, that the BSs in the core of 47 Tue
have normal UV spectra for their spectral types. The coun-
terpart candidate, VI, may likely be a magnetic cataclys-
mic variable, an asynchronously rotating DQ Her-type bi-
nary, but its nature needs confirmation.
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1097
4. OBSERVATIONS NEEDED
More work is still needed in many areas. Since all of the
major contending theories for the origin of BSs seem to
involve binaries, then searches for and studies of binaries
must be high on the list. We need to survey more clusters
to identify BSs; assess memberships; increase the number
of observations of already known BSs to improve statistics;
obtain spectra and photometry; determine periods, ages,
masses, temperatures, surface gravities, and light varia-
tions; measure radial velocities, rotations, magnetic
strengths, abundances and abundance ratios; look for ve-
locity variations and abundance anomalies. It would be
good to investigate BS specific frequencies and character-
istics in the cores and envelopes of the denser clusters, both
within a cluster and between clusters. We should also make
comparisons between BSs and main-sequence stars; and
learn more about main-sequence properties and the main-
sequence binary frequency in cluster cores. A study of the
differences among BSs in metal-rich and metal-poor glob-
ular clusters could be undertaken. Pulsation modes (radial,
nonradial) in BS variables can be studied as a function of
metallicity. A fuller exploration into possible correlations
of the properties of BSs and cluster properties should be
undertaken. Catalogs of X-ray sources can be checked for
positions near BSs positions. Additionally, one can look for
signs of descendants of BSs.
Further observational tests of the binary mass-transfer
hypothesis are needed, such as more searches for late-type,
undermassive, semidetached companions, and for contact
systems. We should look for detached progenitors that
may play a role in binary mergers. UV observers might
look for He abundances in BSs, to try to distinguish colli-
sional mergers from binary mergers. Also, binary-binary
collision calculations predict long-period orbital variations
in SX Phe BSs.
The following is from Leonard and Linnell (1992),
which should be referred to for details and explanations.
Search for main-sequence binaries in the cores of low-
density clusters that contain BSs; needed are accurate ra-
dial velocities for faint stars. Look for BSs in very low-
density globular clusters, such as AMI, 4, Pal 5, 14, 15,
which will have the longest mean times between binary-
binary collisions; accurate distances and structural param-
eters are still needed for these clusters. But most useful
would be a search for correlations between the specific
frequencies of BSs, and cluster properties. Study carefully
BSs having masses >3Mt0. Measure rotational velocities
in BSs. Measure ages for field halo-population BSs. Study
the space motions of the Population II field BSs. If some
are found to be similar, then the mechanism, whereby BSs
were formed in clusters that were later disrupted may ex-
plain their existence (Hut 1992; Leonard 1993b).
5. SUMMARY
It is becoming clearer that several mechanisms, difficult
to distinguish, must be responsible for the blue-straggler
phenomenon. It is also highly likely that more than one
mechanism occurs even within the same cluster to produce
1098 STRYKER
BSs. There is still some ambiguity about whether BSs are
single or double stars, simply because of the possibility that
some BSs have merged. In the youngest clusters, perhaps
high rotation in single BSs provide support for internal
mixing; BSs in young to intermediate-age clusters are likely
to receive this mixing support from high magnetic fields; in
old-disk open clusters, globulars, and perhaps dwarf gal-
axies, binary mass transfer, and binary merger are likely
the major causes for the production of BSs with a contri-
bution from binary-binary collisions and coalescence;
however, internal mixing within single stars cannot be ex-
cluded. Also, dwarf galaxies may have ongoing star forma-
tion, and what appears as a BS may simply be a young star.
At this time, we can state that open and globular clus-
ters in the Milky Way contain BSs which have originated
through several processes, namely binary mass transfer,
binary merger, and collisional merger. It appears that in
the low-central-density clusters, most likely, primordial bi-
nary merger is the source of BSs, considering the mounting
observational evidence of the existence of binaries in these,
and all, systems. For clusters with higher central concen-
trations, there will be more interactions, but also more
disruptions, so a smaller number may be formed by pri-
mordial binary merger, more by collisional merger. Clus-
ters with highest central concentrations, the post core-
collapse clusters, do have BSs in the central portions and
these are almost certainly formed by collisional interac-
tions. Progress has been certainly made in the last 40 yr,
but BSs remain a challenge.
The reviewer thanks the authors cited for granting per-
mission to include their figures, Howard Bond for patience
and suggestions, and Michael Boite, Jim Hesser, Hugh
Harris, and especially Mario Mateo, Peter Leonard, and
Bruce Carney for thorough readings of this review and for
their corrections and improvements. Thanks also to Tom
McGrath, Edward González, and Tony Hansmann for
their assistance in the collection of materials.
REFERENCES
Abt, H. A. 1985, ApJ, 294, L103
Abt, H. A., and Cardona, O. 1984, ApJ, 285, 190
Abt, H. A., and Willmarth, D. 1987, ApJ, 318, 786
Anthony-Twarog, B., Kaluzny, J., Shara, M., and Twarog, B.
1990, AJ, 99, 1504
Aurière, M., Ortolani, S., and Lauzeral, C. 1990, Nature, 344,
638
Bailyn, C. 1992, ApJ, 392, 519
Bahúnas, S., and Guinan, E. 1985, ApJ, 294, 207
Benz, W., and Hills, J. 1987, ApJ, 323, 614
Bergbusch, P., VandenBerg, D., and Infante, L. 1991, AJ, 101,
2102
Boesgaard, A. 1990, in ASP Conf. Ser. 9, Cool Stars, Stellar
Systems, and the Sun, ed. G. Walerstein (San Francisco,
ASP), p. 317
Boite, M. 1992, ApJS, 82, 145
Boite, M., Hesser, J. E., and Stetson, P. B. 1993, ApJL, in press
Bond, H. E., and MacConnell, D. 1971, ApJ, 165, 51
Bond, H. E., and Perry, C. 1971, PASP, 83, 638
Buonanno, R., Buzzoni, A., Corsi, C, Fusi Pecci, F., and
Sandage, A. 1986, MSAIt, 57, 391
Burbidge, E., and Sandage, A. 1958, ApJ, 128, 174
Burkhart, C, and Coupry, M. 1989, A&A, 220, 197
Campbell, B. 1986, ApJ, 307, 750
Cannon, R. D., and Lloyd, C. 1970, MNRAS, 150, 279
Cannon, R. D., and Purcell, E. 1968, R. Obs. Bull., 158, 69
Carney, B. W. 1980, ApJ, 42, 481
Carney, B. W., and Latham, D. 1987, AJ, 93, 116
Carney, B. W., and Peterson, R. C. 1981, ApJ, 251, 190
Carney, B. W., and Seitzer, P. 1986, AJ, 92, 23
Chiu, L-T. G., and van Altena, W. F. 1981, ApJ, 243, 827
Collier, A., and Jenkins, C. 1984, MNRAS, 211, 391
Conti, P., Hensberge, G., van den Heuvel, E., and Strickland, D.
1974, A&A, 34, 393
Coté, P., Richer, H., and Fahlman, G. 1991, AJ, 102, 1358
Cudworth, K. M. 1985, AJ, 90, 65
Cudworth, K. M., and Rees, M. 1990, AJ, 99, 1491
Da Costa, G. S. 1984, ApJ, 285, 483
Da Costa, G. S. 1987, in IAU Coll. 95, The Second Conference
on Faint Blue Stars, ed. A. Philip, D. Hayes, and J. Liebert
(Schenectady, L. Davis), p. 579
Da Costa, G. S., and Norris, J. 1988, in The Harlow Shapley
Symp on Globular Cluster Systems in Galaxies, ed. J. Grind-
lay and A. Davis Philip (Dordrecht, Kluwer), p. 681
Da Costa, G. S., Norris, J., and Villumsen, J. 1986, ApJ, 308, 743
De Marchi, G., Paresce, F., and Ferraro, F. 1993, ApJS, in press
Deupree, R. G. 1990, ApJ, 357, 175
Deutsch, A. J. 1966, Ann. Rep. Dir. Mt. Wilson & Palomar Obs.,
p. 148
Deutsch, A. J. 1968, Ann. Rep. Dir. Mt. Wilson & Palomar Obs.,
p. 24
Didelon, P. 1984, A&AS, 55, 69
Drilling, J. S., and Schönbemer, D. 1987, in IAU Coli. 95, The
Second Conference on Faint Blue Stars, ed. A. Philip, D.
Hayes, and J. Liebert (Schenectady, L. Davis), p. 587
Duran, C. M., and Graziati, L. S. 1986, ESA Spec. Publ., ESA
SP-263, p. 415
Efremov, Y., Kholopov, P., Kukarkin, B., and Sharov, A. 1964,
Inf. Bull. Var. Stars, No. 75
Eggen, O. J. 1979, ApJS, 41, 413
Eggen, O. J., and Iben, Jr., I. 1988, AJ, 96, 635 (EI88)
Eggen, O. J., and Iben, Jr., I. 1989, AJ, 97, 431 (EI89)
Ferraro, F., Clementini, G., Fusi Pecci, F., and Buonanno, R.
1991, MNRAS, 252, 357
Ferraro, F., Fusi Pecci, F., and Buonanno, R. 1992, MNRAS,
256, 376
Fusi Pecci, F. 1987, in IAU Coli. 95, The Second Conference on
Faint Blue Stars, ed. A. Philip, D. Hayes, and J. Liebert
(Schenectady, L. Davis), p. 107
Fusi Pecci, F., Ferraro, F., and Cacciari, C. 1993, in ASP Conf.
Ser., Blue Stragglers, ed. R. Saffer and M. Livio (San Fran-
cisco, ASP), p. 97
Fusi Pecci, F., Ferraro, F., Corsi, C., Cacciari, C., and Buonanno,
R. 1992, AJ, 104, 1831
Gerbaldi, M., Morales Duran, C, Sabau Graziati, L, Freire Fer-
raro, R., and Talavera Iniesta, A. 1987, in IAU Coll. 95, The
Second Conference on Faint Blue Stars, ed. A. Philip, D.
Hayes, and J. Liebert (Schenectady, L. Davis), p. 571
Gilliland, R. L., and Brown, T. M. 1992, AJ, 103, 1945
Gilliland, R., Brown, T., Duncan, D., Suntzeff, N., Lockwood,
G., Thompson, D., Schild, R., Jeffrey, W., and Penprase, B.
1991, AJ, 101, 541

Guhathakurta, P., Yanny, B., Schneider, D., and Bahcall, J.
1992, AJ, 104, 1790
Gunn, J. E., Stryker, L. L., and Tinsley, B. M. 1981, ApJ, 249, 48
Hagen, G. L. 1970, Publ. David Dunlap Obs., Vol. 4
Hagen, G. L. 1982, personal communication
Harris, H. C. 1993, AJ, 106, 604
Harris, H. C, Mateo, M., Olszewski, E., and Nemec, J. 1990, in
ASP Conf. Ser. 11, Confrontation Between Stellar Pulsation
and Evolution, ed. C. Cacciari and G. Clementini (San Fran-
cisco, ASP), p. 90
Hesser, J. E., Hartwick, F. D. A., and McClure, R. D. 1976, ApJ,
207, LI 13
Hesser, J. E., McClure, R., Hawarden, T., Cannon, R., Von Rud-
loff, R., Kruger, B., and Egles, D. 1984, PASP, 96, 406
Hintzen, P., Scott, J., and Whelan, J. 1974, ApJ, 194, 657
Hills, J., and Day, C. 1976, ApL, 17, 87
Hobbs, L, and Mathieu, R. 1991, PASP, 103, 431
Hodder, P., Nemec, J., Richer, H., and Fahlman, G. 1992, AJ,
103, 460
Hoffer, J. B. 1983, AJ, 88, 1420
Hubbard, E., and Dearborn, D. 1980, ApJ, 239, 248
Hut, P. 1992, in X-Ray Binaries & the Formation of Binary
Millisecond Pulsars, ed. E. van den Heuvel and S. Rappaport
(Dordrecht, Reidel)
Hut, P., McMillan, S., Goodman, J., Mateo, M., Phinney, S.,
Pryor, C, Richer, H., and Weinberg, M. 1992, PASP, 104,
981 (Hut et al.)
Hut, P., McMillan, S., and Romani, R. 1992, ApJ, 389, 527
Iben, Jr., I., and Talbot, J. R. 1966, ApJ, 144, 968
Iben, Jr., I., and Tutukov, A. 1986, ApJ, 311, 753
Irwin, M. J., and Trimble, V. 1984, AJ, 89, 83
Johnson, H. L., and Sandage, A. R. 1955, ApJ, 121, 616
Kallrath, J., Milone, E., and Stagg, C. 1992, ApJ, 389, 590
Kaluzny, J. 1988, Acta Astron., 38, 339
Kaluzny, J. 1990, Acta Astron., 40, 61
Kaluzny, J., and Krzeminski, W. 1993, MNRAS, in press
Kaluzny, J., Mazur, B., and Krzeminski, W. 1993, MNRAS, 262,
49
Kaluzny, J., and Rucinski, S. 1993, MNRAS, in press
Kaluzny, J., and Shara, M. 1987, ApJ, 314, 585
King, J. 1991, MNRAS, 249, 658
Kubiak, M., Kaluzny, J., Krzeminski, W., and Mateo, M. 1992,
Acta Astron., 42, 145
Kurucz, R. L. 1979, ApJS, 40, 1
Latham, D., Mazeh, T., Camey, B., McCrosky, R., Stefanik, R.,
and Davis, R. 1988, AJ, 96, 567
Lauzeral, C., Ortolani, S., Aurière, S., and Melnick, J. 1992,
A&A, 262, 63
Leonard, P. J. T. 1988, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Toronto
Leonard, P. J. T. 1989, AJ, 98, 217
Leonard, P. J. T. 1993a, in ASP Conf. Ser., Blue Stragglers, ed.
R. Saffer and M. Livio (San Francisco, ASP), p. 186
Leonard, P. J. T. 1993b, in ASP Conf. Ser., Blue Stragglers, ed.
R. Saffer and M. Livio (San Francisco, ASP)
Leonard, P. J. T., and Clement, M. 1993, in ASP Conf. Ser., Blue
Stragglers, ed. R. Saffer and M. Livio (San Francisco, ASP),
p. 193
Leonard, P. J. T., and Duncan, M. 1988, AJ, 96, 222
Leonard, P. J. T., and Duncan, M. 1990, AJ, 99, 608
Leonard, P. J, T., and Fahlman, G. 1991, AJ, 102, 994
Leonard, P. J. T., and Linnell, A. 1992, AJ, 103, 1928
Luck, R. E., and Bond, H. E. 1991, ApJS, 77, 515
Maeder, A. 1987, A&A, 178, 159
BLUE STRAGGLERS 1099
Manteiga, M., Martinez Roger, C., Morales, C., and Sabau, L.
1991, A&A, 251, 49
Manteiga, M., Martinez Roger, C., and Pickles, A. 1989, Ap&SS,
156, 169
Manteiga, M., Pickles, A., and Martinez Roger, C. 1989, A&A,
210, 66
Manteiga, M., Pickles, A., Martinez Roger, C., and Beckman, J.
1987, in IAU Coll. 95, The Second Conference on Faint Blue
Stars, ed. A. Philip, D. Hayes, and J. Liebert (Schenectady, L.
Davis), p. 583
Margon, B., and Cannon, R. 1989, Observatory, 109, 82
Mateo, M., Harris, H., Nemec, J., and Olszewski, E. 1990, AJ,
100, 469
Mateo, M., and Krzeminski, W. 1990, BAAS, 22, 1284
Mateo, M., Nemec, J., Irwin, M., and McMahon, R. 1991a, AJ,
101, 892
Mateo, M., Olszewski, E., and Welch, D. 1991b, AJ, 102, 914
Mathieu, R. D., and Latham, D. W. 1986, AJ, 92, 1364
Mathieu, R. D., and Latham, D. W. 1988, in Harlow Shapley
Symp on Globular Cluster Systems in Galaxies, ed. J. Grind-
lay and A. Davis Philip (Dordrecht, Kluwer), p. 675
Mathieu, R. D., and Latham, D. W. 1990, AJ, 100, 1859
Mathieu, R. D., Latham, D., Griffin, R., and Gunn, J. 1986, AJ,
92, 1100
Mathys, G. 1987, A&AS, 71, 201
Mathys, G. 1991, A&A, 245, 467
Mazur, B., Krzeminski, W., and Kaluzny, J. 1993, in press
McClure, R. D. 1964, ApJ, 280, L31
McCrea, W. H. 1964, MNRAS, 128, 147
McMillan, S., Hut, P., and Makino, J. 1990, ApJ, 362, 522
McMillan, S., Hut, P., and Makino, J. 1991, ApJ, 372, 111
McNamara, B. 1980, PASP, 92, 682
McNamara, B., Pratt, N., and Sanders, W. 1977, A&AS, 27, 117
Mermilliod, J.-C. 1982, A&A, 109, 37
Meylen, G., Dubath, P., and Mayor, M. 1992, ApJ, 383, 587
Milone, A. A. E. 1992, PASP, 104, 1268
Milone, A. A. E., Latham, D., Kurucz, R., and Morse, J. 1991, in
ASP Conf. Ser. 13, The Formation and Evolution of Star
Clusters, ed. K. Janes (San Francisco, ASP), p. 424
Milone, A. A. E., Latham, D., Mathieu, R., Morse, J., and Davis,
R. 1992, in Evolutionary Processes in Interacting Binary
Stars, ed. Y. Kondo et al. (Dordrecht, Reidel), p. 473
Morales Duran, C., and Sabau Graziati, L. 1987, in IAU Coll. 95,
The Second Conference on Faint Blue Stars, ed. A. Philip, D.
Hayes, and J. Liebert (Schenectady, L. Davis), p. 575
Mould, J., and Aaronson, M. 1983, ApJ, 273, 530
Nemec, J. M. 1989, in IAU Coll. Ill: The Use of Pulsating Stars
in Fundamental Problems of Astron, ed. E. Schmidt (Cam-
bridge, Cambridge University Press), p. 215
Nemec, J. M. 1991, Nature, 352, 286
Nemec, J. M., and Cohen, J. G. 1989, ApJ, 336, 780
Nemec, J. M., and Harris, H. C. 1987, ApJ, 316, 172
Nemec, J. M., and Mateo, M. 1990, in ASP Conf. Ser. 11, The
Confrontation Between Stellar Pulsation and Evolution, ed. C.
Cacciari and G. Clementini (San Francisco, ASP), p. 64
Nemec, J. M., Wehlau, A., and Mendes de Oliveira, C. 1988, AJ,
96, 528
Olszewski, E., and Aaronson, M. 1985, AJ, 90, 2221
Paresce, F. et al. 1991, Nature, 352, 297
Paresce, F., De Marchi, G., and Ferraro, F. 1992, Nature, 360, 46
Pendí, E. S., and Seggewiss, W. 1975, in IAU Coll. 32, Physics of
Ap Stars, ed. W. Weiss, Jenkner, H., and Wood, H. (Vienna,
Vienna Obs.), p. 357
1100 STRYKER
Peterson, R. C., Carney, B. W., and Latham, D. W. 1984, ApJ,
279, 237
Pilachowski, C. 1986, ApJ, 300, 289
Pritchet, C., and Glaspey, J. 1991, ApJ, 373, 105
Pryor, C, McClure, R., Hesser, J., and Fletcher, J. 1989, in
Dynamics of Dense Stellar Systems, ed. D. Merritt (Cam-
bridge, Cambridge University Press), p. 175
Renzini, A., and Fusi Pecci, F. 1988, ARA&A, 26, 199
Renzini, A., Mengel, J., and Sweigart, A. 1977, A&A, 56, 369
(RMS)
Roberts, M. S. 1960, AJ, 65, 457
Rucinski, S. M. 1992a, in The Realm of Interacting Binary Stars,
ed. J. Sahade et al. (Dordrecht, Kluwer), p. Ill
Rucinski, S. M. 1992b, AJ, 103, 960
Saio, H., and Wheeler, J. C. 1980, ApJ, 242, 1176
Sandage, A. R. 1953, AJ, 58,61
Sandage, A. R. 1957, ApJ, 126, 326
Sanders, W. L. 1977, A&AS, 27, 89
Sarajedini, A. 1992, AJ, 104, 178
Sarajedini, A. 1993a, AJ, 105, 2172
Sarajedini, A. 1993b, in ASP Conf. Ser., Blue Stragglers, ed. R.
Saffer and M. Livio (San Francisco, ASP), p. 14
Sarajedini, A., and Da Costa, G. 1991, AJ, 102, 628
Sargent, W. 1968, ApJ, 152, 885
Schild, H., and Berthet, S. 1986, A&A, 162, 369
Schramm, D., Steigman, G., and Dearborn, D. 1990, ApJ, 359,
L55
Schüssler, M., and Pähler, A. 1978, AA, 68, 57
Stetson, P. B., and Harris, W. E. 1988, AJ, 96, 909
Strom, S. E., and Strom, K. M., 1970, ApJ, 162, 523
Strom, S. E., Strom, K. M., and Bregman, J. N. 1971, PASP, 83,
768
Stryker, L. L., and Garmany, C. D. 1993, in preparation
Stryker, L. L., Hesser, J., Hill, G., Garlick, G., and O’Keefe, L.
1985, PASP, 97, 247
Stryker, L. L., and Hrivnak, B. J. 1984, ApJ, 278, 215
Torres, G. 1991, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cordova
Tutukov, A., and Yungelson, L. 1987, Comm. Astrophys. C, 12,
51
Twarog, B. A., and Tyson, N. 1985, AJ, 90, 1247
VandenBerg, D. A., and Bell, R. A. 1985, ApJS, 58, 561
van den Heuvel, E. P. J. 1991, in Neutron Stars: Theory & Ob-
servation, ed. J. Ventura and D. Pines (Dordrecht, Kluwer)
Vasilevskis, S., Klemola, A., and Preston, G. 1958, AJ, 63, 387
Walker, A. R. 1985, MNRAS, 213, 889
Webbink, R. F. 1976a, ApJ, 209, 829
Webbink, R. F. 1976b, ApJS, 32, 583
Webbink, R. F. 1979, ApJ, 227, 178
Webbink, R. F. 1985a, in IAU Symp. 113, Dynamics of Star
Clusters, ed. J. Goodman and P. Hut (Dordrecht, Reidel), p.
541
Webbink, R. F. 1985b, in Interacting Binary Stars, ed. J. Pringle
and R. Wade (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press), p.
39
Wheeler, J. C. 1979a, ApJ, 234, 569
Wheeler, J. C. 1979b, Comm. Astrophys., 8, 133
Whelan, J., Worden, S., Rucinski, S., and Romanishin, W. 1979,
MNRAS, 186, 729
Williams, L P. 1963, Thesis, London University
Williams, I. P. 1964a, Ann. Ap, 27, 198
Williams, I. P. 1964b, MNRAS, 128, 390
Willson, L. A., Bowen, G., and Struck-Marcell, C. J. 1987,
Comm. Astrophys. C, 12, 17