Research design 

refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out research[1] that

defines a succinct and logical plan to tackle established research question(s)
through the collection, interpretation, analysis, and discussion of data.
Incorporated in the design of a research study will depend on the standpoint of the
researcher over their beliefs in the nature of knowledge (see epistemology) and
reality (see ontology), often shaped by the disciplinary areas the researcher belongs
to.[2][3]
The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-
experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-
longitudinal case study), research problem, hypotheses, independent and dependent
variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a
statistical analysis plan.[4] A research design is a framework that has been created
to find answers to research questions.
Sometimes a distinction is made between "fixed" and "flexible" designs. In some
cases, these types coincide with quantitative and qualitative research designs
respectively,[6] though this need not be the case. In fixed designs, the design of the
study is fixed before the main stage of data collection takes place. Fixed designs
are normally theory-driven; otherwise, it is impossible to know in advance which
variables need to be controlled and measured. Often, these variables are measured
quantitatively. Flexible designs allow for more freedom during the data collection
process. One reason for using a flexible research design can be that the variable of
interest is not quantitatively measurable, such as culture. In other cases, the theory
might not be available before one starts the research.

Confirmatory research tests a priori hypotheses — outcome predictions that are

made before the measurement phase begins. Such a priori hypotheses are usually
derived from a theory or the results of previous studies. The advantage of
confirmatory research is that the result is more meaningful, in the sense that it is
much harder to claim that a certain result is generalizable beyond the data set. The
reason for this is that in confirmatory research, one ideally strives to reduce the
probability of falsely reporting a coincidental result as meaningful. This probability
is known as α-level or the probability of a type I error.
Exploratory research, on the other hand, seeks to generate a posteriori hypotheses
by examining a data-set and looking for potential relations between variables. It is
also possible to have an idea about a relation between variables but to lack
knowledge of the direction and strength of the relation. If the researcher does not
have any specific hypotheses beforehand, the study is exploratory with respect to
the variables in question (although it might be confirmatory for others). The
advantage of exploratory research is that it is easier to make new discoveries due to
the less stringent methodological restrictions. Here, the researcher does not want to
miss a potentially interesting relation and therefore aims to minimize the
probability of rejecting a real effect or relation; this probability is sometimes
referred to as β and the associated error is of type II. In other words, if the
researcher simply wants to see whether some measured variables could be related,
he would want to increase the chances of finding a significant result by lowering
the threshold of what is deemed to be significant.
Sometimes, a researcher may conduct exploratory research but report it as if it had
been confirmatory ('Hypothesizing After the Results are Known', HARKing[7]—
see Hypotheses suggested by the data); this is a questionable research
practice bordering on fraud.

State problems versus process problems[edit]

A distinction can be made between state problems and process problems. State
problems aim to answer what the state of a phenomenon is at a given time, while
process problems deal with the change of phenomena over time. Examples of state
problems are the level of mathematical skills of sixteen-year-old children, the
computer skills of the elderly, the depression level of a person, etc. Examples of
process problems are the development of mathematical skills from puberty to
adulthood, the change in computer skills when people get older, and how
depression symptoms change during therapy.
State problems are easier to measure than process problems. State problems just
require one measurement of the phenomena of interest, while process problems
always require multiple measurements. Research designs such as repeated
measurements and longitudinal study are needed to address process problems.