Sedimentology (1 977) 24, 36 1-387

Basic types of stratification in small eolian dunes

R A L P H E. H U N T E R

U S .Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Rodd, Menlo Park,

California 94025, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

The thinnest recognizable strata in modern eolian dune sands can be grouped
into six classes. They are herein named planebed laminae, rippleform laminae,
ripple-foreset crosslaminae, climbing translatent strata, grainfall laminae, and
sandflow cross-strata.
Planebed laminae are formed by tractional deposition on smooth surfaces at
high wind velocities. They are very rare in the deposits studied. Grainfall laminae
are also formed on smooth surfaces, largely by grainfall deposition in zones of
flow separation. They are much more common than planebed laminae, which they
closely resemble.
Eolian climbing-ripple structures are composed primarily of climbing trans-
latent strata, each of which is the depositional product of a single climbing ripple.
Climbing translatent strata that formed a t relatively high or supercritical angles of
ripple climb are typically accompanied by rippleform laminae, which are wavy
layers parallel to the rippled depositional surfaces. Ripple-foreset crosslaminae,
which are incomplete rippleform laminae produced when the angle of ripple climb
is relatively low or subcritical, are rarely visible in eolian sands.
Sandflow cross-strata are formed by the avalanching of noncohesive sand on
dune slipfaces. Their form varies with slipface height and with other factors.

I N T R O D U C T IO N

This paper describes the structure of the thinnest recognizable strata in sands of
relatively small, modern eolian dunes. Among the properties defining the gtructure of
a stratum are its dimensions, three-dimensional form, and spatial orientation, the
nature of any segregation by grain size, shape, or composition within the stratum, the
character of the upper and lower contacts, and the relation of the stratum to adjacent
strata. On the basis of these properties, the thinnest recognizable strata in modern
eolian dune sands can be placed in several distinct classes of different origin. The
recognition of these basic genetic types of stratification in ancient rocks is beyond the
scope of this paper. However, the writer has observed these features in enough

36 1
362 Ralph E. Hunter

ancient rocks to feel confident that the detailed study of the thinnest stratification will
prove to be a powerful tool for precise environmental interpretation.
The need for additional criteria for identifying eolian deposits can be judged from
several recent papers that suggest a subaqueous origin for several sandstones pre-
viously considered to be classic eolian deposits (Baars & Seager, 1970; Pryor, 1971 ;
Smith, 1971 ; Stanley, Jordan & Dott, 1971 ; Visher, 1971; Freeman & Visher, 1975). A
major reason for the uncertainties in differentiating subaqueous and eolian deposits is
the suspicion that the internal structure of a large subaqueous dune or sand wave may
be very similar in gross aspect to that of an eolian dune of equal size This suspicion
must remain until modern subaqueous dunes can be studied as thoroughly as modern
eolian dunes have been (Bagnold, 1941 ; McKee, 1966; Bigarella, Becker & Duarte,
1969; Glennie, 1970; McKee, Douglas & Rittenhouse, 1971 ; Bigarella, 1972).
In the past, interpretations of eolian origin have too often been based on a few
questionable criteria such as the large scale of the cross-stratification or the excellence
of the sorting, or on the occurrence of rare features such as raindrop imprints, ful-
garites, vertebrate tracks, and ventifacts. Although rare features can lead to correct
interpretations, it would nevertheless be desirable to have criteria based on features
that are present throughout the rock mass. Only when such criteria are available will
it be possible to identify with confidence a thin eolian deposit within a dominantly
noneolian sequence.
Much more is known of the small-scale internal structures of modern subaqueous
sands than of the largescale structures, so that smallscale structures should, for the
present, provide more reliable criteria for distinguishing eolian and subaqueous sands.
Stratification of relatively small scale offers several other advantages for the environ-
mental interpretation of ancient rocks. It can be studied in small samples such as well
cores. It affords the possibility of making inch-by-inch environmental interpretations
through a stratigraphic section.
A troublesome problem of terminology arises in respect to the thinnest types of
sedimentary layering. These layers would be called laminae by those who define that
term in a hierarchical sense as the class of thinnest recognizable, internally un-
stratified sedimentary layers (Bokman, 1956; Campbell, 1967). However, many
geologists define laminae in terms of thickness as strata less than 1 cm thick (McKee
& Weir, 1953). That definition, however, would be awkward to use in this paper
because several of the basic types of eolian layering have thickness ranges that straddle
this boundary. The nomenclatural problem will be ‘avoided here by using the term
‘strata’, which carries no connotation of thickness, unless the layers are laminae
by both definitions of that term. Whatever these thinnest recognizable layers are
called, they are the basic structural building blocks from which all larger structures
are made.
It has commonly been supposed that the thinnest types of stratification are pro-
duced by small erratic fluctuations in wind or current velocity (Otto, 1938). Jopling
(1964), however, has questioned the general applicability of this concept. A major
thesis of this paper is that, although some types of thin eolian stratification are pro-
duced by random fluctuations in transporting power, other types are produced in
more systematic ways.
Most strata in eolian dune deposits are cross-strata; primary dips are typical even
for those types of strata whose manner of origin does not necessitate that they be in-
clined. Thc classification of eolian strata proposed here is largely independent of
 Eolian stratigcation 363

classifications of sets of cross-strata such as the one proposed by McKee & Weir
( I 953). That is, strata of different types may occur in a single set of cross-strata, and
strata of the same type may occur in different types of sets.

DEPOSITS STUDIED

Eolian cross-stratified sands were studied in the back-island dune field of northern
Padre Island, Texas (Hunter & Dickinson, 1970; Hunter et al. 1972), in the dune field
north of Tenmile Creek on the central Oregon coast (Cooper, I958), and in dunes that
form on the beach each summer at Hunters Cove, 11 km south of Gold Beach on the
southern Oregon coast. The areas investigated are coastal, but the dunes in each area
are unvegetated, active, largely of barchan to transverse form, and very similar i n
appearance to desert dunes. Most of the Hunters Cove dunes are less than 1 m high,
the Padre Island dunes are commonly as high as 3 m, and the Tenmile Creek dunes are
commonly as high as 10 m. The dunes on Padre Island are composed largely of fine-
grained sand, whereas those in Oregon are composed of medium- to fine-grained sand
The cross-stratification was studied on wind-scoured natural exposures and in
trenches. Most of the natural exposures in all three areas were on horizontal surfaces
produced by wind erosion down to the level of damp sand; the origin of these surfaces
was similar to that suggested by Stokes (1968) for the horizontal contacts of ancient
eolian cross-stratified beds. The horizontality of the surfaces was advantageous to a
study of thin stratification because of the apparent magnification of the thickness of
each layer resulting from the low angle at which the cross-stratification was truncated.
Most of the horizontal surfaces studied were probably no more than I m above
the base of the dune, although the exact level could seldom be determined by trenching
because of the presence of water-saturated sand at a depth of less than 1 m. The
original dune height likewise was seldom known, but it could be roughly estimated
from the horizontal dimensions of the sets of cross-strata and from the plan-view
radius of curvature of the cross-strata, both of which tend to increase with dune height.
Wind-scoured exposures at levels higher than 1 m above the bases of the dunes were
observed near the crests of dunes after heavy rains, and no types of stratification
different from those found at lower levels were discovered.

STRUCTURE, D E P O S I T I O N A L P RO CE SS, A ND BED

CONFIGURATION

Depositional process, configuration ot' the depositional surface, and internal

structure of the deposit are intimately related. Three types of depositional surface
formed by the eolian deposition of dry sand can be seen in unvegetated dune fields,
whether of coastal or desert type. The three types of surface are those marked by wind
ripples, those marked by avalanches, and those that are smooth except for grain
roughness (Fig. 1). Corresponding types of internal structure make up the over-
whelming bulk of the eolian dune deposits studied for this paper (Table I). Although
the dunes studied in detail were all of coastal type and were mostly of small size,
limited observations of modern desert dunes and of ancient eolian deposits suggest
that the same basic types of internal structure make up the overwhelming bulk of all
eolian sand deposits.
 Table 1. Characteristics of basic types of eolian stratification
w
Depositional Character of Type of Dip angle Thickness Segregation Packing Form of strata o\
P
process depositional stratification of strata of grain types
surface Sharpness Size grading
of contacts
Subcritically Stratification: low Thin Distinct
climbing (typically 0-20", (typically 1-10 mm, Inverse
translatent maximum 30") - maximum -5 cm) Close Tabular,
stratification Depositional surface: Sharp, erosional planar
similarly low
Supercritically Stratification: Intermediate Distinct Tabular,
I climbing variable (0-90') (typically 5-15 mm) Inverse except Close commonly
translatent Depositional surface: Gradational in contact zones curved
Rippled stratification intermed. (10-25")
Tractional
Ripple-foreset Relative to Close Tabular, %
deposition I
cross- translatent Individual laminae: concave-up
i lamination stratification: Thin or sigmoidal
+$
intermed. (5-20") (typically 1-3 mni) Individual laminae p
.Y
Sharp or and sets of laminae:
Rippleform Generalized: gradational, Indistinct
lamination intermediate non-erosional Normal and
(typically 10-25') inverse,
Smooth Planebed Low Sets of laminae: neither greatly Close Very tabular,
lamination (typically 0-15', Intermediate predominating planar
max.?) (typically 1-10 cm)
Sharp or
gradational,
Largely Smooth Grainfall Intermediate nonerosional Intermediate Very tabular,
grainfall lamination (typically 20-30", follows
deposition min. 0" pre-existen t
max. -40') topography
Grainflow Marked by Sandflow High (angle of Thick Distinct to Cone-shaped,
deposition avalanches cross- repose) (typically 2-5 cm) indistinct tongue-shaped,
stratification (typically 28-34") Sharp, Inverse except Open or roughly
erosional or near toe tabular
nonerosional
 Eolian stratification 365

Rippled surfoce

Slipface with avolonches

Smooth stirfoce

Ezg Floor ocross w h c h

dune :s rnovinq

Fig. 1. Schematic block diagram of part of a sinuous transverse dune, showing typical places of
occurrence of rippled surfaces, smooth surfaces, and slipfaces marked by avalanches.

Net deposition occurs during traction when saltating grains and grains creeping
under saltation impact come to rest in relatively sheltered positions between adjacent
grains. This kind of deposition was called ‘accretion’ in a specialized sense by Bagnold
(1941, p. 127). However, that term has continued to be used for any kind of gradual
deposition, and therefore the process is here referred to as ‘tractional deposition’.
Surfaces on which transport is by traction are generally rippled, and the internal
structure produced by net deposition on these rippled surfaces is a type of climbing
ripple structure. This structure is made up of one or more of several basic types of
stratification.
Bagnold (1 94 I , p. 15 1) noted that traction may occur on planar surfaces when the
wind velocity exceeds a certain critical strength. This type of surface is analogous to a
subaqueous plane bed of the upper flow regime (Simons, Richardson & Nordin, 1965;
Harms & Fahnestock, 1965). Such surfaces were rarely found anywhere in the dunes
studied and were even more rarely found on the leeward depositional slopes of the
dunes. Stratification produced by net deposition on plane beds during intense traction
is here called ‘planebed lamination’.
Bagnold (1941, p. 151-153, 157-160) also noted that traction may occur on a
planar or nearly planar surface where the sand has an unusual grain-size distribution,
being either bimodal or better sorted than normal eolian sands. Surfaces that were
planar because of the sediment texture were not found in the dunes studied.
Deposition in dune fields by processes other than tractional deposition is normally
restricted to those areas leeward of dune crests in which the air flow separates from the
surface. In these relatively calm zones of flow separation, the previously saltating but
never truly suspended sand grains lose much of their forward momentum and fall onto
the surface, perhaps bouncing or rolling some distance downslope before coming to
rest. The settling out of grains through a fluid too calm to cause traction, a process
called ‘sedimentation’ in a specialized sense by Bagnold (1941, p. 127), is called
‘grainfall deposition’.
Grainfall deposition in zones of flow separation is supplemented by the deposition
of grains previously creeping under the influence of saltation bombardment; these
previously creeping grains may bounce or roll some distance downslope if the upwind
boundary of the zone of flow separation coincides with the brink of a slipface. Bagnold
(1941, p. 127) claimed that creeping grains could be deposited without an accompany-
ing deposition of saltating grains and called the process ‘encroachment’. However, at
least some of the previously saltating grains must be deposited in zones of flow separa-
tion, and the accompanying deposition of previously creeping grains is here con-
sidered to be an adjunct of grainfall deposition.
Surfaces on which deposition occurs by grainfall, with or without an accompany-
ing deposition of previously creeping grains, are smooth except where the deposit is
366 Ralph E. Hunter

draped over preexisting irregularities. The corresponding internal structure is a type

of thin stratification here called ‘grainfall lamination’.
Deposition can occur in ways that are transitional between grainfall and tractional
deposition. In these transitional types of deposition, grains hit the sediment surface at
speeds intermediate between the terminal fall velocity and the much greater velocities
typical of saltation, and at angles intermediate between vertical and the much lower
angles typical of saltation. Transitional types of deposition are most likely to occur
where a zone of flow separation wedges out upwind near the dune crest, especially if a
sharp break in slope has not developed at the upwind boundary of the zone. The wind
stress in these transitional areas may be too small for ripples to form. On the other
hand, the wind stress may be large enough for the potential growth of ripples, but
deposition may be so rapid that ripples are damped (Bagnold, 1941, p. 153). As long
as the surface is unrippled, deposition in these transitional areas produces a type of
stratification that seems indistinguishable from that produced by the vertical fall of
grains and which is therefore classified as grainfall lamination.
In another transitional type of sand movement and accompanying net deposition,
winds that are too weak to cause traction on a flat surface may cause traction on a
slope, where the wind action is aided by gravity. Such tractional transport at wind
speeds too small to produce ripples is common on lee slopes in zones of flow separa-
tion. The redistribution of sand by this kind of weak traction seems to be an important
mechanism in smoothing the lee slopes. Net deposition during this weak traction is
generally accompanied by grainfall deposition. The resultant stratification seems
indistinguishable from that produced purely by grainfall and is therefore classified as
grainfall lamination.
As defined here, then, grainfall lamination is produced by a complex of processes
including pure grainfall and several subordinate processes that accompany grainfall,
are transitional in character between pure traction and pure grainfall, or are localized
between areas of purely tractional deposition and purely grainfall deposition. In
other words, grainfall lamination forms by any kind of grain-by-grain deposition on
surfaces that are unrippled because the wind stress is too small for ripple growth.
A third major type of surface configuration and internal structure in dunes is
produced by avalanching on slipfaces. Most avalanches occur when deposition in
zones of flow separation causes the slope angle to reach the angle of initial yield (Allen,
1970). Avalanches in dunes include slumps and sandflows (McKee ef al., 1971). In a
slump, the sediment mass maintains cohesion while sliding downslope along a clearly
defined shear surface. Because slumping does not form a new type of stratification but
only deforms preexisting stratification, slump structures are not discussed in this paper.
In an eolian sandflow, which is a type of grainflow (Bagnold, 1954), grains above the
shear surface change position relatively to one another. Preexisting stratification is
rapidly destroyed by sand flowage, and any structure in the sand deposited from a
mature flow is due to the flowage itself. The deposit of a single sandflow is here called a
sandflow cross-stratum.

P L A N E B E D LAMINATION

The production of stratification by tractional deposition at wind velocities too high

for ripple existence was documented only once during this study. The event res-
ponsible for the formation of the documented planebed lamination was a strong front
 Eolian stratijication 367

with winds of 40 miles per hour (18 m/s) but without accompanying precipitation.
Within a few minutes after the sudden passage of the front over the Padre Island dunes,
the pre-existing small ripples were flattened, both on the windward erosional slopes and
on the more gently sloping of the leeward depositional surfaces. Within an hour,
ripples spaced 30-40 cm apart started to form, although the wind speed had not
diminished. Thc gradual growth of ripples indicates that the planar surface was not
truly stable ; the depositional processes, however, should have been very similar to
those at still higher wind velocities, when a planar surface is presumably stable
(Bagnold, 1941, p. 151).
Later trenching revealed the presence of as much as 0.5 m of sand deposited during
a few hours by the strong winds. The structure of the deposit graded from planebed
lamination at the base to climbing-ripple structure at the top (Fig. 2). Planebed
lamination, to judge from this example, is characterized by its evenness and by dip
angles of less than 15". However, steeper dip angles do not seem impossible. The in-
dividual laminae are indistinct because of a poor segregation of grain sizes but are no
thicker than a few millimetres.
The slight variations in grain size and type that define planebed lamination are
probably related, at least in part, to the small, erratic fluctuations in transporting
power that Otto (1938) postulated to be the cause of all lamination. Another process
that may be involved is the 'like-accepts-like-and-rejects-unlike' process described by
Moss (1963) and Kuenen (1966). Some of the variation may reflect sorting during
sand transport through areas upwind of the depositionad site.

Fig. 2. Planebed lamination and climbing-ripple structure formed a t high wind speeds. Padre Island,
Texas. Vertical trench face parallel to wind direction; the wind was blowing from left to right. Sand
deposited before the windstorm is exposed a t the base of the trench. Planebed lamination occupies the
lower half of the trench face, and climbing-ripple structure occupies the upper half.
368 Ralph E. Huntc)v

CLIMBING-RIPPLE S T R U C T U R E

Ripple distribution, orientation and angle of climb

Wind ripples occur on interdune flats, on the stoss sides of dunes, and on lee
slopes that are inclined less steeply than the angle of repose. Net deposition on rippled
surfaces occurs mainly on lee slopes. On transverse dunes, rippled lee slopes commonly
occur as aprous at the base of the slipface and in belts between the dune crest and the
brink of the slipface (Fig. I). Rippled lee slopes also commonly occur from the dune
crest to the dune base on the convex-downwind salients of sinuous transverse or
barchanoid dunes (Fig. I), on the horns of barchans, on the noses of parabolic dunes,
on incipient dunes, and on drifts leeward of obstacles. A former slipface may become
rippled if the wind shifts direction, and this steepest of rippled surfaces may continue
to receive deposits if the wind shift is not too extreme.
Ripples are said to climb if they migrate while net deposition goes on (Allen,
1968, pp. 100-108). The direction of ripple climb, which is the same as the direction of
ripple movement and which for straight ripples must be defined as normal to the
ripple strike, is almost always nearly parallel to the direction of air movement im-
mediately above the surface. If the wind blows downslope, therefore, the ripples climb
in a downslope direction. If the wind blows obliquely downslope, the direction of
ripple climb has both a downslope and an alongslope component. If the wind blows
alongslope and the surface still receives a net deposit, the ripples climb in an along-
slope direction.
The wind direction immediately above a rippled depositional surface i n a zone of
flow separation may diverge considerably from the free-stream wind direction. The
existence of winds strong enough to move sand in some zones of flow separation is
amply indicated by the existence of ripples that migrate in directions divergent from
the free-stream wind direction. The wind strength in the zone of flow separation
seems to be a function of the orientation of the lee slope. If the lee slope is transverse
to the wind, the air circulation in the flow-separation zone is sluggish. If, however, the
lee slope is moderately oblique t o the wind, part of the external air stream enters the
flow-separation zone and creates a relatively strong vortex (Allen, 1971, pp. 213-218).
In the vortices created by flow separation over obliquely leeward-facing slopes, the
direction of air movement immediately above the lee slope tends to have a large
alongslope component. The existence of strong winds blowing along lee slopes at the
same time that winds are blowing across dune crests has also been noted by Sharp
( I 963). Lee vortices seem to account for most of the ripples that trend parallel to the
slope direction and move alongslope in the dunes studied. The commonness of this
ripple orientation is well known (McKee, 1945, 1966). Lee vortices that are strong
enough t o form ripples occur on the horns of barchans, on the obliquely leeward-
facing sections of sinuous transverse dunes, and on transverse dunes when the wind
direction shifts t o a direction oblique to the dune trend. On the gently sloping apron at
the base of the lee slope that causes flow separation, the ripple fan assumes complex
plan forms such as those illustrated by Allen (1 968, pp. 246-3 17). On these aprons, the
wind direction may bear any relation to the slope direction, so that the ripples may
climb upslope, downslope, or alongslope.
The angle of ripple climb is measured relatively to the generalized depositional
surface (Allen, 1968, pp. 100-108). The steepness of this angle is directly proportional
 Eolian stratijication 369

to the rate of net deposition and is inversely proportional to the rate of ripple migra-
tion. Concurrent observations of these two parameters on active dune surfaces show
that the angle of ripple climb tends to increase with increasing leeward slope of the
surface. The highest angles of ripple climb occur in zones of flow separation, where
previously saltating grains fall onto the rippled surface.

Existence of eolian climbing-ripple structure

The fact that wind ripples commonly climb on lee slopes is readily demonstrated
by concurrent observations of rates of net deposition and rates of ripple migration.
However, the manner in which internal structures are formed on wind-rippled de-
positional surfaces has resisted understanding.
Bagnold (1941, pp. 237-239) recognized a type of gently dipping, thin eolian
stratification as having formed by accretion or tractional deposition. One of its most
distinctive characteristics is a well-defined segregation of grain sizes. Bagnold (1 941)
hypothesized that the segregation of grain sizes was produced by differential transport
during periodic episodes of wind activity, the smaller grains outrunning the coarser
ones, being deposited first, and then being mantled by coarser grains that reached the
depositional site later. Other workers, such as McKee & Tibbitts (1964) and Sharp
(1966), have recognized 'accretion deposits' without explicitly accepting or denying
Bagnold's hypothesis on the origin of the layering.
Inman, Ewing & Corliss (1966, pp. 800-801) described this same type of eolian
stratification, which they called 'ripple lamination'. They suggested that the segrega-
tion of grain sizes within these laminae was produced by shear sorting, a process des-
cribed by Bagnold (1954) in which finer grains sink and coarser grains rise due to
interstitial settling and dispersive pressure within the dilated grain framework of a
sediment mass undergoing shear. Sharp (1963, 1966) also called attention to the
possible importance of interstitial settling of finer grains within the dilated grain
framework of moving wind ripples as a mechanism for producing grain-size segrega-
tion. However, neither Inman et al. (1966) nor Sharp (1963, 1966) showed that the
development of the stratification is dependent on the surface being rippled.
Rim ( I 951, 1953) first suggested the essential role of ripple climbing as a mechanism
for producing the stratification of accretion deposits. He was followed in this sugges-
tion by Yaalon (1967), Yaalon & Laronne (1971) and Goldsmith (1973). According to
this hypothesis, each layer is produced by a single climbing ripple. That is, each layer
is of the kind called a 'pseudobed' by McKee (1939, 1965). Given the general absence
of ripple-foreset cross-stratification within the layers, the correctness of this interpreta-
tion is not obvious. On the other hand, ripple-foreset cross-stratification could hardly
be expected, given the demonstrated rarity of visible foreset layering within moving
wind ripples (Sharp, 1963).
In order to test the hypothesis that this type of eolian stratification is produced by
climbing wind ripples, a rippled surface sloping downwind at an angle of 10" was
watched during 3 h of strong wind. The rate of deposition and the rate of ripple
migration were monitored by reference to a series of thin rods emplaced normally to
the surface. Net deposition proceeded at a rate of 3 cm/h while the ripples migrated
downslope at a rate of 50 cm/h. Thus, the ripples climbed at an angle of t a d 3/50 or
3". In order to relate the internal structure to successive depositional surfaces, mag-
netite sand was sprinkled on the surface periodically. At the end of the monitoring
period, the sand was box-cored and an X-radiograph made. The X-radiograph shows
370 Ralph E. Hunter

that the layering crosses the marked depositional surfaces at a small angle (Fig. 3a).
Moreover, the number of layers between marked depositional surfaces agrees closely
with the number of ripples that migrated past a nearby rod between times of marking.
Each layer must therefore be the depositional product of a single climbing ripple, or
what McKee (1939, 1965) called a ‘pseudobed’ and what is here called a ‘climbing
translatent stratum’ (Fig. 4).

Fig. 3. Eolian climbing-ripple structures. (a) X-radiograph of vertical peel, with two depositional
surfaces artificially marked by magnetite grains (dark). Padre Island, Texas. The thin layers of mag-
netite grains were preserved on the leeward, depositional sides of the ripples, which were moving from
right to left, and form ripple-foreset cross-strata within the subcritically climbing translatent strata.
The magnetite grains eroded from the stoss sides of the ripples areconcentrated along the contacts of
the climbing translatent strata. BarE.1 cm. (b) Horizontal and vertical exposures of typical sub-
critically climbing translatent stratification. Padre Island, Texas. (c) Typical subcritically climbing
translatent stratification. Padre Island, Texas. Vertical trench face. (d) Horizontal and vertical ex-
posures of subcritically to supercritically climbing translatent stratification, showing divergence of
the stratification and successive depositional surfaces. Hunters Cove, Oregon. The traces of deposi-
tional surfaces on the horizontal exposure are defined by increases and decreases in theangleof ripple
climb and by three sharp contacts (marked by arrows) between sets. The ripples climbed in an along-
slope direction (toward top of photograph).

The X-radiograph (Fig. 3a) shows ripple-foreset cross-strata defined by the arti-
ficially introduced magnetite grains. The general absence of cross-stratification else-
where within the deposit cannot be due to the disturbance of the grain framework by
the bombardment of saltating grains, for then the artificially defined foresets would
have been destroyed or greatly obscured. Evidently the general absence of cross-
stratification is due mainly to insufficient fluctuations in the character of the sand
supplied to the lee slopes of the ripples under natural conditions. The absence of dis-
turbances at depths below two or three grain diameters in moving wind ripples was
confirmed by viewing the ripples through the side window of a wind ‘tunnel’ that had
an open top exposed to the wind.
 Eoliun struti$cution 37 I

Translatent strata Rippleform laminae I

Subcriticolly climbing Truncated

translatent strata rlpple - foreset crosslaminae

Critically climbing Complete

translotent strota ripple- foreset crosslominoe
~ . ~ _ _

Supercrltically climbing Complete rippleform laminae

translotent strata

Fig. 4. Types of stratification potentially composing climbing-ripple structures at subcritical and

supercritical angles of ripple climb.

By the same evidence, the inverse size grading within each stratum must be due not
to shear sorting within the ripple body as a whole but rather must reflect the well-
known grading on wind-ripple surfaces. Almost invariably, the grain size o n wind-
ripple surfaces grades from finest in the ripple trough or on the stoss slope to coarsest
on the ripple crest or upper lee slope (Sharp, 1963; Ellwood, Evans & Wilson, 1975).

Terminology of the stratification

Because eolian climbing-ripple structure is generally so different in appearance
from subaqueous climbing-ripple structure, a new terminology has been developed
(Hunter, in press). The name, ‘climbing-ripple structure’, is proposed for any structure
formed by climbing ripples, whether or not ripple-foreset cross-stratification is
visible. Climbing-ripple structure is potentially composed of wavy layering parallel to
successive rippled depositional surfaces and even layering parallel to the vector of
ripple climb (Fig. 4). The former, called ‘ripple laminae superimposed in rhythm’ by
McKee (1939, 1945) and here called ‘rippleform lamination’, is not present, or at least
is not visually detectable, in many eolian climbing-ripple structures. The latter,
formerly called ‘pseudobedding’ (McKee, 1939, 1965), ‘climbing-ripple stratification’
(Hunter et a/., 1972), or ‘climbing-ripple pseudo-stratification’ (Hunter, 1974), is
here called ‘climbing translatent stratification’.
The character of climbing-ripple structure undergoes a basic change when the
angle of ripple climb changes from subcritical to supercritical, the critical angle of
climb being defined as the angle at which the vector of ripple climb is parallel to the
312 Ralph E. Hunter

ripple stoss slope (Fig. 4). The incomplete rippleform lamination formed by sub-
critically climbing ripples is here given the special name, 'ripple-foreset crosslamina-
tion'. Subcritically and supercritically climbing translatent strata differ in having
contacts that are erosional or gradational, respectively.

Subcritically climbing translatent stratification

The angle and direction of ripple climb in eolian climbing-ripple structures are
determinable only where the attitude of a former depositional surface can be defined.
Definition is difficult or impossible in subcritically climbing translatent stratification
because of the general absence of ripple-foreset crosslamination (Fig. 3b, c). Where the
attitude of a former depositional surface could be accurately defined in the dunes
studied, an alongslope component of ripple climb was commonly dominant, especially
where the depositional surface dipped steeply.
The attitude of a former depositional surface in a set of subcritically climbing
translatent strata is most commonly defined by a change in the apparent angle of
ripple climb, the change having taken place synchronously across a ripple field (Fig.
3d). In extreme cases, the direction of climb reverses (Fig. 5a). Changes in the apparent
angle of ripple climb, as seen on a two-dimensional exposure, can be caused by
changes in rate of deposition, rate of ripple migration, direction of ripple migration,
or ripple spacing.
Subcritically climbing translatent stratification varies in attitude from horizontal
to dipping at angles as high as 30". In the dunes studied, the great bulk of eolian cross-
stratification that dips less than 20" is subcritically climbing translatent stratification.
The dip angle is generally low because wind ripples occur only on relatively gentle
slopes and because the angle of ripple climb is less than the critical angle, which is
itself less than 6" in most wind ripples.
Subcritically climbing translatent strata are very thin, the thickness averaging
about 2 mm and never exceeding the ripple height, which is 3-8 mm for ripples formed
by moderate winds in fine- to medium-grained sand. However, ripples formed by
strong winds can be higher than 2 cm, and subcritically climbing translatent strata
this thick have been seen (Figs 2 and 5b). As the angle of climb decreases, whatever
the ripple height, the strata become so thin that individual layers are difficult to
distinguish. More steeply dipping strata tend to be thicker because higher angles of
climb tend to occur on steeper lee slopes.
In many sets, adjacent strata are of similar thickness, and changes in stratum
thickness tend to occur very gradually across the set. This relative uniformity arises in
part from the regularity of wind ripples in a given area at any one time, but the
uniformity also suggests that many sets form during rather constant or slowly varying
conditions of wind velocity and depositional rate.
Relative to their thickness, subcritically climbing translatent strata are laterally
very extensive (Fig. 3c) and thus are highly tabular. The wide extent of individual
strata is evidently a result of the great crest lengths of wind ripples, the uniformity of
elevation along ripple troughs, and the maintenance of individual ripples during long
distances of ripple migration.
The characteristic internal structure of subcritically climbing translatent stratifica-
tion is inverse grain-size grading and normal grain-density grading (Figs 3b and 5a,
b, c). The grading, which is best seen on surfaces truncating the stratification at small
 Eo liun strut $cut ion 313

Fig. 5. Eolian climbing-ripple structures. (a) Subcritically to supercritically climbing translatent

stratification, showing divergence of the stratification arid successive depositional surfaces. Padre
Island, Texas. Horizontal exposure truncating stratification that dips 10' to 15' toward top of photo-
graph. The ripples climbed in alongslope directions, first to the left, then to the right, and then back to
the left. Rippleform lamination and ripple-foreset crosslamination are visible in parts of the photo-
graph. (b) Climbing-ripple structure formed by strong wjinds. Padre Island, Texas. Horizontal
exposure truncating abnormally thick subcritically climbing translatent stratification that dips 15
toward top of photograph. The ripple-foreset crosslaminae show that the ripples climbed in an
alongslope direction toward the left. (c) Inverse size grading and normal density grading within
typical subcritically climbing translatent strata. Hunters Cove, Oregon. Horizontal exposure truncat-
ing stratification that dips 1 0 ' toward top of photograph. The darker sand is finer grained and richer
in heavy minerals than the lighter sand. (d) Subcritically to supercritically climbing translatent
stratification, with accompanying rippleform lamination where the angle of ripple climb is super-
critical. Padre Island, Texas. Horizontal exposure truncating stratification that dips 10" to 15" toward
top of photograph. The angle of ripple climb varies from subcritical near the bottom of photograph,
to supercritical in an intermediate zone, and back to subcritical in the upper left corner. The ripple-
form lamination in the intermediate zone shows that the ripples climbed in an alongslope direction
toward the right.

angles, is commonly very distinct. As shown by the experiments described in a fore-

going section, the grading is produced by sorting on the ripple surface.
Deposits that consist of subcritically climbing translatent strata are characterized
by relatively close grain packing, which is a result of the sand being deposited during
traction (Bagnold, 1941, pp. 237-239). The close packing leads to firmness of the
surface, relatively low porosity and relatively low permeability. The porosities of six
samples from Padre Island ranged from 38-410/, and averaged 3 9 x . Relatively low
values of permeability are suggested by the long retention of moisture. Because of its
moisture content, the sand appears dark in many natural exposures.

Ripple-foreset crosslamination
Crosslamination within subcritically climbing translatent strata of eolian origin is
374 Ralph E. Hunter

rarely visible. It is most often visible in climbing translatent strata that are abnormally
thick because the angle of ripple climb is close to critical (Fig. 5a) or because the
ripples themselves are large due to their coarse grain size or formation by strong winds
(Figs 2 and 5b). Where it is visible, ripple-foreset crosslamination resembles complete
rippleforin lamination except for its truncation by the overriding ripple. The dip of the
crosslamination is considerably less than the angle of repose, as would be expected
from the low steepness of the lee slopes of wind ripples (Sharp, 1963). The slight
variations i n grain type that define ripple-foreset crosslaminae are presumably pro-
duced by the same processes that produce the grain segregation in planebed laminae.

Supercritically climbing translatent stratification

At angles of climb higher than critical, the contacts of climbing translatent strata
are gradational rather than sharp and erosional. In the thin, gradational contact zones,
which form on the stoss slopes of the ripples, grain-size grading is normal rather than
inverse (Fig. 5a).
Stratification parallel to the depositional surface generally becomes visible in
eolian sands when the angle of ripple climb increases to approximately critical. Thus,
supercritically climbing translatent stratification is typically accompanied by ripple-
form lamination (Fig. 5d), whereas subcritically climbing translatent stratification is
rarely accompanied by ripple-foreset crosslamination.
Because of the presence of rippleform lamination, the direction of ripple climb is
easily determined in supercritically climbing translatent stratification. The direction of
ripple climb typically has a large alongslope component, and the depositional surface
commonly dips more than 15". A supercritical angle of climb is to be expected on
steep rippled slopes because such slopes generally face leeward and cause flow separa-
tion, with rapid deposition resulting from the fallout of previously saltating grains.
Supercritically climbing translatent stratification generally occurs in zones that are
vertically and laterally transitional between zones of subcritically climbing translatent
stratification and zones of grainfall lamination. Most commonly, the angle of ripple
climb increases upward, and the grainfall lamination overlies the translatent stratifica-
tion.
Although supercritically-climbing-ripple structure is uncommon in the eolian
deposits studied, it is valuable in marking transitions between subcritically climbing
translatent stratification and grainfall lamination, two types of stratification that
heretofore have not been reliably distinguishable in eolian sands.

Rippleform lamination
The lamination parallel to the rippled depositional surface of supercritically
climbing wind ripples resembles grainfall and planebed lamination except for its
waviness (Figs 5a and d). As the angle of ripple climb increases, the steepness of the
ripples decreases, and generally the ripples disappear before the angle of ripple climb
becomes vertical. As the ripples flatten, rippleform lamination grades into grainfall
lamination. The slight variations in grain size and type that define rippleform laminae
are presumably produced by the same processes that produce the variations of grain
type in grainfall and planebed lamination.
 Eolian stratificutioii 375

GRAINFALL LAMINATION

Grainfall lamination is produced in zones of flow separation, which occur leeward

of dune crests. The separation of the air flow from the surface is promoted by a pro-
nounced convex-up curvature of the dune cross-section, by a large dune height, and
by a high wind velocity (Cooper, 1958). Because of the relation between flow separa-
tion and cross-sectional curvature, the lee slopes on which grainfall lamination is
formed tend to be steeper than those that are rippled. For grainfall lamination to be
preserved, however, the slope must not be so steep that the sand avalanches. On a
sinuous transverse or barchanoid dune, slopes of the intermediate steepness most
favourable for both the formation and preservation of grainfall lamination tend to
occur midway between the convex-downwind salients and the concave-downwind
barchanoid re-entrants (Fig. 1).
Tn contrast to deposits formed by tractional deposition and by avalanching, which
have been recognized in modern eolian deposits by a number of workers beginning
with Bagnold (1941), eolian sand deposits formed by grainfall deposition have been
described only rarely (Gripp, 1961 ; McKee et al., 1971, pp. 360-361). Nevertheless,
such deposits are common in the dunes studied, and the stratification of these deposits
has distinctive features by which it can be recognized.
Grainfall laminae are parallel, in the sense that the contacts approach each other
very gradually and concordantly as a set thins. Thus, an individual lamina is extremely
tabular, and its gradual changes in thickness are almost invariably accompanied by
similar changes in the thicknesses of adjacent laminae.
When grainfall laminae are deposited on a planar surface, the lamination itself is
equally planar (Fig. 6a). When grainfall laminae are deposited o n a n irregular surface
such as one marked by avalanches, on the other hand, the irregularities are blanketed
by a deposit of nearly uniform thickness, and the relief of the depositional surface i s
only gradually diminished as deposition proceeds.
In the dunes studied, the great bulk of eolian cross-stratification dipping at angles
from about 20 to 28" is of grainfall type. However, grainfall lamination can form on
surfaces dipping at much lower angles or even on horizontal surfaces, provided that
the surface is in a zone of flow separation. For example, grainfall lamination can form
on the nearly flat apron at the base of a dune slipface if eddy winds or cross-winds are
not strong enough to form ripples. At the other extreme, grainfall lamination can form
on slopes dipping as steeply as the angle of initial yield (Allen, 1970), which may be as
great as 40" in the coastal dunes studied. Although much of the more steeply dipping
grainfall lamination is destroyed by sandflows, deformed remnants occur in slump
sheets (McKee et al., 1971), and even undeformed autochthonous remnants can be
found associated with slump sheets and sandflow cross-strata.
In vertical exposures parallel to the dip direction, grainfall lamination at high
levels in the dunes is typically straight where the dip is near the angle of repose, or
curved in a convex-up sense where the dip is less. A t low levels, concave-up curvature
is typical. In horizontal exposures the lamination may be straight (Fig. 6a) or smoothly
curved in either a concave-downwind or convex-downwind sense.
During grainfall deposition, i n contrast to tractional deposition or deposition from
a sandflow, little if any grain segregation occurs after the grains first touch the deposi-
tional surface. The variations in grain type that define grainfall lamination are
376 Ralph E. Hunter

Fig. 6. (a) Horizontal and vertical exposures of typical grainfall lamination. Hunters Cove, Oregon.
(b) Grainfall lamination and subcritically climbing translatent stratification. Padre Island, Texas.
Horizontal exposure truncating stratification dipping toward top of photograph. The climbing
translatent stratification on the right side of the photograph dips about 5" and overlies the grainfall
lamination, which dips about 15'. The intertonguing contact between the climbing translatent strata
(topset deposit) and grainfall laminae (foreset deposit) dips 2" toward top of photograph. (c) Sand-
flow cross-strata abutting on and intertonguing with bottomset strata and lower foreset cross-strata of
grainfall type. Padre Island, Texas. Vertical peel. Bar-5 cm. (d) Horizontal and vertical exposures of
sandflow cross-strata of relatively simple cone- or tongue-like form exposed at low level in dune
deposit. Padre Island, Texas. The sandflow cross-strata (light in tone) abut on and intertongue with
bottomset strata and lower foreset cross-strata of grainfall type (dark).

presumably produced by sorting during sand transport through areas upwind of the
depositional site and by sorting while the grains are falling. These sorting processes are
probably related to the small, erratic variations in transporting power postulated by
Otto ( I 938) to be the cause of all lamination.
Because the grain segregation that defines grainfall lamination is relatively poor,
the lamination is easily seen only on the better exposures. On the best exposures,
laminae having thicknesses of a few millimetres or less can be seen (Fig. 6b), but on
poorer exposures only thicker sets of laminae can be distinguished. Moreover, the
contacts of both the thinnest recognizable laminae and of the sets are commonly
gradational, so that the definition of what constitutes an individual lamina or set is
arbitrary even in the best exposures. However one defines a lamina or set, adjacent
laminae or sets differ considerably in thickness.
Observed rates of grainfall deposition in small dunes generally ranged from 1 to
5 cin/h at wind speeds of about 20 miles per h (9 m/s). At these rates of deposition,
under monitored conditions in which the formation of grainfall lamination was con-
firmed by box coring and the preparation of peels, the formation of a millimetre-
thick laniina took no more than a few minutes. This time scale supports the inference
 Eolian strutijication 377

that wind fluctuations are responsible for the grain segregation that defines grainfall
lamination.
Grading within grainfall laminae is difficult to recognize because of the extreme
thinness of the laminae and the relatively poor grain segregation. The difficulty in
defining either upper or lower contacts of individual laminae suggests that grading is
common but that neither normal nor inverse size grading is in great predominance.
The degree of grain packing in sands characterized by grainfall lamination tends
to be intermediate between the close packing of sands deposited during traction and
the loose packing of sandflow cross-strata. The porosities of six samples from Padre
Island ranged from 38 to 42% and averaged 40%.

S A N D F L O W CROSS-STRATIFIC ATION

Types of sandflows
Eolian sandflows were observed to originate or grow by two mechanisms in the
dunes studied, and limited observations suggest that the two mechanisms are the
dominant ones in desert dunes also. One mechanism is here called slump degeneration,
and the other is called scarp recession.
Slump degeneration is the gradual loss of cohesion between grains in a moving
slump sheet of low to negligible water content. Observations of avalanches in motion
show that sandflows originating in this way are common in the dunes studied. Ob-
servations of preserved structures suggest that the loss of cohesion and resultant des-
truction of pre-existing stratification proceed from the shear surface upward.
The degeneration of a slump mass of low water content into a sandflow is especially
likely if the lower edge of the shear surface intersects the slipface considerably above
the base of the slipface, so that the nose of the avalanching mass must travel a con-
siderable distance over the slipface before coming to rest. The lower edge of a shear
surface is likely to intersect the slipface considerably above its base if the slope of the
slipface is concave-up in cross-section. Concave-up curvature, in turn, is more likely
on slipfaces of large height than on smaller slipfaces, because grainfall deposition
tends to be restricted to the upper parts of large slipfaces.
Sandflows that grow by scarp recession are very common in the dunes studied. A
sandflow of this kind begins by undetermined mechanism as a very small flow any-
where between the bottom and top of the slipface. Sand falls away from the initial
breakaway scarp, which thus recedes upslope and expands laterally. Although the
scarp recedes rapidly, it recedes by the fall of grains one by one or by the detachment
of very small sand masses rather than by the detachment of large slump sheets. Most
commonly, the scarp continues to recede until it reaches the top of the slipface. If the
slipface is more than 0.5 or 1 m high, secondary sandflows are apt to begin immediately
at the sides of the original flow.
A third mechanism by which sandflows could conceivably originate is the simul-
taneous loss of cohesion and beginning of movement throughout the mass of sand
above a shear surface. This mechanism contrasts with slump degeneration, in which
the loss of cohesion follows the beginning of movement. This mechanism was not
observed in the dunes studied, except perhaps in the initially very small sandflows that
subsequently grow by scarp recession.
378 Ralph E. Hunter

The factors controlling the type of failure on dune slipfaces are poorly known. I n
the coastal dunes studied, slumping is common even in sand dry enough to be trans-
ported by saltation. However, even apparently dry sand grains in this coastal en-
vironment may have enough deliquescent salt on their surfaces to affect intergranular
cohesion. Slumps tend to be less common than sandflows of the scarp-recessional type
on slipfaces of small height in the areas studied, but the slumps that do occur are not
likely to degenerate into sandflows. SIumps are common on slipfaces of large height,
but these slumps, in contrast to those on smaller slipfaces, are likely to degenerate into
sandflows.

Sandflow cross-strata
Structures formed by sandflows have been described by McKee rt al. (1971) and
Bigarella (1972), but they were concerned largely with deformed and fuzzy remnant
stratification in the deposits of sandflows that originate by slump degeneration. The
following discussion is concerned largely with the cross-strata produced by mature
sandflows, in which preexisting stratification has been completely destroyed. In sand-
flows that grow by scarp recession, preexisting stratification is destroyed at the very
initiation of grain movement.
The structure produced by a sandflow of the scarp-recessional type consists of a
depositional cone or tongue abutting the base of the slipface and an erosional trough
that generally extends to the top of the slipface (Fig. 7). Sandflow deposits on slipfaces
of small height are relatively narrow and simple cones, whereas those on slipfaces of
larger height are generally wider and of composite form because of secondary flows
generated in rapid succession at the sides of the original flow. A sandflow that begins
on the upper part of a slipface, whether by the loss of cohesion in a slump or by the
gradual recession of a scarp, is likely t o form a tongue, by which is meant a sand body
whose width is relatively constant, rather than a cone. A sandflow deposit of whatever
shape forms a single cross-stratum in the deposit of a migrating dune.

r- I

Fig. 7. Schematic block diagram showing structure of simple cone-shaped sandflow cross-strata in a
small dune (about 1 ni high). Sandflow cross-strata heavily stippled. Grainfall laminae unpatterned
(foreset cross-strata) o r lightly stippled (bottomset strata). Subcritically climbing translatent strata
(topset strata) thinly lined.
 Eolian strat$cation 379

Dips of sandflow cross-strata in the dunes studied ranged from 28 to 34" and
averaged 31-32". The upper contact of a sandflow cross-stratum, as seen in vertical
sections parallel to the dip direction, is straight or nearly so and is sharp. The basal
contact is sharp but nonerosional near the toe of the cross-stratum and, where bottom-
set deposits are present, has the concave-up curvature of the preflow depositional
surface (Fig. 6c). At higher levels, the basal contact of the cross-stratum is erosional
and straight; typically it dips at a slightly lower angle than the underlying cross-
strata into which it is cut (McKee et af., 1971) and at a slightly greater angle than the
upper contact. Because of the difference in dip of the upper and lower contacts, the
cross-stratum gradually thins upwards to a feather edge.
The form of sandflow cross-strata in horizontal exposures is similar in general
aspect to the form in vertical exposures parallel to the strike of the cross-stratification.
Sandflow crossstrata that formed on slipfaces of small height are relatively simple,
narrow cones that appear as lenses in horizontal exposures. By cutting horizontal
surfaces at successively lower levels in a dune deposit, it was found that the form of
these lenses varies with level above the toe of the slipface (Fig. 7). Many of the features
visible on horizontal exposures were first noted by Gripp (1961) and Sharp (1966,
pp. 1064-1 065).
In horizontal exposures near the toe of the slipface, simple sandflow cones appear
as lenses with convex-up upper contacts and nonerosional lower contacts (Figs6d and
8a). The lower contact is either straight, if the underlying strata are straight, or con-
formably fitted over the curved upper surfaces of underlying lenses in the manner of
volcanic pillows. The lenses tend to be spaced fairly regularly, being centred over the
gaps between laterally adjacent underlying lenses and thereby producing a rhomboidal
pattern.
At middle levels, simple sandflow cross-strata appear as biconvex lenses, the basal
contacts being eroded into underlying cross-strata, generally of grainfall type. At
higher levels, the upper contacts of the lenses are straight or concave-up, and the sand-
flow deposits fill only partially the concave-up erosional troughs down which the sand
flowed (Fig. 8b). At the highest levels in the dune, the erosional troughs are filled by
grainfall strata deposited after the flow stopped.
The foregoing descriptions apply to sandflows of relatively simple cone- or tongue-
like form. Such sandflows are perhaps restricted to slipfaces less than about 2 m high.
The composite sandflows of larger slipfaces form cross-strata that are more tabular as
sLen in horizontal exposures. These composite sandflow cross-strata commonly have
lobate upper contacts as seen in low-level horizontal exposures (Fig. 8c) and scalloped,
erosional basal contacts as seen in high-level horizontal exposures (Fig. 8d). Sand-
flows that originate on the upper part of a slipface and then flow a considerable dis-
tance before coming t o rest seem to have the most tabular form.
Sandflow cross-strata that appear as narrow lenses in horizontal exposures are with
few exceptions separated from each other by intervening sets of grainfall laminae.
These grainfall laminae follow the curvature of the upper surfaces of the underlying
sandflow lenses (Figs 6d and 8a). Relatively tabular, composite sandflow cross-strata
also are commonly separated by sets of grainfall laminae (Fig. 8c).
In exposures of partially eroded dunes whose original heights were probably
greater than 2 or 3 m, as judged from the large horizontal extent of the sets and large
plan-view radius of curvature of the cross-stratification, the sandflow cross-strata are
commonly in contact with one another, in which case the individual cross-strata
380 Ralph E. Hiinter

Fig. 8. (a) Sandflow cross-strata of relatively simple cone-like form exposed at low level in dune
deposit. Tenmile Creek area, Oregon. Horizontal exposure I0 cm above base of slipface; cross-strata
dip toward top of photograph at angle of 30". The sandflow cross-strata (light in tone) are separated
from one another by sets of grainfall laminae (dark). (b) Sandflow cross-strata of relatively simple
cone-like form exposed at high level in dune deposit. Hunters Cove, Oregon. Horizontal exposure 1 m
above the base of a slipface that was about 1.5 m high; cross-strata dip toward top of photograph at
angles of 30" to 32". The sandflow cross-strata fill troughs cut into foreset cross-strata of grainfall type.
(c) Composite, relatively tabular sandflow cross-strata (upper left) exposed a t low level in dune
deposit. Hunters Cove, Oregon. Horizontal exposure 15 cm above toes of sandflow cross-strata;
cross-strata dip about 30" toward right. Note the gradation from composite to simple sandflow cross-
strata and to grainfall strata in going from upper left to lower right. (d) Composite, relatively tabular
sandflow cross-strata exposed at high level in dune deposit. Padre Island, Texas. Horizontal exposure
more that 0.7 m above base of slipface; cross-strata dip about 30" to left. The sandflow cross-strata
fill troughs cut into grainfall strata. Most of these sandflow cross-strata may have originated by the
loss of cohesion in slumping masses, as suggested by their fuzzy, deformed internal lamination.

commonly are indistinguishable. The rarity of grainfall laminae in such deposits is

probably due to the tendency for grainfall laminae to be deposited only on the
upper parts of slipfaces of large height and to be destroyed by later avalanching.
Sandflow cross-strata are thicker than other types of eolian strata. They range in
thickness from about 2-5 cm at their thickest part in the dunes studied. Sandflow
cross-strata of low dunes may tend to be thinner than those of high dunes, but more
measurements on dunes of known original height are needed before this possibility
can be confirmed. Sandflows that come to a stop before reaching the base of the dune
are apt to form thinner cross-strata than those that pile up at the base.
Sandflow cross-strata are internally structureless or subtly graded except near the
contacts of the individual cross-strata, where more marked grain segregations com-
monly occur. The nature of the segregation varies according to the vertical level
within the dune. At upper levels, where the basal contact is erosional, a thin con-
centration of fine-grained heavy minerals commonly marks the basal contact (Fig. Sb),
 Eolian strat$c.ation 38 1

and the entire cross-stratum tends to have inverse size grading (Bagnold, 1941, pp.
239-241). This grading is a result of shear sorting, which is common in all inertial
grainflows (Bagnold, 1954; Inman et al., 1966, pp. 800-801). The coarsest grains,
which tend to rise to the surface of the flow and to outrace the finer grains, are con-
centrated near the base of the slipface (Bagnold, 1941, pp. 239-241). At these lower
levels, concentrations of coarser grains can be found at both the upper and lower
contacts of sandflow cross-strata and at their lateral edges.
Indistinct lamination occurs within some sandflow cross-strata. Some indistinct
lamination is probably the remnant of preexisting stratification in sandflows that
formed by the loss of cohesion in slumping masses; laminae of this kind were called
‘Fadeout laminae’ by McKee et ul. (1971). In the dunes studied, fadeout laminae are
most common in sandflow cross-strata at high levels in the dunes, and the lamination
fades out toward the basal erosional contact (Fig. 8d). Indistinct laminae occur near
the toes of some sandflow cross-strata; some of these laminae probably originate as
successive surges of a composite sandflow, whereas others probably form by shearing
within a sandflow as it comes to a stop at the base of a slipface (Fig. 6c).
The contacts of separate sandflows commonly are faint where intervening parallel
laminae are absent, and some contacts may not be visible. Where the contacts are
visible, they are commonly deformed.
The grain packing of sandflow deposits is looser than that of other types of eolian
deposits. This loose packing evidently arises from the very rapid deposition of the
grains as a sandflow comes to a stop (Allen, 1972). As a result of the loose packing,
sandflow deposits are highly porous, highly permeable, and are weak under pressure
(Bagnold, 1941, pp. 240-241). The porosities of six samples from Padre Island ranged
from 44-46% and averaged 4 5 x . Relatively large permeabilities are shown by the
tendency for the sand to be dry in exposures above the water table.

D I S T I N G U I S H I N G T H E T Y P E S O F STRATIFICATION

Using the criteria summarized in Table I , perhaps 80% of the stratification in the
eolian deposits studied can be easily classified. Most of the remaining stratification
dips at low to intermediate angles and must be one of three possible types: grainfall
lamination, planebed lamination, or subcritically climbing translatent stratification.
The types of stratification most difficult to distinguish are grainfall and planebed
lamination. Although the dip of grainfall lamination is generally steeper than that of
planebed lamination, this criterion is not definitive because grainfall lamination can
form on horizontal surfaces. However, horizontal or gently dipping grainfall lamina-
tion is formed in relatively restricted zones of flow separation, whereas planebed
lamination can form in much wider areas. Another distinction applicable to convex-
up lee slopes, where the shear stress exerted on the bed decreases downwind, is that
planebed lamination should form upwind of, or above, climbing-ripple structures,
whereas grainfall lamination should form downwind of, or below, climbing-ripple
structures.
Another criterion that may enable grainfall and planebed lamination to be
distinguished is the relation of the lamination to preexisting irregularities on the
depositional surface. At the high wind speeds responsible for the formation of
planebed lamination, any preexisting surface irregularities should act as obstacles
382 Ralph E. Hunter

to the air flow and cause localized scour and deposition. When grainfall laminae are
deposited on an irregular surface, in contrast, a blanket of nearly uniform thickness is
draped over the irregularities, and the relief of the depositional surface tends to be
propagated upwards, only gradually becoming subdued as deposition proceeds.
The available criteria did not permit the unequivocal classification of all gently
dipping, thin, even, indistinct stratification in the eolian deposits studied. However,
planebed lamination is certainly much less common than grainfall lamination.
Some gently dipping, thin, even stratification in medium-grained sand in the dune
fields along the Oregon coast is suspected to be subcritically climbing translatent
stratification but lacks well-defined grain segregation and grading. The poor develop-
ment of grading may be related to the increasing ratio of ripple height to spacing as
grain size increases (Sharp, 1963). At a given low angle of ripple climb, ripples in fine-
grained sand would be more completely preserved than the steeper ripples in medium-
grained sand. Such a small fraction of a steep ripple would be preserved at a low angle
of ripple climb that grading within a translatent stratum might not be visisble. Where
the angle of ripple climb is very low, temporal variations in the sizes and types of
grains supplied to the depositional site may produce stratification that is more pro-
minent than the translatent stratification.

D I S T R I B U T I O N OF T Y P E S O F STRATIFICATION

The distribution of the different basic types of eolian strata in a transverse or

barchanoid dune tends to follow a regular pattern (Fig. 9), as would be expected from
the regularities in the pattern of bed configurations o n the dune surface (Fig. I).
Regularities can be found in both horizontal and vertical exposures. Regularities may
be found in the deposits of other dunes as well, but that possibility remains to be
demonstrated.
On horizontal wind-scoured surfaces cutting across typical sinuous transverse
dunes in the areas studied, the great bulk of the exposed stratification dips leeward
(Fig. 9). Climbing-ripple structures occur most commonly in areas where the plan-
view curvature of the cross-stratification is convex downwind. Sandflow cross-strata
and slump structures tend to occur where the curvature is concave downwind. Grain-
fall lamination occurs most commonly in intermediate positions.
In vertical exposures of dune deposits, the leeward-dipping strata can commonly be
differentiated into bottomset, foreset, and topset deposits by variations in dip angle.
Dune-foreset cross-strata include those that formed on active slipfaces and those that
formed on somewhat less steep slopes. The former meet the bottomset and topset
strata with an abrupt change in dip angle (Fig. 6c), whereas the latter can curve
sigmoidally into bottomset and topset strata. Slipface deposits include sandflow cross-
strata, slump masses, and grainfall laminae. Sandflow cross-strata rarely if ever extend
to the top of a slipface, and the upper parts of slipface deposits consist of grainfall
laminae that are autochthonous or that have slumped short distances only. Foreset
cross-strata that formed on more gentle slopes include grainfall laminae and the
several kinds of strata produced by climbing ripples. Grainfall laminae and climbing-
ripple structures can both occur in bottomset deposits. Only subcritically climbing
translatent strata are common in topset deposits.
 Eolian stratification 383

Fig. 9. Map and cross-section of dune-foreset cross-strata exposed on a planed-off sinuous transverse
or barchanoid dune, showing distribution of types of internal structure. Somewhat simplified from an
exposure on Padre Island, Texas.

Sandflow cross-strata tend to predominate over the other types of eolian strata in
deposits whose origin within relatively large dunes is indicated by the great horizontal
dimensions of the sets and by the large plan-view radius of curvature of the cross-
stratification. With a decrease in dune size, grainfall lamination and climbing-ripple
structures become more common, and subcritically climbing translatent stratification
is the dominant structure in many dunes less than 0.5 or I m high.
Regularities in the distribution of stratal types can be found on a scale smaller than
the whole dune. Of common occurrence in the dunes studied are regularities within
sets of leeward-dipping cross-strata. These sets are separated from one another by
erosional surfaces that dip leeward more gently than do the truncated cross-strata in
the underlying set. Sets with bounding surfaces of this type are common in dunes of
various types (McKee, 1966; Bigarella et al., 1969). The origin of most of these
erosional surfaces by shifts in wind direction is indicated by the fact that, in horizontal
exposures, they generally die out laterally rather than extend completely across the
dune (Fig. 9). Above the erosional surfaces, or downdip in horizontal exposures, the
dip of the cross-stratification generally increases. The type of structure undergoes a
corresponding upward or downdip change from subcritically climbing translatent
stratification immediately above the erosional surface, through supercritically-
climbing-ripple structure and grainfall lamination, to avalanche structures (Fig. 10).
The distinct cyclicity of the sets in Fig. 10 is probably a product of the daily sea-
breeze regime found on the south Texas coast.
384 Ralph E. Hunter

Fig. 10. Cyclic sets of cross-strata in dune deposit. Padre Island, Texas. Horizontal exposure truncat-
ing cross-stratification that dips to the left. The contacts of the sets (marked by arrows) are erosional
surfaces that dip at low angles and truncate the steeper-dipping underlying cross-strata. As the dip
angles of the strata increase above (to the left of) each contact, the structure changes from (1) sub-
critically climbing translatent stratification to (2) supercritically-climbing-ripple structure, (3) grainfall
lamination, and (4)avalanche structures, mainly slumps that reached various stages of degeneration
into sandflows. I n the uppermost part of each set the dip angles tend to decrease and the structure
changes back into grainfall lamination.

CONCLUSION

The basic types of stratification in modern eolian dune sands and the characteristics
by which they can be recognized are summarized in Table I . The present study,
having been conducted in three limited coastal areas where the dunes are of relatively
small size and mostly of transverse to barchanoid form, probably did not sample the
full range of variability of the basic stratal types occurring in eolian sands. Studies of
other eolian deposits will undoubtedly add to knowledge of the variability of the basic
stratal types described in this paper, but it seems doubtful that other basic types of
stratification formed in dry, unvegetated, windblown sand will be documented.
Although a detailed comparison of the basic types of stratification in eolian and
subaqueous sands is beyond the scope of this paper, a few similarities and differences
will be noted in closing. All the basic types of stratification found in dry windblown
sand can also be found in water-laid sands. As far as is known, eolian and subaqueous
planebed lamination cannot be distinguished by their structural characteristics, nor
can eolian and subaqueous grainfall lamination. Eolian and subaqueous sandflow
cross-strata of small slipfaces show some fairly consistent differences (Hunter, 1976),
but the differences between eolian and subaqueous climbing-ripple structures are even
 Eolian stratiFcation 385

more distinct. The subcritically climbing translatent strata produced by subaqueous

current ripples generally have distinct ripple-foreset crosslamination and are normally
graded ; both of these features are evidently produced by miniature sandflows down
the lee slopes of the ripples. Other differences between eolian and subaqueous climb-
ing-ripple structures are related to differences in the height-to-spacing ratios and plan
forms of the ripples.
Some basic types of stratification that occur in water-laid sands do not occur in
eolian sands. Among these are strata associated with bedforms produced by super-
critical flow, strata deposited from dense suspensions of grains, strata associated with
wave ripples, and strata deposited by single waves. Among the latter, the laminae
produced by wave backwash on beaches (Clifton, 1969) resemble the subcritically
climbing translatent strata produced by wind ripples, but the beach laminae composing
a set are rarely so uniform as the translatent strata composing a set.

ACKNOW LEDGMENTS

I wish to thank the geologists with whom I have worked in the field, especially
Henry L. Berryhill, Jr, and Gary W. Hill of the Corpus Christi Office of the U.S.
Geological Survey. The manuscript was critically reviewed by Thomas S. Ahlbrandt,
H. Edward Clifton, and Edwin D. McKee, whom I wish to thank for their helpful
comments. They should not, of course, be held responsible for any remaining short-
comings in the paper.

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(Munuscript receivea 5 Murclz 1976; revision received 10 September 1976)