UNIVERSITY OF EL SALVADOR

ORIENTALE MULTIDISCIPLINARY FACULTY

CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY SECTION

SUBJECT:

PUNCTUATION MARKS

TEACHER:

DENYS OMAR LÒPEZ SANTOS.

STUDENT:

ANDREA PAOLA PAREDES CAMPOS.

DATE:

MAY 05, 2022

PUNCTUATION MARKS

WHAT IS A COMMA?
Commas are one of the most frequently used punctuation marks in the English language -
they’re also one of the most misused. Commas signify a pause between different parts of a
sentence, making the meaning clearer and the writing easier to read. Despite being relatively
easy to understand, it can be confusing deciding when to use them, with many people placing
them throughout their text without knowing the proper rules.

Commas can be used:

To separate the elements in a list of three or more items

Commas are needed in-between different items in a list.

E.g. We baked a vegetable pie using onions, carrots, broccoli, and potatoes.

There is some debate about whether the last comma (before and) is necessary. Often
referred to as the ‘Oxford comma’, to be on the safe side it is advisable to use it; omission
can sometimes lead to misunderstandings.

E.g. She thanked her parents, Sally Smith and God.

The above sentence is much less confusing when the Oxford comma is used:

E.g. She thanked her parents, Sally Smith, and God.

Before some conjunctions

A conjunction is a linking word. A comma is needed in a sentence before the

conjunctions and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so to separate the two independent clauses.

E.g. She loved reading, so she spent every Sunday afternoon at the library.

You should always avoid putting a comma after the conjunction.

When you are quoting direct speech

If the information about who is speaking comes before the piece of direct speech, you
should use a comma before the first quotation mark.

E.g. Rachel replied, ‘See you tomorrow.’

If the information about who is speaking comes after the direct speech, you should use a
comma at the end of the dialogue. The comma should go inside the quotation mark.
E.g. ‘The weather is terrible,’ she said.

To separate clauses

Some longer sentences are made up of more than one clause, a comma is used to separate
these clauses. These type of sentences are referred to as complex, and contain a main clause
and one or more subordinate clauses.

A main clause contains a subject and a verb, and expresses a complete thought that makes
sense on its own.

E.g. After finishing work, I went shopping for some new clothes.

[Subordinate clause] [Main clause]

To separate interchangeable adjectives

E.g. She was a capable, intelligent woman.

In this instance you can swap the adjectives around and say intelligent, capable woman.

E.g. We went to an expensive winter market.

We would not say winter expensive market, so no comma.

To separate the introduction of a sentence

You can use a comma to separate the introductory part of a sentence from the main part.

E.g. The rain was atrocious, so our picnic had to be cancelled.

PERIODS.
Periods are punctuation marks used to separate sentences or elements of reference lists. Use
a period in the following instances.

1. To end a complete sentence. Note that you should use only one space between
sentences after a period or other ending punctuation.

Example: Johnson (1998) claimed that he had cured cancer.

2. To end a sentence that includes a citation or a quotation. Note the placement of

the period in the following instances.

Example: It was clear that Hong Kong had been culturally colonized by the
West (Gouper & Finn, 1987).
 Example: Boomer and Watts (2003) insisted that "there was little that could
save NATO in its current state" (p. 54).

3. To end a block quotation (before the citation). Note the placement of the period
in the following example (different than the second example above).

Example: Vonnegut (1965) believed that

All time is all time. It does not change. It does not lend itself to
warnings or explanations. It simply is. Take it moment by
moment, and you will find that we are all, as I've said before,
bugs in amber. (p. 65)

4. Between elements of reference list entries.

Example: Smith, J. (2009). Best book ever. HarperCollins.

QUESTION MARKS.

The main function of a question mark is to indicate a question or query.

1. Use a question mark at the end of all direct questions:

• What is your name?

• How much money did you transfer?
• Did you send euro or dollars?

2. Use a question mark after a tag question:

• You're French, aren't you?

• Snow isn't green, is it?
• He should go and see a doctor, shouldn't he?

3. Don't forget to use a question mark at the end of a sentence that really is a direct
question:

• How else would I get there, after all?

• What if I said to you, "I don't love you any more"?
• "Who knows when I'll die?", he asked rhetorically.

4. In very informal writing (personal letter or email), people sometimes use a question
mark to turn a statement into a question:

• See you at 9pm?

In the same situation, they may use two or three question marks together to show that they
are not sure about something:

• I think you said it would cost $10???

. Do not use a question mark after an indirect or reported question:

• The teacher asked them what their names were. (What are your names?)
• John asked Mary if she loved him. (Do you love me?)
• I'm wondering if she's coming. (Is she coming?)

6. Many polite requests or instructions are made in the form of a question. But because they
are not really questions, they do not take a question mark:

• Could you please send me your catalogue.

• Would all first-class and business-class passengers now start boarding.

7. Be careful with titles and abbreviations when question marks are involved:

• "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?" was a play before it was a film.

• Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf? was a play before it was a film.
• Have you seen the film "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?"?
• Have you seen the film Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf??
• Have you ever been to L.A.?

Note that there should be no space immediately before a question mark.

EXCLAMATION POINTS.

An exclamation mark usually shows strong feeling, such as surprise, anger or joy. Using an
exclamation mark when writing is rather like shouting or raising your voice when speaking.
Exclamation marks are most commonly used in writing quoted speech. You should avoid
using exclamation marks in formal writing, unless absolutely necessary.

1. Use an exclamation mark to indicate strong feelings or a raised voice in speech:

• She shouted at him, "Go away! I hate you!"

• He exclaimed: "What a fantastic house you have!"
• "Good heavens!" he said, "Is that true?"
• "Help!"
• "Shut up!"
• "Stop!"
2. Many interjections need an exclamation mark:

• "Hi! What's new?"

• "Oh! When are you going?"
• "Ouch! That hurt."

3. A non-question sentence beginning with "what" or "how" is often an exclamation and

requires an exclamation mark:

• What idiots we are! (We are such idiots.)

• How pretty she looked in that dress! (She looked very pretty in that dress.)

4. In very informal writing (personal letter or email), people sometimes use two or more
exclamation marks together:

• I met John yesterday. He is so handsome!!!

• Remember, don't be late!!
• I'll never understand this language!!!!

Remember, try to avoid exclamation marks in formal writing such as an essay or business
letter.

SEMICOLONS

Semicolons help you connect closely related ideas when a style mark stronger than a comma
is needed. By using semicolons effectively, you can make your writing sound more
sophisticated.

Rules for Using Semicolons

• A semicolon is most commonly used to link (in a single sentence) two independent
clauses that are closely related in thought. When a semicolon is used to join two or
more ideas (parts) in a sentence, those ideas are then given equal position or rank.

Some people write with a word processor; others write with a pen or pencil.

• Use a semicolon between two independent clauses that are connected by

conjunctive adverbs or transitional phrases.

However they choose to write, people are allowed to make their own
decisions; as a result, many people swear by their writing methods.
 • Use a semicolon between items in a list or series if any of the items contain
commas.

There are basically two ways to write: with a pen or pencil, which is
inexpensive and easily accessible; or by computer and printer, which is
more expensive but quick and neat.

• Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction

if the clauses are already punctuated with commas or if the clauses are lengthy.

Some people write with a word processor, tablet, or even a phone; but
others, for different reasons, choose to write with a pen or pencil.

Avoid using a comma when a semicolon is needed:

• Incorrect: The cow is brown, it is also old.

Correct: The cow is brown; it is also old.

What’s going on here? Both parts of the sentence are independent clauses, and commas
should not be used to connect independent clauses if there is no coordinating conjunction.
This mistake is known as a comma splice.

• Incorrect: I like cows, however, I hate the way they smell.

Correct: I like cows; however, I hate the way they smell.

What’s going on here? The conjunctive adverb however signals a connection between
two independent clauses, and commas should not be used to connect independent clauses if
there is no coordinating conjunction.

• Incorrect: I like cows: they give us milk, which tastes good, they give us beef, which
also tastes good, and they give us leather, which is used for shoes and coats.
Correct: I like cows: they give us milk, which tastes good; they give us beef, which
also tastes good; and they give us leather, which is used for shoes and coats.

What’s going on here? It’s unclear what the three list items are, since the items are
separated by commas.

• Incorrect: Cows, though their bovine majesty has been on the wane in recent
millennia, are still one of the great species of this planet, domesticated, yet proud,
they ruminate silently as we humans pass tumultuously by.
Correct: Cows, though their bovine majesty has been on the wane in recent
millennia, are still one of the great species of this planet; domesticated, yet proud,
they ruminate silently as we humans pass tumultuously by.
What’s going on here? It’s unclear where the first independent clause ends and the second
independent clause begins.

Avoid using a semicolon when a comma is needed:

• Incorrect: Because cows smell; they offend me.

Correct: Because cows smell, they offend me.

What’s going on here? The first part is not an independent clause, so no semicolon is
required.

DASHES

A dash is a horizontal line that shows a pause or break in meaning, or that represents
missing words or letters. Note that dashes are rather informal and should be used carefully
in writing. Dashes are often used informally instead of commas, colons and brackets. A
dash may or may not have a space on either side of it.

Do not confuse a dash (—) with a hyphen (-), which is shorter.

1. Use a dash to show a pause or break in meaning in the middle of a sentence:

• My brothers—Richard and John—are visiting Hanoi. (Could use commas.)

• In the 15th century—when of course nobody had electricity—water was often
pumped by hand. (Could use brackets.)

2. Use a dash to show an afterthought:

• The 1st World War was supposed to be the world's last war—the war to end war.
• I attached the photo to my email—at least I hope I did!

3. Use a dash like a colon to introduce a list:

• There are three places I'll never forget—Paris, Bangkok and Hanoi.
• Don't forget to buy some food—eggs, bread, tuna and cheese.

4. Use a dash to show that letters or words are missing:

• They are really f––––d up. (Typically used for offensive words.)
• I will look ––––– the children. (Typically used in "missing word" questions.)

In fact, there are two kinds of dash:

• the en-dash (–), which is the width of the letter "n"

 • and the em-dash (—), which is the width of the letter "m"

However, the difference between them is rather technical and mainly of value to
typographers. The dash is a convenient and easy mark to use in hand-writing. But it is often
difficult to find on a keyboard and for this reason some people use the easier-to-find but
shorter hyphen (-) when word-processing.

HYPHEN
Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one
word, or connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same
listings for the following compounds:

✓ hair stylist
hairsplitter
hair-raiser

Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is
obviously in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of
the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon.

1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:

a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author

1. However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:

The peanuts were chocolate covered.

The author was well known.

2. Use a hyphen with compound numbers:

forty-six
sixty-three
Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:

re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)

semi-independent (but semiconscious)
shell-like (but childlike)

4. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -
elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
 ex-husband
self-assured
mid-September
all-inclusive
mayor-elect
anti-American
T-shirt
pre-Civil War
mid-1980s

5. Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break
only between syllables:

pref-er-ence
sell-ing
in-di-vid-u-al-ist

6. For line breaks, divide already-hyphenated words only at the hyphen:

mass-
produced
self-
conscious

7. For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word
is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise,
hyphenate at the suffix itself:

plan-ning
run-ning
driv-ing
call-ing

8. Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't
put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:

lovely (Do not separate in a way which leaves ly beginning a new line.)
eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end
of a line.)

BRACKETS
Brackets are used to insert explanations, corrections, clarifications, or comments into quoted
material. Brackets are always used in pairs; you must have both an opening and a closing
bracket. Do not confuse brackets [ ] with parentheses ( ). Parentheses are used to enclose
additional information in your own writing; brackets are editorial marks used to insert
comments into someone else's words that you are quoting, or to insert material into a passage
already in parentheses.

RULES FOR USING BRACKETS

1. Use brackets to indicate you have inserted your own words into a quotation

o Jim said, "She [Julie] finished the report last week."

o "No more [government] equipment will be purchased for use in the facility,"
said Mark.
2. Use [sic] to show an error in a quotation
Place the word “sic” (meaning "it is so" or "this is the way it was written") in brackets
in a quotation to show that an error appeared in the original wording. If you want to
correct the error, add the correction in brackets.

o The note said, "telphone [sic] the hotel as soon as you arrive."
o The candidate stated, "I grew up in Sacremento [Sacramento] in the 1960s."
3. Use brackets to insert information within parentheses.

o While cleaning my closet, I found clothes I no longer wear (including pants,

dresses [formal], and skirts).
4. Use brackets to insert stage direction into a play.

o [Macbeth enters]
o [Romeo weeps over Juliet’s body]

BRACES

The punctuation mark braces is represented by two pointed and curved parenthesis one
after the other and appears as { }.

Braces:

Braces are used in English language punctuation to mark pauses and represent choices.

Braces are extensively used in mathematics to denote numerical sets of numbers.

Example:

Odd numbers {1, 3, 5, 7, 9…}

{1, 4, 7, 8, 15}

Note that any set of numbers that have a specific property or have any characteristic in common
is enclosed inside braces.

Another usage of braces in English language is to indicate choices or preferences.

Example:

Choose your material {cloth, thread, needle, scissors} and move to step B.

Select one item {tea, soda, coffee, wine} and wait for your turn.

Note that the above examples show equal options or choices which are enclosed inside braces.
Braces represent that each of these item is equal to the other regardless of the person’s choice.

PARENTHESES
A parenthesis is a word, phrase, or sentence that is inserted into writing as extra
information using brackets, commas or dashes. If the parenthesis is taken away, the passage
would still be complete without it - it's an afterthought or bonus. The plural is parenthesis.

Parenthesis is great for adding extra information to your writing that might not be essential,
but you think is valuable anyway.

parenthesis are used when the writer wants to include incidental or extra information. These
may be:

• Passing comment

• A minor example or addition

• A brief explanation

1. Passing comments:

For example, Jamie (who was 9) loved fishing.

Here, it's not essential to know Jamie's age in order for the sentence to make sense,
however, it does add extra information. The sentence should be grammatically correct
without the parenthesis.
2. A minor addition or explanation:

parenthesis can also be useful to clarify abbreviations early on in a text, for example, The
COO (Chief Operations Officer) of the business released a statement on Tuesday.

3. A brief explanation:

When used well, parenthesis can enhance fiction and non-fiction writing by communicating
extra information, so you will be able to find examples in every kind of text. You'll often
see in first-person narratives as it reflects the way we think. However, be careful with its
use in formal writing and consider if the information is necessary or not.

A parenthesis can be a single word such as however, furthermoreetc. Qualifiers, adverbs

and the like need parenthesis punctuation when they fall in the middle of a sentence.

APOSTROPHES

An apostrophe is a punctuation mark used to create a contraction or to show possession.

1. Use an apostrophe when two words are shortened into one

When two words are shortened into one, the apostrophe replaces the missing letter(s). This
combined word is called a contraction.

Examples:

• It is or it has = it's
• who is or who has = who's
• they are = they're
• will not = won't [note change in spelling]
• is not = isn't

However, note that contractions are usually not used in academic writing. Instead, write the
full form.

2. Use an apostrophe when showing possession

When showing possession, add apostrophe “s” (’s) to the “owner” word. If the plural of the
word is formed by adding an "s" (for example, cats), place the apostrophe after the "s" (see
guideline #3 below). If the plural of the word is formed without adding an "s" (for example,
children), add apostrophe "s" ('s) as you would to the singular form.

Examples:

• one table's leg or several tables' legs

• one student's name or several students' names
 • one day's work or several days' work
• one woman's job or several women's jobs (note the plural form women does not use
an “s”)

The exception to the possessive rule is that pronouns show possession without the use of
apostrophes (e.g., my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs, its, whose,
etc.).

Compare the use of apostrophes here:

• That is my book. That book is mine. (No apostrophe is used for the possessive
pronoun “mine”)
• That is Bob's book. That book is Bob's. (Apostrophe is used for the possessive noun
“Bob's

Compare contractions versus possessive pronouns here:

• They're hoping to increase their budget.

• You're having trouble with your car.

3. Do not create a double or triple “s” when adding an apostrophe

If adding an apostrophe “s” would result in a double or triple “s” at the end of the word,
erase the “s” after the apostrophe and leave the apostrophe in place.

Example:

• Sophocles' house, NOT Sophocles's house

• Several bosses' houses, NOT several bosses's houses

Note: Some grammar textbooks recommend keeping the "s's" or "ss's" ending for singular
words or for names ending in "s" or an "s" sound because this spelling allows for easier
pronunciation.

Examples:

• James's party, Marx's teachings, the boss's house, the class's work, and
congress's motion

4. Do not use an apostrophe with pronouns to show possession

The exception to the possessive rule is that pronouns show possession without the use of
apostrophes (e.g., my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs, its, whose,
etc.).

Compare the use of apostrophes here:

 • That is my book. That book is mine. (No apostrophe is used for the possessive
pronoun “mine.”)
• That is Chen's book. That book is Chen's. (Apostrophe is used for the possessive
noun “Chen's.")

Compare contractions using pronouns versus possessive pronouns here:

• They're hoping to increase their budget.

• You're having trouble with your car.

As with other pronouns, the possessive pronoun “its” does not require an apostrophe. It is a
common error for people to write "it's" for possessive when they should write "its."

To test whether to use “it's” or “its” in a sentence, read your sentence replacing “it's” with
“it is.” If “it is” does not fit, the word you need is “its.” Note that there is no such word as
“its'” with an apostrophe following the “s.”

Example:

• Correct: It's almost time to give the cat its medication.

• Or also correct, with contraction written in its full form: It is almost time to give the
cat its medication.

5. Don't use an apostrophe for plural nouns

Don’t use an apostrophe for plural nouns unless they are showing possession.

Examples

• Incorrect: Several students' went to the meeting.

• Incorrect: The Smiths' are on vacation.

6. Don't use an apostrophe for uppercase letters used as words, for abbreviations, and for
numerals used as nouns

Don't use an apostrophe for uppercase letters used as words.

Example:

• He received mostly As on the papers marked by TAs.

Don't use an apostrophe for abbreviations.

Example:

• The CEOs of each provincial office meet annually in Regina.

Don't use an apostrophe for numerals used as nouns and for decades.

Example:

• All I have in my wallet are 10s and 20s.

• Technology advanced greatly in the 1990s.

Note: The exception to this rule is for lowercase letters used in the plural

Example:

• Dot your i's and cross your t's.

ELLIPSIS

An ellipsis (plural: ellipses) is a punctuation mark consisting of three dots.

Use an ellipsis when omitting a word, phrase, line, paragraph, or more from a quoted
passage. Ellipses save space or remove material that is less relevant. They are useful in
getting right to the point without delay or distraction:

Full quotation: "Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."

With ellipsis: "Today … we vetoed the bill."

Although ellipses are used in many ways, the three-dot method is the simplest.
Newspapers, magazines, and books of fiction and nonfiction use various approaches that
they find suitable.

Some writers and editors feel that no spaces are necessary.

Example: I don't know…I'm not sure.

A commonly used method we favor is to enclose the ellipsis with a space on each side.

Example: I don't know … I'm not sure.

A four-dot method may be used to indicate the period at the end of a sentence, then the
ellipsis to indicate omitted material.

Example: I don't know.… I'm not sure.

Even more rigorous methods used by some publishers and in legal works require fuller
explanations that can be found in other reference books.
QUOTATION MARKS.

We use quotation marks to show (or mark) the beginning and end of a word or phrase that
is somehow special or comes from outside the text that we are writing. Quotation marks can
be double ("...") or single ('...') - that is really a matter of style (but see below for more
about this).

Quotation marks are also called "quotes" or "inverted commas".

1. Use quotation marks around the title or name of a book, film, ship etc:

• The third most popular book of all time, "Harry Potter", has sold over 400,000,000
copies.
• 'Titanic' is a 1997 movie directed by James Cameron about the sinking of the ship
'Titanic'.

Note that in the above case, we may use "italics" instead of quotation marks. So the above
examples would then appear as:

• The third most popular book of all time, Harry Potter, has sold over 400,000,000
copies.
• Titanic is a 1997 movie directed by James Cameron about the sinking of the
ship Titanic.

Obviously, the use of italics is not possible in handwriting or with old-style typewriters.

2. We use quotation marks around a piece of text that we are quoting or citing, usually from
another source:

• In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language, David Crystal argues

that punctuation "plays a critical role in the modern writing system".

3. Use quotation marks around dialogue or direct speech:

• It was a moonlit night. James opened the door and stepped onto the balcony,
followed by Mary. They stood in silence for a few moments, looking at the moon.
Then Mary turned to him and said: "Do you love me, James?"

4. Use quotation marks around a word or phrase that we see as slang or jargon:

• The police were called to a "disturbance" - which in reality was a pretty big fight.

5. Use quotation marks around a word or phrase that we want to make "special" in some
way:
• Note that sometimes we use "italics" instead of quotation marks.