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It can be used to quieiy vvmation. Ircan also be used to send and receive mai ir “real. er written i nization if you are using ne! send messages to users who haven't logged In currently. Ia user ie it is available to the users on all the terminals. 5 logge from several termina cats mail [-options] username! username? ...... EXER sending Mail Sending mails using mail command is very simple. We just have to know the login name of th 1 user wish to send a mail. nemos and otht ° worked computers. eon lk outside the orga! It can also be used to to whom we Example : Example of sen: ga mail using mail command i) $mail user0S Subject: Staff Meeting Tis is to inform you that there is a meeting scheduled tomorrow at | => 2.00 pm to discuss Calendar of events for the next academic year. You are requested to attend the same. | Ctrl+D Ifthe same mes: ‘$ mail user01 user02 user03 sage has to be sent to more than one user, mail command can be used as follows: the user is prompted for the subject or the header tbe + As shown in the above example, the message and endthe attributed to the message. After entering subject, you have to type # message with Ctrl+D. $ mail user1 geetha akhil < progiZ.sh fe users with login nam + The above command mails the contents of the file prog12.sh to th user, geetha and akhil. Receiving Mail To il read the mail that has been received, just type mail at the shell prompt. ‘The incoming mail receiv “ ed by auser is stored i i nox iste sameas the oginmame ofthe user, ne acner's evens All mail rec “ cived from different sourcesis appended to this mailbox. While viewing “ are shown separately as though they are being read from separate files. — idUnix System Communication al, instead he ved in. then the message is not directly displayed on his te _ pins have new mail” on his terminal sgt pr yessab st rrently offline, then also the mail is sent to him, and then the message "You have ee om his screen as Soon as he logs in 2 gashe oo sgment variable MAILCHECK determines the time interval at which mails are checked The ironm' «ta je of this variable is 600, which indicates that, every 600 seconds, Unix checks for arriva pat value all ae Example of receiving a mail using mail command ‘smail 'sc0 System V Mail (version 3.2) Type ? for help. ‘usr/spool/mail/user1” 4 messages 1 read 3 unread > N 4 useroz Sat Oct 31 11.10 Meeting U3 useros Fri Nov 18 15.45 Coffee U2 Hari Fri Nov 18 23.10 Reminder U1 Veena ThuNov17 14.11 Review & and 3 are unread. * The N or U in the first column indicates New and Unread respectively, * Each message in the mail box is given a unique number. These numbers are shown in the second column. ‘planation of output: + The output shows there are 4 messages in the mail box of user out of which 1 has been read h | The > sign indicates that the current message is message number 3, #7Tn the third column, the login name of the sender is displayed. The fourth and fifth column shows the date and time when the mail was received ‘The last column shows the subject of the message. ‘The & symbol at the bottom of the output is the mail prompt where several commands can be given. The To address The From address sage number . Deseret ine When the mail was sent and when it was read The subject The actual message dat the mail prompt (&) such as reading, deleting fom _{Weral actions can be performe jowing commands can be given at them, p arding savin, “Mils, and quitting the mail program. The fol prompt ee ——E=— ieanenimsts!Option Enter Key> N 4 an Deletes the mail numbered n w filename Saves the mail contents in the filename given after w 1 Reply to the current mail rn Reply to the mail numbered n muser Forwards the mail to the specified user a | Quits the mail program - | Print the previous message “ Print the next message Table 9.1 List of commands that can be used at the mail prompe (4 EEA sunmary Write command is used to send messages to users who have logged in and ifthe mesg sat toy ‘mesg command is used to allow /block messages from other users. finger command is used to list of users who have logged in. Asuper user only can use wall command to send the same message to all the currently loggetinuses Mail is a simple, yet effective method for sending and receiving emails, EEE Renew Quesrions Short Answer Questions 1. Differentiate between write and mail commands, 2. Differentiate between wall and write command. 3. What is the use of wall command? 4, What is the use of finger/mesg commands? Long Answer Questions 1. Explain communication in Unix, 2. Explain use of mail command. 5. Write short notes on: write, wall, mal ‘* Explain sending and receiving mai fe he ake oh WS Hho ote ote.CHAPTER UNIX SYSTEM COMMUNICATION -—saiagai A er , ‘system Administrator's Privileges ‘File system Maintenance » pistributed File S¥ste™Va . REN system Aoinstaarion = e world of SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION, Thy admin ractically everything, The success and stabilite stay ot ystem adminis ny agement of the entire system, ranging from may 3d csk management, to providing reliable Security toa anaes eperson the System Administrator or Super User ay To rion in Uni que demanding and requires from the administrator pat nt components ofthe system. - FERED system Administratior’s Login login: root password: *** * ‘The prompt of the root user is #, unlike the $ or % as used by non-root users. After success logging in asa root user you willbe placed in root’s home directory which can be either/or rn [EEE su commanp - To ACQUIRE SUPER USER STATUS Any ordinary user can obtain the status of a super user if he/she knows the root password, FER Rou 0F System Aommustearon The super user has e eo normous powers, er cha "mous powers, and any command invoked by him has a greate? success than when issued by oven ¥y command invoked by him has a gr rel sce tha '€ command may also behave differently oF be Fe "slew. The super user's hasthe following roles 1. System startup and shut J/etcfinttab fit sar ting the system is handed bya fle ft/s deca during each ofits start ke he ‘up states like mounting of disks or bringiné Unix provides a shel atic "Pt lied shutdown to close down the system syst losing user accounts: In Unix, in inistrator has to ‘switch to : er an administrator is both 3 Us ot the super-user mode with FZED ISTRATION. The adm and stability of any ta ain 1 t0 all users. "the ‘oF Super User or root yt ot the administrator an ined of the administrator; and itis | not be created. Its passwor} sing in, ‘oot users. After successfully ch can be either / or /root, s the root password. —— of chance erved his im has a greater ferently or be Fes! istrator Is responsible for adding new accounts in directories and setting up environment forthe new user. diskspace, CPU cycles, data quired software's and providing system security is also the responsibility of the system administrator. 4. llocating disk space and re-allocating quotas when the needs grow: The super user restricts the users to a finite disk space so that they don’t use the entire disk space. Usual there would be a default allocation. However, in some cases it may be essentia to enhance allocation, 5. Installing new devices and upgrading the configuration: As a demand on a system grows, additional devices may need to be installed. The system administrator will have to edit configuration files to identify these devices. 6. Provisioning the mail and internet services: Users connected to any host shall seek Mail and Internet Web access. In addition, almost every machine shall be a resource within a local area network. So for resource too the machine shall have an IP address. In most cases it would be accessible from other machine as v 7. Ensuring security of the system: The internet makes the task of system adwinistration both Interesting and challenging. The administrators need to keep a check on spoofing and misuse, He must also cope-up with lost passwords and check system log files to make sure that the resources are available only to authorized users. 8, Maintaining system logs and profiling the users: A system administrater is required to often determine the usage of resources. This is achieved by analyzing system logs. The system logs also help to profile the users. Infact, user profiling helps in identifying security breaches, ge/System accounting: This is usually of interest to the management, Also, it helps system administrators to tune up an operating system to meet the user requirements. This also involves maintaining and analyzing logs of the system operation. 10, Backup and restore: These procedures are required to ensure data integrity against disk crashes, users accidentally deleting files, to delete unused files, to free up disk space ete Sometimes the backup of the entire file system is taken. In case of any system crash, the backup ‘can be used to restore data TIER system Aomstaaron’s Priviteces The superuser has such powers that and any command invoked by him has a greater chance quer user has such power ther use Certaln commands may behave diferent when given "y super user-The super user's has the following privileges: ™ ‘even if he is not the owner of the file. He can even Change the contents or attributes of any file delete a write-protected file. ce required for running the system © Hecan start or kill any orall processes except those required .nT He can send 2 this command to Dr Send the message even he maximum size of files that users ‘ow, eronaeny, atallow andl atdeny’ files that allow ang Such as eron and at, esta are permitted to create using a 4 He canlimit He has the access to eronall veers to.use scheduling services Itcontrols users’ access + ET) Fiue System Maintenance rhe system administrator must understal ina healthy and cortect state ‘are minimum or no data Loss 1x too requires a formatted disk. After formatting ds, partition can be treated like a logically independent sh Is well because itis his eb ‘es that arise over a period time and also enst sng system, Uni scan be used only after a file system is created on exh ‘a directory structure with its own Foot. Everyie ¢ block, super block, inode blocks and data bes ‘nce the partitions are created, a dis partition A filesystem is organized in the form o Eystem has the following four components ~ boot [Section 3.3] ‘The operating system resides on components. At the time of booting, these technique called mounting. file system has thes fe le filesystem uit? ple file systems, and every systems unite to become a sing] © Asystem administrator has to perform the following tasks to maintal healthy file system: Create partons onthe disk fisk command) Create fle system (mls command) Mount and unmount fie system (mount and umount commands) Period eee check f system for inconsistencies (fsck command) TEEN fsck: Filesystem checking Due to power fail Updatedone! lure many times, the in due to the Je blocks core memory super block and inode yet hich may leadto iste whieh may ea oie system inconsistency. Te leSen more inodes claiming the same disk block I : * ck may be marked as fre but not listed on superblock aust block may be marked as free » Acorrup super block contains erroneous summary data {4 Thefsek command is used to check and repaira damaged filesystem, is general a flesystem fails to mount, ed when 4 Generally, on most of Unix systems, file systems are marked as dirty or lean. fsck checks only the dirty file systems during the next startup. 4 The command can also be used with name of th le system as argument, 4 The administrator should always perform the fsck check wl ‘nen the filesystem isin unmounted conditio GEEEMMMM Exarpleoftsckcommand % fsck /dev/fao 4 = Conducts a file system check onthe file system /dev/f40 éh FIDER System Stanrur Ano Sur Down cas ar ict rend tren ccs oe WRN series of steps and takes a few minutes to complete the boot ce Pee incite 2 cae Ipand anything ee cfc tate or Mode whichis represented by a number ora leter + Thetwo posible sta odes used by the system administrator to per + single-wset $5 ie checking oF backing uy samira ee ede Saco mani lessens etd an se + Moseting down the machine at the end 1 shut down procedure and performs the following, shutdown command controls th he ay ne. ones user with wall command about the system going down with a messages, ees Shen eapested fo close their files and log out. shutdown comm: the first message. nig processes so that they can terminate normally. SA oy pminute afer mal an eee remaining processes. | Writes information about file system status to disk to preserve the integrity ofthe fle 4 Nowifies users to reboot or switch off or moves the system to single user mode. oem displays a message as follows + shutdown [ REBOOT THE SYSTEM NOW OR TURN POWER OFF SYSTEM HALTED “The machine is now completely shut down and the power supply can be turned offto the system, IGEN Usex Manacemenr SD vec corm user in Unix doesn’ essentially mean only a person; it can represent a project or an Fee croup of users who are working onthe same project may use the ame serane cinos every day the administrator is required to add or delete a user or group from the system Sean eee cies entries 0 be made in the passwd and group files Also, directories ands Se eanres cavironment variables to be established. When opening a user aco Js See SESS ae user to a group A group usually has more than one member witha diferstst cee hon multiple users are working on a common project, they should be able she ith one another, which is possible only if they belong to the same group. yhen a user is created, the following parameters have to be defined - appli A.user identification number and user name (UID) A group identification number and group name (GID) Thehome directory Login shell % Mailbox Password EEE Ading A New User ‘The system administrator can create a new account using two methods: 1) Using useradd command hae” tea to tee" uuseradd command adds new users to the system. All parameters rel: Provided in the command itself.up. The group name must roup [TRewse’shome directory *sswd [The encrypted password, as returned by crypt The name of the user's causes the system tose ave this fleld blank, whieh| [The numerical value ofthe user's ID. This value Table 10.1 Options used Unique and non-negative _ ne useradd commans rectory / ensures that ‘251: Unix labs: /home/Siud:/bin/bash stud : 299: 25 me! ftran # userdel stud ‘Removes the user stud and the correspor shadow and /etc/group. entries from the files etc/passwd! However the directory /home/stud is not removed eo =— Femoved by the super user by removing the Co" -/passwed file, id from the /ete,1e in the /ete/passwe file has the following fields 1. Username with which you log into the Unix mach ssword - It does not contain the password but co ion number which is unique yser’s numerical ider Identification number c. Any mail sent from (ttt Fig. 10.1 Sample qecora fetefpssewd file a 1.user Name(etc bans ag The /etc/shadow file stores actual password in encrypted format for user's a properties related to user password i.e. it stores secure user account inf separated by a colon (:) symbol. It contains one entry per line for each user li count with formation, atta Sted in /ete/pass 1. User name - It is your login name 2. Password. your encrypted password. The password shouldbe minimum 64h including special characters /digits Paes Last password change last changed) - Days since Jan 1, 1970 that password wag last chan, 4, Minimum - The minimum number of days required between password changes ic. “ of days left before the user is allowed to change his/her password the number 5. Maximum ~The maximum number of days the password is valid (ater that usr io change his/her password) ed to . Warn - The number of days before password is to expire that use password must be changed warned that his/her Inactive - The number of days after password expires that account is disabled Expire days since Jan 1, 1970 that account is disabled i.e.an absolute date specifying whenthe login may no longer be used. Generally, shadow file entry looks as follows: S 8. stpd : $1$fnfffc$pGteyHdicpGOxmdow#S : 13064: 0: 99999: 7 1.User Name 3.Last password change] S.Maximum 2.Enerypted password 4.Minimum 6.Warn Fig.10.2 Sample record in /etc/shadow file letc/group file n /etc/group is a text file which defines the groups to which users belong under Unix operating | Under Unix, users can be categorized inte BroUups. Unix file system permissions are Or8 in | three classes, user, group, and others. The use of groups allows additional abilities to be der, othgeanized fashion, such as access to disks, printers, and other peripherals. This methol others, also enables the super user to delegate some administrative tecks to normal Use e%c/group fle stores group information or defines t stow? a belong. There is one entry per line, with the fol Ip the user groups ie. it defines the. or bya lowing fields (all fields are seP@! ated 1. group_name: tt is same | the name of 4 ill see this ™ in the group field, of group. If you run Is -1 command, you wi a >jumber in your ete/ 1e group. The user names ' : Giaecae eel Resear 3.GID_—4.List of users who belong to the group printer Fig.10.3 Sample record in /etc/group file [TEEN crypt command - FILE ENCRYPTION he standard output in an encrypted ‘ data from the standard input and It also decrypts (decodes) previously en ‘+ The encryption is uniquely determined by a user-supplied key, whi The yn depend on the key ina we to derive from the output: supply the key on the command line; other 2 exami > are" 1) SerrmFO Ee cnclermst 12 Herethe encrypted output le 4 Encrypts file isnamed ree using the key F(x)=1Cee Unix offers a several backup programs, The commands pio and tar are the en backup programs to and from a backup device th thelr contents and he: ‘a device. cpio has three operating mod in copy-out mode, cpio: the standard input, and writ pio-o < namelist. [>archive] eplo-i < archive ___@io -p < destination directory < namelist the standard input in alist of path names and co the standard output ename on the terminal while itis being copied * in archive without extracting (can be used only with ~i opt") Overwrtes newer with older version Retains o le modification time Table 10.2 Option: S used with cpio command apap coc coeet foopio -ov> /dev/rdsk/f0qiadt progt.sh prog2-sh userlstext srudlist.xt 221 blocks + Is command lists all the files which is piped with cpio command % The cpio command copies all the files in the current directory to the floppy drive %_ The -v option displays each file name as it is being copied. ORESTORE FILES FROM BACKUP i) eplo~iv < /dev/rdsk/foqisdt progl.sh prog2.sh userist.txt studlist.ext 221 blocks ‘© Restores the files from the archive on floppy drive to the current working directory. % cpio assumes that the subdirectory structures are also maintained on the hard disk, it cannot create directories if they are not found. The -d option can be used to create directories if they are not found. ill) cpio -i “*.sh” < /dev/rdsk/foqi dt “+ Restores only the files with an extension .sh from the floppy disk TEES tar command -Tape Archive * tar command dates back to Version 6 of AT&T Unix. tar operates in cooperation with the file “tem; it writes files and directories to tape. tar does not support the full range of options that are ble from epio, but it does not require the unusual command pipeline that cpio uses. * tar command bundles a bunch of files together and creates an archive (commonly called a tar file “arball)on a tape, disk drive, or floppy disk. The original files are not deleted after being copied to “lar file. * ‘The tar command takes filenames and directory names as arguments rather than standard 'nput as in cpio command. 'tcan copy one or more entire directory 'tcan append to an existing archive with trees; ie, operates on directories recursively, out overwriting the entire archive aaf cers eee acs i) To take backup - tar -€ tarfile filelist, ii) To restore files tar -x tarfile Todisplay the archive-__tar_-t_tarfile : Options Purpose =e wc (Create) Writing begins at the beginning of the tarfile, Instead of atthe — — end, The named file s are extracted from the tarfile and | ; | -x (Extract) directory specified in the tarfile, relative to the cu rrent dingy the | — — ry. | | The names of the specified files are listed each time they occurin go> | +t (Table of contents) tar file. Ifno file argument is given, the names of all files in then | | i arelisted. - - ‘arfile | t | Output the name of each file preceded by the function letter, wi 4 ; With v (Verbose) t function, v provides additional information about the tarfile ahi | -f (File) To be used to specify the device name instead of filename. ij -t (Append) Appends files at the end of the archive Table 10.3 Options used with tar command | TO TAKE BACKUP i) #tar -cvf sqifile.tar /home/lists/sql/*.sql + The system would create a tar named file.tar in the current working directory andba¢s| up all the files with an extension .sql from /home/lists/sql directory. TO RESTORE FILES 5 tl * In the above example command the system would uncompress (untar) ii) # tar-xv myfile. yfile.tar he myfle tar file in the current directory. Te Domain Name System * chisuni «, whic! tha network a computer is known as a host or a node. Every host has a hostname | ighout a network. To know your hostname, use the hostname command. Shostname | Unixlab.colleges.com yo | This j rst species merrd name Is of the type used by hosts on the internet, where the Te, °st-colleges.com is the name of the domain to which the host Pea t= he current Internet routing arrangements change or the partiipant us jer than IP addresses such as 208 Resource Locators (URLs) and e-mail a ocates them, a6 iddressesdomain names ru.wikipedia. domain is not. Ta Distrieutep Fite System In computing, a distributed file system or network file system is any to files from multiple hosts sharing via a computer network. In other words, it can he scree ‘model of a file system distributed across multiple machines that enables sharing of asec ‘This makes it possible for multiple users on multiple machines to share fi 8 and storage reser The client nodes do not have direct access to the underlying block storage but interact ‘network using a protocol. This makes it possible to restrict access to the file system a access lists or capabilities on both the servers and the clients, depending on designed. Ina shared disk file system all nodes have equal access to the block storage where the located. On these systems the access control must reside on the system, it includes fa number of nodes in a jent whereas in a distributes ies for transparent replication and fault tolerance. That is, when 2 i= le system go offline, the system continues to work without any data loss Clients, servers, and storage are dispersed across machines. Configuration and imp vary a) Servers may run on dedicated machines, OR ») Servers and clients can be on the same machines. ©) The 0S itself can be distributed (with the file system a part of that distribution 4) A disteibution layer can be interposed between a conventional operating sist 2 system Clients shout = ‘ould view a DFS the same way they would a centralized file system hidden at a lower level Some of the file systems are: * The Andrew File System (AFS) il stem which 22 is a distributed networked file system WHO coo eel servers soa yesent @ homogeneous, location-transparent file RAMS ye client workstations. It was develoy a lon University eee ped by Carnegie Mellon U ind med after i Its primary se en fer Andrew Carnegie and Andrew Mellon. Its PP p uses Network File system Microsystems in 1984, manner sit iors deve (NES) is a network fle system protocol original te 302 5s ile Wa user on a client computer to acces lar to how locals m tt storage Is accessed.‘SuMMARY yn involves the management ofthe entiresystem, ing backups and disk management, to providing perfor Far allyentrusted to single person, the System Administrator or Super User or tse x system provides a special login name for the exclusive use of the administrator and * ealled root ‘Theprocessattachinga secondary filesystem ectory where it is attached is called mount point. are used to mount a filesystem and unmount a it and umount commands add command is used to add a new user account. sere command is used to remave a user's account created, a new record has to be created withthe user details in the Tecorded in encrypted format in fete/shadow ‘and his password must be 4+ Toadd a group, create a record with group detail inthe /ete/group le. + xy command ised enya eer» pio and tar commands are used to take backup an WOKEN Review Questions Who isa super user? 2) Give the use of su command Jes of system adi le? Short Answer Questions 1 3) Whatare the ro ‘Whats the use of shado5) Men 7) What isthe use of useradd romain Name System. Long Answer Questions rent pri leges of a system administrator. user management in Unix. ey wn procedure. domain ni lame system.