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    Zakharov - Morphology of Soil

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    ‘Scanned om orginal by ISRIC ~ World Sol information, as 1CSU Wort Data Centre or Soll. The purpose ts to make 2 safe depostor for endangered documents and to make the accrued infornaten avaiable for consultation, flowing Fair Use Guidlines. Every for i taken t respect Copyright of the ‘materais within the archives where the Ienbifesten of the Copyright holder Is clear and, where feasble, to contact the orgies. For questions please contac solsicwur.n) ACHIEVEMENTS OF RUSSIAN SCIENCE. IN MORPHOLOGY OF SOILS By S. A. ZAKHAROV MORPHOLOGY of soits arose Inter than any other section of the soil sefence, although that branch of human knowledge is fone of the group of descriptive sciences, where the external properties of objects are of exceptional importance. ‘This fact is probably due to several reasons: 1) the origin of soil knowledge partly arose in the very core of geology, to which ppetrography, as well as the topographical conditions of soils were never foreign; on the other hand, of great value for the develop- ‘ment ofthis seience were the works accomplished in laboratories by agriculturists and chemist, most of them dealing with the e tical and mechanical composition of sols, and paying litle attention to the exterior characteristics of soils; 2) soils, as a subject of scientific research differ from other natural bodies in being volati amorphous and illdefined in shape; 3) Dokuchaiev not so long. ago advanced the principle thatthe soil constitutes a natural body, and therefore, must have its own peculiar aspect. [DRIEF HISTORICAL. SKETCH OF THE DEVELOPMENT ‘OF Soll. MORPHOLOGY ‘of examining the morphology of normal or virgin soils. This pr ciple first applied by Ruprecht, Member of the Academy of Sciances, was successively developed in the important works of V.V. Dokuchaiev and his followers. The introduction of this S.A, ZAKHAROV importance in a strictly scientific study of soils (S. Kor- zhinski). ‘To the successful prosccution of the study of soil morphology in Russia especially contributed the fact that at the disposition ‘of Russian pedologists were, at least at the beginning of their work, extensive areas of virgin soil; morphological researchs work could thus be conducted over soils yet unaltered by culture, and the interrelation of soil morphology with the agents of the soil making processes be obviously determined. Russian pedologists, beginning with Prof. Dokuchaiey, have introduced into soil surveying the method of giving more or less minute descriptions of the different horizons in naturally and art- ficislly exposed soils by means of soil sections or profiles. Such descriptions being in the first works extremely brief, containing but afew lines referring to each horizon (Dokuchaiev), were being gra- ‘dually developed and made very precise, and subsequently grew up to dozens of lines or even several pages (Dimo, Flerov, Nil forov). Zakharov made the first attempt to obtain a certain degree of definiteness inthe descriptions of different soil layers, and applied the system of summary definitions similar to those used by botanists and zoologists in their latin descriptions of new specimens ‘of plants and animals. He suggested diagram in the form of a special table to be used for these purposes. Later, many similar diagrams were composed. R. A. Rizplozhenski, « prominent pedologist (Kazan), fully convinced in the exclusive importance of morphology for the study of soil has since long urged the foundation ‘of a special section of morphology. He very correctly thought that in the early stage of the development of soil science, the frst efforts should be directed to giving exact descriptions of various soil formations; so early as in 1892 he attempted to construct a scheme of a more or less general soil classification based on 44 combination ofall morphological features accessible to immediate Rizplozhenski constructed an original device for collecting samples of monolithic soils, with intact morphological features (the apparatus is well known in the U.S.A), which greatly facilitates the morphologieal study of soils and their description in laboratories, However, the construction on a large scale of ‘maps ofthe extensive terrtory of north-eastern Rusia, accomplished aap Morphology of Soils in the nineties of the last century and based exclusively on the morphological character ef soils, was. somewhat premature: the nature of the main types of soil were not yet enough own, and the relationship between morphological features and the chemical composition of the soil and its genesis was far from being ae cleat, most cases, at present. Morphological field descriptions of soil sections were usually verified by subsequent laboratory tests of monolithic or separate Hovizon samples placed in equ conditions of light and moisture In the course of this work a thorough and detailed study of morphological propetios was carried out. "At the present day most cf the numerous preliminary reports ‘on sol investigations are based almost exclusively upon the study of soil morphology, which is conducted infield conditions. Morphological description of soils have recently attained such a degree of precision that by using exclusively morphological pro- pertes Florow was enabled fr the systematcal determination of toils to adopt the dichotomic method, resorted to in atber descrip tive sciences. Similar ydetermination tables™ of soils were com posed by Zakharov and Vilenski at the Polytechnical Institute {itis and by Pankov at the Gor’ Agricultural Institute (Vlad [kavkas) for educational purposes. Field observations and exhaustive laboratory descriptions of separate morphological features and properties of soils were being followed in the last years by several attempts to experimentally reproduce some of them, a8 for instance, colouring, structure, new growths (Tiuremnov, Kemmerling, Filatov). Thus, an experimental tendency is being now manifested in the study of soil morphology, offering frm foundation fr subsequent observa- tions and deseriptions ‘Summarised records of soil morphology. Several attempts to generalise and systematise data refering to soil morphology were first made in very brif manner; in the textbooks by Sibirtsew, published in 1900, by Glinka, in 1908, general questions. ‘devoted to morphology were treated in afew pages: omewhat more place was given to them in «short manual on science by Sabanin (1909); morphology was dealt with in stil greater detail by Zakharov (1914) in his brief text book on practical pedology; he gave a systematic review of ae e S.A. ZAKHAROV ‘the morphological features of the soil, and was the frst to introduce practical morphologicel study in the class room; a separate section has been alloted to it in his theoretical work on y pedo logy". ‘Summaries of much importance on morphology were given also by Tumin (1912), and Nabokikh (1914); the former drew particular attention to the construction of soils, and composed a scheme of the most typical soll formations in: European Rusia, has ined! their modifications dependent upon texture, relief, etc, Nabokikh, on the other hand, has given a cheracteri- stics of the main morphological features, showing their genesis, and their relationship with the chemical composition of different soil types and horizons; he supplied his work with numerous illastrs- tions and data from his own extensive observations taken inthe soulh- western part of Russa, Tumin has given besides a series of short sketches referring to the morphology of alkaline, alkali and chestnut soils, bielozens (white soils), sierozems (grey soils), and ‘more especially of chernozems; he ascertained that each type of soil has its own particular profile characteristics, Questions of soil morphology drew the attention of Kasatkin and Krasiuk, to whom we are indebted for indications in con- nection with the preparation of deseriptions of morphological pro- perties; these indications were profusely illustrated. Most abundant data on soil morphology were supplied in numerous works dealing with the description ofthe soil covering of large areas of European Russia (reports of the land valuation ‘expeditions of the former Zemsivos) and Asiatic Russia (soil and botanical expeditions ofthe former Colonisation Bureau). But these data have to be sifted and critically examined, and that work being now begun (Glinka, Prasolov, Newstruev, Afanasiev, Makhoy, and others). IMPORTANCE OF SOIL MORPHOLOGY ‘The study of the morphological features of soils cannot be con- fined to merely subsidiary purposes, it acquires a thoroughly def theoretical, as well as practical importance, both in laboratory ‘work and especially in field research. In the second case, morpho- logical properties of soils constitute almost the only test, by means of 4 Morphology of Soils ‘hich may be formed correct judgementofthe alterations occuring in soils, and in the formative agents of the later. Examining. and estimating the colouring, structure, and thickness of separate soi horizons, and the constriction cf the whole soil during field invest- ations, soil workers are enabled to draw correct conclsions as to the main character of soil making processes, and the degree of ite manifestation, making use of morphological properties to devise «preliminary clasifiaton of local sols, and determine the limits of their distribution. ‘They can then, by means of subsequent labo- ratory tests, verily their field cbservatons, and continue the work in the laboratory (Zakharov). Farmers have also. since long paid attention to the colour ‘of soils, their thickness end constitution, and thence, in comparing these morphologial features with the yield, have determined the quality of soils, as_also the particular cultivated plant suitable {0 a given sol ‘Agronomists are almost inthe same postion. In thei practical knowledge of loal soils they are compelled, in an overvlming majority of eases, to confine themselves to careful examination of the morphological features of the si, and from these observations ae able to draw definite conclusions a8 to the nature of lca soils and thee agricultural properties it very rarely occurs that an agro- nomist could confirm his judgement by subsequent laboratory analysis (Zakharov). A detailed study of the morphological features of «soil will doubtless greatly contribute to the further development of the theoretical, ‘or, in other words, the genetic branch of soil science, as here alo the morphological method of soil surveying hes great importance (Tivremnov). DETERMINATION OF THE MORFHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF SOILS ‘The soil, as any other natural body, is characterised by its particular morphology, these morphological features being acces- sible to immediate examination and study. Such morphological features of the soil are ,symbels" (Sibirtsev), or , reflections” of its internal properties, chemical composition and partly texture, and particular conditions ofits genesis (Sabanin); thus, a dark colour usually exhibits a high percentage of humus, whereas bluish spots arc characteristic of the processes of abundant moisture and. eg! S.A. ZAKHAROV insufficient aeration; concretions of calcium carbonate indicate ‘accumulations and intrusions of carbonates, ete. »Morphological features",—wrote Sibirtsev as early as in 1900,—,are frequently so characteristic as to render possible the recognition or even determination of & sol, in the same way as minerals, plants, and animals are determined". PARTICULAR CHARACTERS IN SOIL. MORPHOLOGY An exact study of the morphological features of the soil is accompanied with difficulties due to certain specific properties of the soil, its gradual modification in a vertical direction, and as gr dual a transition in depth to the parent rock; further, in view of its ‘lose relationship with the substratum, upon which it had subs ‘quently developed; to this may be added periodical alterations involved in the life of soils. Colour, as well as structure, vary with moisture; some new growths, such as efflorescences, often occur periodically or at cer~ tain seasons. The dyaamics" of morphological features may be spoken of, Certain main features, such as thickness and profile characteristics, are the most constant in a soil METHODS OF STUDYING SOIL MORPHOLOGY ‘The main subject of a morphological study of the soil i= artificially exposed section; a naturally exposed soil or cutting are of far rarer oceurrence. The chief instruments and methods used in these studies ie the eye and magnifying glass, a meter, both rigid and coiled, palpating with the finger, testing with knife or chisel, and, a8 an accessory means, tests with acid fon effervescence, the character of which must be also noticed. Field investigations are accompanied by descriptions and sketches of the soil section made in a note-book. In that period of ‘study, the importance of the note-book is essential, although the contents and the methods of descriptions used in the note-book fare subject to change and evolution, from brief notes made in ordi rary note-books after the example afforded in describing geologi- cal outerops, to the most detailed forms comprising all but one hhundred questions, which have been prepared by Nabokikh for the use of his associates in the survey of the chernozem region == Morphology of Soils of the Ukraina. There exists a great variety of note-books, diaries, and soil formulares, each expedition having evolved its own type. ‘The conditions required from a soil note-book are the following: 41) It should contain columas of questions exhaustive by treating ‘of the most important morphological features of every soil horizon, land of the whole sol 2) Several pages should be reserved for a supplementary mor. phological characterisation of the soil to ensure its being fully Aeseribed. 3) Space should be provided for the drawing of more or less detailed, or at least schematic sketches of the soil section, made if possible’ with coloured pencils or in colour. In s0 doing not only subsequent work will be greatly simplified, but greater attention paid in examining the soil secion, Nabokikh has shown how the Schematic sketches ofthe soll section should be made with coloured pencil. Last summer one of our young astociates had success- fully represented in his note-book soil horizons with the aid of pulverised soil taken from coresponding layers. 4) It should be convenient in size, solid and not very volu- 5) It should have checkered paper for schematically designing to scale profiles exhibiting the morphology of a given section in comparison with that of neighouring ones, as also for making eye sketches of the landscape. In giving the characteristics and descriptions of the sol profile, itis first necessary to grasp the general aspect of the soil section, its striking and sharply defined features, as number of horizons, their colour, of new growths and intrusions, and then to pass on to a ‘more detailed deseription of each horizon and subhorizon (Sibi tsev, Glinka, Zakharov, Kasatkin, Krasiuk, Neustruey, Polynov). The study of a soil is concluded by the selection of samples, or even the cutting cut of soil monolithes when possible. LABORATORY STUDY OF SOIL MORPHOLOGY ‘Morphological descriptions of the soil prepared in summer under dificult conditions of field work and varying effects of light and ‘moisture are usually verified by a subsequent examination of the mor- phological properties of dry samples exposed to identical conditions = S.A. ZAKHAROV ‘of light; binocular microscopes are of great use in such examinations (Zakharov). As regards colouring, special colour seales containing the whole variety of soilsamples characteristic of a given territory, are often used for the perpose; within the limits of such a scale, « ‘more or less correct hve or tint may be obtained, Preliminary determinations of sol structure are sometimes verified by sifting the soil through a set of sieves, each of them having apertures of a corresponding diameter, and the results obtained expressed in num- bers (Barakov, Tumin, Zakharov). Disconnected attempts, more frequent now, are met with to subject the main data accumulated referring to the thickness of soils and their separate horizons to a detailed study by drawing conclusions from numerical or typical means (Nefedoy). This method is used in the work of Dimo, Nikiforoy, Florov, and other pedologists. Attempts of adapting that method to the minute examination of data dealing with the thickness of soils and the depth of effervescence may be found in the works of Tiuremnov. MAIN MORFHCLOGICAL FEATURES OF SONS At the present stage of the development of soil science, the following external or morphological festres and properties of soils may be distinguished: |. Colouring or colour of I. Structure capacity of sol. I. Constitution of soil. IV, Thickness ofthe whole soil and ofits separate horizons. New growths and intrusions. VL The coarse part of the soil (sol skeleton) and organic VIL Profile charact “The determination, characterises, lassifction, and, within the limits of possibilty, the conditions of the genesis of the above ‘enumerated morphological features and properties ae given below. istics of soils or their general aspect, 1 coveunne on cotour oF sons Colouring is one of the most accessible morphological features of sol, which primarily attracts attention. That is the reason why soils have since long been named by farmers according to their ae Morphology of Soils ‘colour; many of these names were subsequently adopted in scien- {ifie nomenclature, as for instance, chernozem, sierozem (grey soil), em (white soi), zheltoxem (yellows of ‘of soils widely varies (Sabanin), being dependent upon the lfferent components of the scil, and their various combinations. A great diversity of shades, most of them belonging to the red or ‘yellow part of the spectrum, as also certain green and light blue tints are here met with. The celouring of sols is characterised by soft and dull shades with their various tints (Zakharov). Even within the limits of one specific horizon colouring may be homo- geneous or heterogeneous: soils appear as unequally coloured", variegated", or spotted". This phenomenon is. due: 1) to the presence of the coarse part of soil; 2) to new growths in soil; 3) to the unequal distribution of certain substances in the soil body (Sibirtsev, Zakharox). It often occurs that soils cannot be cha- racterised by one definite colours thus, its intensity has to be determined (brownish, light brown, brown, dark brown), oF its tins ‘or shades(. g- black with a browa tint) and the intermediate colours (grey-brown) indicated. The following is the most frequently used nomenclature of soil colouring: black, grey, brown, chestnut, red-brown, whitish-yellow, whitish, yellow, red, bluish, greenish. Referring to the colour of soils, Tiuremnov suggests to. dis tinguish ,fonalty*, i.e. the degree of manifestation ofthe main shade, brightness i.e. the degree of the admixture of black, and finaly, trsaturation", ie. the degree of dilution of the main colour with Colouring is determined by the chemical components of the soil, and partly by its texture, as well as by the physical con- ditions present when the soil is examined (Dokuchaiew, Sibirtsew). ‘The colour of the soll is primarily closely connected with the -contentsin the soil of certain chenical components, and is especially influenced by the different combinations of the latter; moreover, the bright and deep shades of certain soil substances, as for instance, the red compounds of iron oxide and the black of humus, ‘mask the lighter colours of other substances, of, conversely, are diluted by the later, when those predominate. * Sew NaN 3, 12,25, 9 inthe Bibliography tthe end ofthis report Sa S.A. ZAKHAROV ‘The colouring of the upper soil horizons in the conditions of 1 temperate climate is greally dependent upon the humus content which, when high (8—10 p. ¢), colours the sol black, and when low (less than 5p. c.), gives it either grey or chestnut-brown shades, according to the presence of other soil components. The it exerted by such mine-al components as ion oxides, or their various combinations is more defintely expressed in the transitional horizons. In the deepest horizons, the fundamental colour is principally due to that of the parent rock, which is somewhat altered under the influence of different growths" and intrusions ‘of substances washed in from the upper sol layers. ‘The colouring of the upper soil horizons is determined by physico-geographical end climatic conditions (Nabokikh). Thus, in the desert steppe regions of south-eastern Russia (Caucasus, Tur- estan) the prevailing colour of soils is greyish-white, due to the high percentage of ea:bonates in. the upper horizons; in the dry regions of south Russia soils assume a brovnish (chocolate) colour; further north, in chersozem regions, with an increase in humus content, soils gradually assume a dark grey or the #0 called black colour; in moist regioas, as for instance in the forest steppe zone, the upper soil horizon becomes ash-grey. Relationship between colouring and chemical com- position of soils. In point of colour the following three groups of soil combina tions are the most important: 1. The content of humus accounts for « dark colouring which fs black when the content is high, and grey when low. 2. Compound of hydroxide of iron in large quantities commu nicate a red or rusty colouring to the soi, when in small — pink, orange and yellow. 3. A high contest of silicic acid, calcium carbonate, and kolinite produces a white or whitish colouring. ‘These three grosps differently combined cither produce certain soil colouring or contribute to the formation of new shades in the main colour of the soil. Thus, combinations of ferric ‘rides in connection with a low percentage of humus give red- ‘brown, and with a high— chestnut colours: in combination with the ‘compounds of the thied group, the soil acquires a whitish-yellow or yellow colour. = Morphology of Soils ‘The mutual influence exercised on the colour by the main soil substances may be diagrammatically represented by means of a triangle, at the apex of which ‘s given the name of the specific colouring of soil substances, producing in varying combinations intermediate shades; the centre is occupied by brown, one of the ‘most frequently encountered colours resulting from a combination ‘of humus with compounds of ferric and sl sen Dark erey Chocedate Besides those given above, the following compounds may be noted as affecting the colouring of soils: 4, Protorides of iron occurring in conditions of supertluous moisture and insufficient aeration cause the bluish and dull ‘greyish colouring of the deop soil horizons. 5, Oxides of manganese communicate to the soil an intensely black and brownish colour, and in combination with iron oxides — ‘other shades. In conformity with the percentage of humus, may be observed a range of gradual transitions, from intense black to white, = S.A, ZAKHAROV in the following series: black, dark grey, grey, light grey, whitish, white. Inillustration ofthe relationship subsisting between the colour and the humus content of sls is given below a short table composed Colour and content of humus ia the acilt of the northern districts of the Tula government by Tiuremnoy for the soils of the northern portions of the Tula government, from which the correlation between the colour of the soil and the content of humus may be seen. Determination of the colouring and colour of soils. In order to render the determination of the colour of soils as free as possible from personal bias, a specially devised colour scale corresponding to 2 set of samples covering the whole variety of soils over @ more or less extensive soil zone has since long been made use of (Sibirtsev, Zakharov, Ramens! ‘others), and sols were being compared with the colours ofthe scale, ‘The defects of such a seale, however, are due tothe difficulty of ‘making it conform to extensive areas, and of adopting a sufficiently rational system in the arrangement of the colours. Therefore, ‘number of soil scientists recommended the use of already existing colour scales, such as, for instance, those of Sacardo (Dimo), ‘or of Forel (Nabokikh); however, the bright and clear shades ‘of these scales utterly difered from the usually dull colours of the soil, and their application to the purpose could be but very restricted iremnoy suggested the construction of a seale of techni- cal earth colours, such as yellow ochre, mummy, soot, and chalk mixed together in definite proportions’ as to weight, and used =n Morphology of Soils {nthe shape of small eylinders; these substances were subsequently replaceed by barium chromide, iron oxides, freshly precipitated calcium carbonate and soot preduced by burning mineral oils. The colouring of samples is designated by the symbol m=, m being ‘the amount of soot, m the content of iron oxides yellow paint and » the calcium carbonate The author gives table based upon this scale comprising the nomenclature of soil colours by aystematisng the terms used in scientific literature. Colouring as affected by the condition of soils. ‘The colouring of sols, as has been pointed out, is widely influenced by light, structure, texture, and moisture, Prot Doku- chaiev in his monograph entitled Russian chernozem* warns gains drawing final conclusions on the colour of soils during field surveying, this feature ybsing subject to great variations”: Considerable. changes in ealurs occur pif the soll be examined in a moist, slightly moist, or thoroughly dry condition, one or two days after rainfall, or afer a week has since clapsed", Soll rich in moisture in comparison with the dry soil i always darker, and its colour is far more intense; thus, grey sols bearing a forest vegetation, as wall as chestnut soils, acquire a chernozem spect. In the moming and evening hours, when the sil slit up by the oblique rays of the sun, its colouring affected by numerous shadows seems darker than at noon; new changes in colour arise, when the rays fall straight down upon the sol if be examined sunwards or inthe opposite dizetion. “The structure ofthe sil oa certain extent affects its colouring. Granular or cloddy soil thoroughly difr in colour fom soils having « pulverescent or powderike structure. Samples of sols when ground lose usually thor light and bright col. become of a reddish-brown of browny shade, become whitish yellow. It is therefore advisable not to be confined tothe fe observa- tion as taken down in note-books, but to vey the soils colour ing by a subsequent laboratory test, the sll samples being dried, ‘thoroughly aerated, uniformly ground, and compared. Data on the colour of soils supplied in special scientific. works mainly refer, if no reservation ‘be made, to soils in air-dry conditons, but it Exes ‘S.A, ZAKHAROV ‘would be useful to concurrently give a description of the colour of soils as they are observed in natural condition, in view of the striking diversity in colour offered between living soils" and dried samples. 1, steucrune CAPACETY OF sous AND FoR OF STUCTURE ‘The term ystructare capacity of the soil is used to determine the capacity of the soil to fall into fragments (,aggregates) differing in shape and in size (Zakharov), or, in other words, to form structural fragments from mechanical elements (Gedroiz). ‘The expression structure” denotes the very fragments or clods, into which the soil breaks up. Both ,macro-strucural and micro-structural soil elements” may be distinguished. The size of the later are beyond the limits, within which their complexity may be determined by sight or by means of grinding (Cedroiz). Simple structural elements may be distinguished from compound soil aggregates, the latter breaking along the planes of fracture into simple, usually similar clement. Studying the structure, the following factors should be borne in mind: 1) the degree of manifestation of the sol structure; 2) the fundamental shape or character of the surface, and size of structural aggregates; 3) the degree of homogeneity of the structure; 4) the tenacity of the structure. Degree of manifestation of the structure. The structure capacity of soils is first dependent upon a mini- ‘mum content of cementing colloids, both clayey and humous, and ‘upon the presence of cerain electrolytes, such as limes structure, capacity is also affected by the variations in temperature and moisture ‘0 which the given sol was or ising subject. Thatis the reason why sandy and sandy-loamy soils are usually either entirely dficient in structure, or possess it in the slightest degree; however, certain types of clayey soils, notwithstanding their high contents of colloids, also appear to be deprived of structure, owing to the lack of sub- stances capable of coagulating colloids. In accordance with the fact that structure result from the soil making processes it is more feebly| expressed in deeper horizons, sometimes being here utterly absent. ue Morphology of Soils Structure may be more or less clearly manifested. As has been ‘mentioned, certain soils are thoroughly deprived of structure, in others it appears as being feebly expressed; whence such soils are termed as indefinitely or feebly structured, To them may be opposed soils bearing a elearly and distinctly exhibited structure. Every soil type, and within the limits tion every. horizon, shows its own charactoristic features. Definite types of structure are closely connected with texture and chemical composi- tion, periodical phenomena of moistening and drying, and the activity of the soil organisms. ‘The culture of soils exercises a destructive effect upon the -gin structure of the upper scil horizons, and this fact needs to bbe taken into consideration in the description of the soil of cultivated fields, Main types of structure. ‘The classification of the elements of soil structure (clods, soil aggregates, and sol fragments), should be based on the size, the shape of these elements, as well as on the main character of their surface. According to their general outlines, three principal types of structure may be distinguished (Zakharov): Cube-like structure— the soil fragments equally developed in the dizeetion of the three mutually perpendicular axes. Prismelike structare—the soilfragments preeminently developed in the direction of the vertical axis, appearing to'be elongated in that direction Platolke structure here the ol fragments are more developed the directon of both horizontal axes, being shorter in the vertical direction, ‘The character of the surfaces of structure aggregate: As regards the character of the surface of soil aggregates, ‘one may observe that they are limited by more or less clearly ‘expressed plane surfaces (,elements of limitation"); these surfaces ray be either smooth and flat, o- undulating and rough. "The phenomenon observed presents some affinities, true, rather remote, with the faces of the crystal, its planes of cleavage" or planes of fracture", The resemblance offered by soll fragments with crystals assumes a more definite character, owing to the fact that large structural aggregates, usually complex, easily break along the line of these planes into small and. similar —5— S.A. ZAKHAROV fragments. The plancs of sol aggrogates in their mutual iterse tion form either acute or oblique and rounded , edges". Therefore, in diffrent strctral elements are to be observed: faces more ot less well expressed ages of diferent character, formed by their Intersection, and planes of elecoage* or yplancs of fracture’. In conformity withthe main character of sol formation and texture, ‘occur in some cases clearly manifested soll nuts", granules” for small prisms, in others—soilgclods* and blocks" with {rough surface and rounded edges, which are incapable of separat- along the planes of cleavage. Size of structural aggregates The sine of structural aggregates should be taken into con- sideration together with their shape and the character of their varain, from the. smallest -aggre- ates, less than 1mm in size, up to large fragments measring everal centimeters. The structural elements should not he confused with the textural elements of sols, the latter being determined as the amalest particles, debris of rocks, of fragments of minerals, and the products of their weathering, iato which the soll may be tmochanizally divided, when boiled. with water or ground; on the other hand, the strucural elements are composed of an accumla- tion of these textural clements cemented. by humus or clayey (loamy) and other colloids. (Classification of structural aggreg In the clasifiaton of the structural elements here offered (= Table) ae to he dsinguished: 1) the steuctre types according to the main shape of structural lements, 2) kind of structure due to the character ofthe faces and edges of the constituent aggregstes, and 3) the species of structure as dependent upon the size ofthe sell aggregates (Zakharov). For determining their size special scale used; when testing the cubedike type of structure, the rmark on the scale indicates the size ofall ofthe three diameters in ease the structure be of prism-like type, it denotes the length of the horizontal diameter, and when of plat-ike o layered type — the thickness ofthe aggregates, or the length oftheir vertical diameter. In addition to the structure types enumerated in the above table, Prof. Nabokikh gives the following: pyramidal prismatic diseshaped, cuneiform and diagonally-paty, which are refered to the priseor plate-like type of structure. =e CLASSIFICATION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS. (GOW. AGGREGATES OR SOIL FRAGMENTS) Table 1 Tre = aypeici ee] pees A Fendt Sac at | Saree PTE Ses | RS ees 2 19m Laks ( Soists we prery 3 2. cay sre || Sei £} Sra as Eas Fowecet Eas Sn ‘slope ang the “eral aa MLPlatetikestrae- thee al aggre ct_predaimat Daateeg too horzotl ee leary massed Sporeate well dele! 8. Naty strate ——— A Recsandeend ctor complexandneley ined ‘5, Calum stroe- B.Facenand ede dating: Aly munfeated agaregates| ire olor wel dai 6 Pret, Cemeer ee ceendahampedges + Gm a a Sa= ues Foe nu developed eae ‘Sil, prlyearve g { 1 | st: Goarely matty Finely mt Fey gram ‘ponerse a Hedi ‘Seal clam Large prions Brie Sell prism ‘Prumate pen shape ore finn 3 ema east a Soak ceo — Pity Vesa Coasly aquamose Find seme 05 Length o ' 3 st aaa >s at <1 ‘ote. Large counn-Tke fragment are sometimes called pedestal Morphology of Soils One meets moreover with structures of a transitional type, as for instance, yflat nutty structure, short prismatic structure*, ete. FUNDAMENTAL TYPES OF STRUCTURE A. most detailed characteristics of structural soil aggregates in correlation with their chemical properties is given in the papers by Nabokikh, Florov, and other authors. -7— 2 S.A, ZAKHAROV Degree of homogencity of soil structure. The structure of soil may be either yhomotypic®, when all the i fragments belong to one definite type, a for instance, to the cabesite, or yhomogensous", when they are of one kind, fr in- stance, of «nutty or granular structure; or else, yheterotypie™ or wbeterogencous* (various in species), when structural ragments ‘of diferent types, kinds, and species occu. It rarely happens that all the soil aggregates, even within the limits of a given horizoe, are of equal shape and especially size for instance, together wi granular fragments, usually coarsely and finely granular, and even natty sol agments are met with. Further- sore, the stricture often exhibits combined or complex cha- ractor: nutiygranular, cloddy-pulverescent, foliated palverescent, Prismati-cloddy, ete. Tenacity of structure Under the term yteracity of structure* is meant the capacity of the structure toreistthe destructive effects of water (Williams) ‘A apeciat apparatus vets consticted for determining the tenacity of structure (Fadiey), on the principle of measuring the varying ity of diferent structural elements under the effect of it appeared that cctain structural elements could withstand destruction by water during 4 fortnight. “Structural sol elements of the podzolised horizon A,, when thrown in the water, are completly disso asinilar operation be repeated with the elements of the soil horizon A (Gch in humus), only the major pats of them falls into pices, the other does not break up eve action of alkalies it easly dissociates, the solution being. darkly coloured (Tumis). Ths, the tenacity of structure is pully due to the cementing influence of humous substances, as i clearly demonstrated. by the above described simple experiment of Tumin, Our knowledge of the tenacity of soils was subsequently en- larged by Gedroiz. Referring tothe tenacity of structural aggee- _rtes",— says he, — pt is necessary to distinguish the tenacity of 1 dry soll from that of a moist sol. The structural properties ofthe soil may be such as to give an equal tenacity to sol in dry oF moist condition.» waters incapable of separating the sol ragments —w— Morphology of Soils ‘one from another, that being the casein soils of the chernozem type of sol formation”... Soil aggregates may further posses a dfinite tenacity when dry, and are deprived of it when moist” this often occurs soils of the alkaline type of soll formation. Soils, when moist,may finally have the eapa- city of giving aggre- gates of a cortnin tena city, which fall into pieces when dry", Examples of typi cal structures of # different soils ‘A. peculiar struc ture, as has been noted above, is characteristic of every type of soil: definite types ofstru- ‘cure correspond. to ‘soil horizons contain- ‘ ing dein chemical compounds” (Nabo- a gp PO B clerly_manifested in comparing loamy and Slyey groupe of ails é 4 ere GAO HCA for instance, hero- tem with, podzolised or alas, Within Fes the limits of on sven eters 1— omar — tae pal pe, ater Sa ee nc pane (re forth tral i) Acted by the changes in conical composi i partilar”stractare. The following examples may expla Ss » S. A. ZAKHAROV phenomena: the uppes horizon of a typical loamy chernozem is ‘of a clearly exhibited powder-like and granular structure, owing to the high content of humates, while the lower horizon assumes. ‘nutty structure, which is deeper on replaced by prism-like struc- tural aggregates. The podzolised soils, in their upper horizons, beara feebly expressed cloddy-pulverescent structure altering under the influence of a higher content of silicic acid in the underlying layer into a platy-pulverescent one; deeper the structure becomes platy, then flat-nutty, and still deeper acquires a prismatic chara- eter. In the upper horizon of a brown alkalisol, we frequently meet with a squamose or foliated structure which, with increasing depth, is suddenly repliced by clearly shaped columnar fragments with rounded upper bases (,tops"),and changes further into a sharp- faced structure. Tumin has given an interesting diagram of the gradual ‘modification in structure occurring in the chernozem soils of the ‘Tambov government, and depending upon the humus content andthe degree of their leaching; it appears that the granular structure is most clearly developed in the so called thick cherno- xem, being replaced in the ordinary one with a lower humus content by a clody-granular structure. A most detailed analysis of the soil structural fragments in the foreststeppe region of the Kiev government was given by Florov in his work, illustrated with Photographie reproductions of sil structure. Gonesis of structur: The genesis of sol structure has since long called the attention ‘of many investigators. The activity of the root system of herbaceous and forest vegetation, as partly that of small rodents (worms, ants, and larvae of various insects), was frst regarded as having a pri mary importance in the formation of soil structure (Dokuchaiey, Kostychev). Later, the importance of periodical variations in moisture and, to a certain extent, in temperature was advanced, the structural elements being considered as , fragments resulting from the process of drying" (Nabokikh), or y fragments due to fracturation* (Nikiforov). The destructive influence exercised ‘on soil structure by lesching and reduced percentage of humous substances was further pointed out by Tumin. Gedroiz, in his lately published work, says that, apparently, the phenomena referring to the soil structure appear to. be 1» Morphology of Soils decidedly influenced by two factors, i. pressure and cosgu- lation. Pressure may be dependent upon vegetation; the observations and the secular practice of egriculturists show that, when the ‘chernozem of a cultivated field is lying waste, its granular structure pulverised by continuous tillage is rapidly restored. To this may be ‘added that a certain pressure on sols is exercised by the activity of small burrowing animals. As has boen mentioned above, the presence in the soil of eolloids in a definite quantity, which may be coagulated by the following agents: 1) precipitating effects of electrolytes, 2) drying, 3) freezing, and 4) presence of colloids oppositely charged (Gedroiz), is a necessary condition for the development of structure formation, » The manifestation of soil structure is usually due to the in- fluence exercised by the electrolytes upon the colloidal portion of the soil and, in particular, tothe dimensions and specific conditions ‘ofthe colloidal fraction of the sail, or of its soil absorbing comple, (Gedroiz). yin order to ascertain the genesis of soil structure, the time has come to adopt the experimental method and that of a lasting study of the life of soils, rejecting thus the practice of transitory observations taken during accidental excursions” (Bex: sono). ‘True, several preliminary attempts were lately made dealing with the experimental reproduction of soil structure, the cement- ing action of humus being tested as applied to a ground mass of soil exposed tothe influence of diferent salts, and placed in various conditions as to moisture and temperature; in combining the latter, Hemmerling has been able to reproduce diferent types of struc ture, e. g. the platy and granular ones, ete. When congealed, the clayey products of weathering being impregnated with humous substances acquired also a granular structure (Zakharov). ‘The importance of soil structure for agrology. Soil structure is an important agent for agricultural practice, “The properties of the soil as regards moisture, aeration, and heat, and especially permeal ‘capacity, and the degree of water pense re greny dependent upon varius types of structure (Kostychev, Williams, Doiarenko). Heavy clayey ‘owing to their structure (clayey chernozems), acquire the features. and properties of soils lighter in texture, and viee versa, aaa S. A. ZAKHAROV sandy soils deprived of structure bear some features of the clayey soils, being positive" for the life of plants. ‘The creation of finely nuty or granular structure may be regarded fas one of the most important problems of a rational culture of the soil; it has long since been well-enown that, when exposed to lasting tillage, the soils gradually lose their virgin structure, become palverised, and acquire a whole range of physical properties, most unfavourable to the culture of plants (Barakov, Tumin). The fact of the granular structure of chernozems being destroyed by tillage can be easily explained both by the purely mechanical action ‘exercised upon the so by field implements, and by the decomposi tion due to tillage of humous substances, that cement together structural aggregates (Tumin); this is confirmed by the decreasing percentage of humus in ploughed soils. Under the term yconsitlion of soils is here understood the external manifestation ofthe porosity and compactness ofthe sil Porosity of sil is partly correlative with their structre, being to a certain extent ffluenced by the activity of mall burrowing animals and the roots of plants, and may be easly percieved by the organ of sight, whereas soil compactness gives besides muscular impresion (Zakharov). “The mass of sandy and sandy-loamy sil is composed of separ- ate microscopical grains of sand usualy covered with a thin crust of humous,elayey, or feruginous substances; in clayey and loamy soils it i formed out of various structural fragments (especialy in their deop horizons); it bears the character of «compact cemented mass not yet diflrentited into definite structral elements. Inthe first cas, the sil presents « crumbling constitution, in the second, it is more or less loose, and finally in the third — compact. ‘The angular sol fragments (grains of sand or structural ements) occur at varying ditancas apart one from another, thus forming eaviios unequal in sie and’ shape. On the other hand, the soil is perforated by burrows of dillerent diameter and of various outlines, resulting from the activity of small animals and the roots of plants. ‘Thus, the composition of soils is dependent ypon the size, quantity, and shape oftheir cavities. es Morphology of Soils In the dimension and shape of the air-cavities (porosity of sols, ‘the following types of soil constitution may be distinguished: A. Cavities lying within the structural fragments or in 1. Finely-porous— the soil massis perforated by separate pores 1 mm in diameter. This constitution is very characteristic of the fine loesses, and of soils formed from them (horizon C and D of chernozem soil, horizon A of the brown soils, ete). 2. Porous the soil mass is perforated by interstices of about 1—3 mm in diameter. This constitution is typical of the loess sediments and corresponding. sol formations, as well as of siero- ems, podzolised soils (horizon A, and B), the plates and laminae ‘of which are covered with a dense net of pores. ‘3. Spongeous— the soil mass is rich in cavities about 3—5 mm in size; usually met with in certain podzolised horizons.” 4. Cavernous — the soil mass contains holes about 5—10 mm in diameter. This constitution is characteristic of the horizon B of tivity of numerous small the sierozems, and is specially due to the borrowing animal 5. Cellular — is distinguished by the cavities being above 10 mm in size; this term is uted in descriptions of soils of the laterite type. 6, Tubular—is characterised by channels dug out by burrowing als of large size (marmots, jerboas, moles, etc) . Cavities lying between structural elements or frag- ments. 1, Finely fissured—is characterised by narrow cavities under 3 mm in diameter, usually disposed in a vertieal direction; proper to soils having fine structural elements. 2. Fissured—is characterised by fissures about 3—10 mm in size; proper to horizons of many soils with a prismatic and columnar structure. 3. In clefts — cheracterised by vertical cavities above 10 mm in diameter, and well expressed in columnar horizons of certain "1th been suggested by Nabokikh to adopt th term gtexture ofthe seilground for sch «disaggregation othe oil many, with ie compectess and hemereneoaty being diated ander the action of mechanic agente, hie riggeation, however, hus wot found rapper, and may lee fo the eonfson of hit Phenomenon wih the textare of ole Be S.A. ZAKHAROV cchernozems and alkali type. i ils, or those of an alkaline chernozem specially to be noted that the cavities lying between the structural elements become clearly expressed only during the dry season, whereas in moist weather they sharply decrease in number, ‘owing to the swelling of the structural fragments, and sometimes totally disappea ‘As to compactness and hardness of the soils in dry cont the following graduations may be suggested: Very compact, fused constitution soils wholly resisting the ‘action of the shovel, need tobe worked out by means of pick= faxes or crow bars, giving under the blow of the tool polished surfaces. Such are the solidified prismatic horizons of some of the alkaline soils, or horizon B of the so called fused chernozem. Compact constitution —separate soil fragments are closely joined together, the shovel entering the soil with great dificul found in the deep iluval horizons of several types of sol Loose constitution —separate soil particles (in case of soil ‘of sandy-loam type) or structural elements are comparatively fecbly ‘cemented, the shovel easily entering the earth; when tossed away, such soils easily fall into pieces. To these belong sandy soils, and the upper horizons of clayey and loamy soils bearing a well mani fested structure. Crumbling constitution — separate sol fragments are deprived ‘of any cementation, the soil possessing the properly of erum- bling; often met within the sandy and sandy loam groups of soils, as well as in the fine structural superficial horizons of cultivated soils exposed to freezing and thawing, and having acquired a peculiar plooseness ‘Soil constitution, as expressing the porosity and compactness of soils, is of great importance to practical agriculture: it ehara- clerses the fitness of sil for tillage. The terms ylight', ,medium*, and yheavy" soils were long ago adopted by agvicultursts and ‘agronomists to denote the degree of adaptability of sol to cultivation, Soil constitution is besides closely connected with the particular water and air y régime" of the soil, Finally, the degree of maturity ‘of soil. «. the fitness of soil for sowing) is expressed by certain highly porous constituions known among practising farmers under the term of , mellow ue Morphology of Soils IV THCRNESS OF Sons 480 OF SEPARATE SOM HORIZONS ‘The general vertical extent of the soil is known under the term of thickness of the soil, ybeing measured from its surface down to'the part of the parent rock unaltered by soil making pro- cesses“ (Sabanin). Likewise under thickness of the soil hori- zon we presume its average thickness. It ought to be noted that to trace the lower lniting boundary of the soil is usually a very dif- ficult task, owing tothe gradual transition of the soil to the parent as well as to the unequal or sinuous character of these limits. The measurements of the thickness of the soil are taken in centimeters (em). According to the character of the soil colouring, structure, constitution, ete, the subdivided into separate vertical horizons and subhorizons (see below, profile characteristics ‘of soils), their thickness being also measured in centimeters; usually, these measurements are taken from the top, for instance, in saying that whorizon B is equal fo 20-50 cm in thickness", we prestime that horizon B lies at a depth of 20—50 em, and its thickness is equal 10 30-em; this may be expressed in another way: ,the thickness of the horizon B is equal to 30 em", or the horizon B lies at 2 depth of 50 em"; however, preferably used. ‘The limiting boundaries ofthe soil horizons are often undulating and sinuous, producing pockets" and , tongues into the neigh- bouring horizons; therefore, tke average thickness based upon several measurements should be taken, or the limits ofits vari established (for instance, from 20 to 30 om, ete). In determining the thickness of the horizons, special attention should be paid in some cases to the eharacter of transition of one into another: it may be gradual, clearly evident, or sharply expres- sed (Nikiforov), We mest with a sharp limiting houndary, when the transition from one colouring into another is clearly expressed within the space of Bem. Ina clearly expressed limit the complete cchange in colouring occurs within the space of not over 5 em. IF this change cannot be observed within that space, the limiting boundary between the horizons is gradial. ‘The thickness of the soil and soil horizons, among other mor- phological features, holds a peculiar, most "advantageous posi- tion, offing the possiblity to convert the observations into their the first expression should be 35 — 4 S. A. ZAKHAROV ‘numerical equivalent; sil, the limits of separate horizons being at times feebly expressed, and the thickness of soils as dependent upon. relief and texture showing considerable variations, data on the thickness of soils eannot be widely made use of. Of especial moment in this respect is the relief in highlands, and particularly the steepness of the slopes; the thickness of the soil in the upper portions of the slo paratively less than that of the portions at the base, where usually sol fragments are deposited by water, and where the moisture is more considerable; the convex portions ofthe relief bear soils of smaller thickness than the coneave ones: The thickness of soils isto certain extent influenced by the petrographical composition and texture of the parent rock. As a rule, thick soils ate being formed on sandy and porous material, whereas on loamy and clayey rocks the soils are of less thickness; for instance, sandy chernozems greatly exceed in thickness the clayey ones. Practising agriultuists have usually to take into consideration the thickness of the upper humus horizon (this, however, is far from being sufficient), regarding it as a medium forthe rooting and feeding of cultivated plants. When it be taken as such, the greater the thickness (or , depth") of the soil, the more space it offers to the roots of plants, and the more is its content of nutritive sub- stances. Therefore, itis clear that in evaluating the fitness of s0 for purposes of cultivation, thickness is one of the most important symptoms of their high quality. V. new cROWNS AND IRUSONS Under the term ,.new growths" is here meant various and more or less differentiated products and accumulations inthe sil cavities of substances resulting from the soil making process, such as lime carbonates, compounds f iron, and soluble salts. These substances greatly differ from the fundamental soil mass in their external aspect, their physical properties, and chemical composition Zakharov). ‘The study of new growths is of essential importance in giving chemical characteristics of the soil and its separate horizons, espe- ally in finding out the conditions of soil genesis, Thus, the presence of concretions of lime earbonates in deep horizons of chemozem soils is @ witness to their being washed out ofthe upper 6 — Morphology of Soils horizons; rusty and bluish-grey fragments and spots observed in deep horizons of swampy soils indicate that the latter are being exposed to excessive moisture, and that periodieal oxidising and reducing processes were being developed in the soil. New growths greatly differ in regard to their origin, shape, sometimes very unusual one, colouring, and chemical composition. ‘These features may be used at a basis for classification (Zakha- row). According to genesis, one may discern: 1) new growths of chemical origin; 2) new growths of biological origin, as being dependent upon the activity of the vegetable and animal kingdoms. New growths of chemical origin. [New growths due to chenicsl phenomena are mostly formed by the giving off of certain substances out of the soil solution. In conformity with their shape, they may be subdivided into the following groups: =Elfloreseences"* — cove the surface of soil fragments, sometimes even the surlace of the sol, with « very thin layer Crusts", patches", , hire efflorescences" — appearing fon the surfaces of the soil particles usually in clearly defined portions, and covering them vith a thicker layer. Veins" and , tubes" — filing the burrows dug out by animals and plants; they are usually o! an elongated shape, '»Concretions" or ,conglomerations"—represent comparatively extensive accumulation of substance slnterealations", streaks" or interlayers —arising in the case, when whole horizons or subhorizons. are being cemented by the substances in question. ‘As regards the composition of new growths, the following srroups of chemical compounds may be noted: Soluble salts (chlorides and sulphates) — whitish in colour. Calcium carbonate —of a yellow-white or dull-white colour. Compounds of hydroxides of iron—of brown, rusty, and ochre: colour. ‘Compounds of protoxides of iron—dull green and bluish-grey in shade, ‘Compounds of manganese — black and dulL-brown in colour. Scie acid —of a whitish colour. Humous substances — dare and brown in shades. tes S.A, ZAKHAROV In combining the shape of new growths with their composition and colouring, the following. classification (see Table U) may be suggested (Zakharov), ‘With regard to the question of new growths, the following remarks should be made. Easily soluble compounds (chlorides and sulphates) sive usually the best diferentated (finely crystalline) new growths, Now, gypsum produces a more ostensible shape, of which twin ‘coneretions are of interest, as well as the complex penetration ‘exystals of the so salled , earth hearts" (in the deeper horizons of ‘chernozem soils) and ,itercalations of gypsum". ‘The greatest variety of form in new growths is offered by the calcium carbonate, they being the best studied. Among its efflo- reacences the mould of dendrites of ublinite (Nabokikh) may be the deep horizons of chernozem and chestnut soils calcium ‘carbonate in the form of ,psewdo-myeelium" is frequently ‘met with. Concretions of ime carbonates are most diversified. A. Krasiuk, ranges them as follows: loose accumulations of CACO, observed in loess horizons are called , bieloglaska"; under ‘the ection of soil solutins the powder-like , bieloglazka” changes ‘into more compact small concretions ,zhuravehikee” which, owing to their offshoots, most peculiar in shape, are known among Ger- ‘mans under the name of ,loess puppets”, and in China as , ginger- ‘nuts; the main mass of the yzhuravehik undergoes a gradual process of eryalisation, forming an inner more compact grey laye and a light coloured loose outer one; fissures are. developing i the inner layer, subsequently a cavity is formed, and eavities when being developed in that inner layer, a hollow concretion of lime ‘carbonate (qdutik") is there met with; this eavity being formed, fragments fall off, and finally the concretion acquires the form of nodule. Compounds of iron, lumina, phosphori aed, snd partly of man- ganese are often simultaneously observed, their efflorescences having the aspect of brownish ferruginous laminae; spots may be distinguished by their ochre, brown, and brown-crimson colours; ‘when of elongated shape, they assume the aspect of patches which being mixed together give sometimes qucershaped rusty ,flow- ers", network of fine ochre-coloured veins forming either a fer- ruginous ,pseudo-mycelum*, or brown manganese. dendrites", ‘covering the surface of structural elements 8 fp | NEW GROWTHS OF CHEMICAL ORIGIN IN SOILS ai Form eae emia fabes, te vt Intertayert 2 Ettoresences | SPO MEY | Vain the, Come Interayers ‘Whe vcine of ty stb at _| Light sod iti casiy sles | oie dtuofesly (aloi'snd mips | arcs = Tape somes | whapan eng “Sei te rpm | Spee Pog | oa | en a! ‘sum wal Laan Basie i tmnt Recep, to eieaietaaa ‘tract ges peg eee L noe ace ‘aoe —— iz apaars tag Lge | te nin mt ae | ee owor sed edie” | Ter ohnganeae | oand ole, Compendia Ligh ih tor eee pms ti | tarp | Ht wots Sa teett c eas =| Wied Sia ed ee Bee gets 2th | Browniah back in Sage perc age ss fee LLL PO etc nd oe | ca Pi arene Morphology of Soits Coneretions of iron and manganese vatiously combined in different spots give origin to brown-yellow yeyes" and brown dots (,punetuation) (Nabokikh); ferruginous concretions are later developed into beans", grains“ and_oregrains*, ftheir size varying from that of small shot to that of's nut; they may be ‘observed in podzolsed and podvolised ygley* soils. In sandy and —»— S.A. ZAKHAROV sandy loamy podzolised sis, they are to be found in the luv horizon B. Compounds of aluminium and iron form either a con- tinuous, more of less compact ,orstein layer, ora complex sytem of fibres (,ortsands"), and ferruginous ,,pseudosibres* spread- ing over the deep horizons of certain sandy soils in stipes somewhat recalling those of a tiger or zebra (Vysotski, Glink). Compounds of protosides of iron under the form of the rnineralviviaite may be found in deep horizons of bog and swampy soils; the air exercises on the vivanites an oxidising influence, and peaty soils begin to ,bloom®, being covered with efflorescences OF indigo-blue and blie later brown shades (Krasiuk). Hamous substances form dark pilose efflorescences on the surface ofstractural fragments, humus ,tongues® and pockets" moreover they share in the process of ,orerans" formation, and partyin that ofthe gortstein* layer. Nabokikh gives a detaled description of the fundamen- tal types of now growths observed inthe soils of the Ukraina and the south of Rusia, the composition of some of them being ill strated by data of bulk-analysis. He emphasised the fact that new srovths exhibit yan excessive variety of types the. complex com- Postion of separate soil horizons and subsoils largely contributing to the formation of numerous chemical individuals diferently com bined and most phantastc in shape®. While examining them, he points out that definite forms of new growths are peculiar to certain types of sil, particularly in regard tothe giving off ‘of lime carbonates. He draws special attention to. ther Alistribution greatly influenced by climatic conditions. An equal interrelation shown by the character of lime carbonate new growths may be observed in the cherozem subzones of the Tambov government (Tumin), and of the west Caucasus (Tiuremnoy). Applying the experinental methods, Filatov has been able to reproduce some of the yortands” and ,fbres" by making the iron oxide solution pass through a small sandy column including layers of diferent texture with interlayers of line, New growths of biologi New growths due to biological agents may be classified as follows: ‘A, New growths produced by the activity of animals: ,Copro- lthes™ of worms and insect larvac, nodules oftheir excrement. 30 — Morphology of Soils Structural clods east out by ants while building. th Burrows of moles, susks, and baibaks in soi fled by the soil mass; among the latter may be di pct, bordered, intercalated, complex hole of small animals, simi- lar to mole-burrows. B. New growths of plant origin: 1) Network of tiny roots, dark dendrites covering the surface of structural fragments; 2) yt00t hoes" of the roots of toes, sometines confounded with mole- burrows, owing to their being gradually filed with the soll mass {rom the overlying horizons. Intrusion: Unier intrasions* are to be understood bodies: mechanically imbedded ‘in the fundamental soil material (Nabokikh), but determining to certain extent the conditions of the genesis of the soi; however, they do not appear to be closely allied to the soil making processes. Such are 1. Remains of animals: shells, bones of existing and extinct animals fragments of wood, ete 2, Boulders and searce large-sized debris of rocks, when not characteristic of the petrographic consiution of the parent rocks; to this group belong lentils, iterealations, and pockets ofa sandy type entering ito the loamy sol mass, and vice versa 3. Occasional objects: pieces of coal, fragments of bricks and crockery, ete, archeological remains. By means of archeological tiscoveries frequently made in countries having an ancient culture, questions as to the age ofa soil or subsoil may be approsched I. THE COARSE PART OF THE SOIL GOL SKELETON AND ORGANS REMAINS ‘The term soil skeleton should be applied to the remains, more or less considerable in size, of elements of the lithosphere, spared by weathering and soil making procestes. Such are: débris ‘of rocks and minerals more thar 1 mm in diameter (according to some authors, over 3 mm). The dimensions, shapes, mineralogical and petrographical properties of these débris, as well asthe degree of their integrity, enable us to deaw definite conclusions as. to the character of the parent material which has given rise to the formation of a given soil, and partly to judge of the direction and development of the soil making process. Studying the soil section, == S.A. ZAKHAROV it is easy to determine the existence or non-existence of the soil skeleton", its approximate quantity, the size ofits separate lements, its shape and character. Soils may be stelefon-less", containing only fine particles; such are the sols covering the plains of USSR and North Am rica; with a feebly developed skeleton, a8 the soils of foothills and smooth uplands; with a strongly expressed skeleton, as the soils of ‘The angular shape of the fragments proves either their local origin or that they had been removed from a short distance; on the contrary, rounded outlines of the fragments witness the fact of their being abraded and eroded under the action of water and wind. ‘An approximate classification of the soil skeleton based upon its dimensions and shapes is given below. Clasntication of the soil skeleton (ereendhy to Fadeiev ond Wills Shape of treew Fine grat | Mediom git so! (Coase gravel | Coors art Sen Small pobles | Stall rabble

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