Use of Emulsion Polymerization to Prepare Inorganic/Polymer

Nanocomposites for Application in Creating Lotus Effect Surfaces

Drew Regitsky
Superhydrophobic surfaces are of great interest because of their unique self-cleaning properties.
Polymer/silica and polymer/TiO2 nanocomposites, PtBA particles, and PMMA/PnBA core/shell copolymer particles
were prepared by emulsion polymerization. PtBA was shown to have more potential in superhydrophobic coatings
than PnBA, having a contact angle of 140°. Polymer/silica composite particles were prepared that incorporated
most of the reacted colloidial silica, and polymer/TiO2 particles were synthesized that showed promise as a template
for porous silica.
1. Introduction

Superhydrophobic surfaces, or those with a water contact angle above 150°, are currently

attracting great attention in the scientific community. Such surfaces are known as Lotus Effect

surfaces, because superhydrophobicity was first observed on the

leaves of the Lotus plant (see fig. 1). Due to the self-cleaning

effecti of these surfaces (see fig. 2), chemical reactions through

water such as oxidation and properties like snow adhesion are

greatly reduced on superhydrophobic surfaces, thus improving Figure 1

A water drop on a lotus leaf
the reliability of the surfaces. Hydrophobicity of a flat surface

depends entirely upon its surface energy. When the surface

energy is lowered, the hydrophobicity is enhanced. Rough

surfaces have different characteristics, and can increase

hydrophobicity to reach contact angles in the superhydrophobic

Figure 2
range. This paper discusses the use of emulsion polymerization Self cleaning of the surface coating

in the creation of hydrophobic surfaces. Two methods of creating these surfaces are proposed.

In the first, hydrophobic polymer particles are prepared via emulsion polymerization

using monomers with hydrophobic side chains. These are coated onto a surface, creating a

polymer film with rough surface morphology. The surface roughness combined with the low

surface energy of the polymer result in very high water contact angles. Since pure polymer

coatings tend to be soft and easily deformed or removed, composite particles, specifically
polymer/silica particles, can be used. This method was used successfully to produce a 140°

contact angle, and to produce polymer/silica composite particles with almost all silica being

incorporated into the polymer. Emulsion polymerization has been used before to synthesize

specific particle types. Synthesis of structured PnBA/PMMA copolymer particles was reported

by Pfau, Sander, and Kirschii of BASF. BASF also has a spray on coating product that consists of

a PtBA polymer colloid, but this coating is not considered superhydrophobic. Meneghetti and

Qutubuddiniii synthesized PMMA nanocomposites, including polymer/silica composites, using

emulsion polymerization. Polymer/silica composite nanoparticles were also prepared by Zeng,

Yu, and Guoiv, using emulsifier-free emulsion polymerization.

The second application involves using the polymer particles as a template for porous

silica, aiming to create self cleaning superhydrophobic surfaces. First, a polymer dispersion is

prepared with embedded TiO2 nanoparticles. The polymer is mixed with a silica colloid, and the

mixture is deposited as a coating. The coating is then heated, decomposing the polymer and

leaving the remaining silica coating porous. Finally, the silica coating is treated with flourosilane,

attaching hydrophobic chains to the silica molecules on the surface. Each depression in the silica

surface also has a TiO2 particle in it, left from the decomposed polymer particle. The treatment

makes the surface hydrophobic, the depressions left from the polymer give surface roughness

and cause superhydrophobicity, and the remnant TiO2 particles have a photocatalytic effect that

oxidizes any organic materials that get trapped in the depressions. These, once oxidized, are

picked up by water rolling off the surface in the self-cleaning effect shown by all lotus effect

surfaces. TiO2/polymer composite particles were synthesized that could be used in this process to

obtain a self cleaning, durable superhydrophobic coating. No previous research has been reported

about this process.

2. Theory
 2.1. Contact Angle and Hydrophobicity. Hydrophobicity can be measured by the

contact angle of a small water droplet on a level surfacev. The angle is measured from the line

tangent to where the drop touches the surface to the flat plane of the surface. Contact angle can

be determined in simple cases by Young's equation:

cosθ = (γSV - γSL) / γLV

where γSL, γSV, and γLV are the interfacial free energies per unit area of the solid-liquid, solid-gas,

and liquid-gas interfaces, respectively. This equation can only be used for flat surfaces, not rough

ones. The highest contact angle achievable on a flat surface can be calculated from the lowest

surface energy value ever recorded, 6.7 mJ/m2, and amounts to about 120°. Therefore,

superhydrophobicity is unattainable on a flat surface, and must be accomplished by other means.

Contact angle on a rough surface

cannot be determined by Young’s equation,

and thus requires a different model. Wenzel

proposed a model describing the contact

angle θ’ on a rough surface. He modified

Young's equation, obtaining the following:

cosθ’ = r(γSV - γSL) / γLV = rcosθ

In the equation, r is the roughness factor,

defined as the ratio of the actual area of the

rough surface to the geometric projected area.

The equation assumes that water fills all depressions in the rough surface, creating a higher

surface area than is apparent. Since r is always larger than one, surface roughness improves both

the hydrophilicity of hydrophilic surfaces and the hydrophobicity of hydrophobic ones. This

shows that when surface roughness is present on a hydrophobic, low energy surface,

superhydrophobicity can be achieved.

Another model for contact angle on a rough surface was proposed by Cassie. This

equation describes the contact angle θ at a surface composed of solid and air. The equation is as

follows:

cosθ’ = fcosθ + (1 – f )cos180° = fcosθ + f - 1

f is defined as the area fraction of solid surface to total surface (solid + air). This equation

assumes that air is trapped in the depressions on the rough surface, creating a smaller liquid-solid

interface, which has higher energy, and a larger liquid-air interface, which has an assumed

contact angle of 180°. This applies to hydrophobic surfaces, showing another mechanism by

which superhydrophobicity can be obtained with surface roughness.

2.2. Emuslion Polymerization. As shown by the two equations, surface roughness is

crucial in producing a superhydrophobic surface. In order to create the surface roughness,

emulsion polymerization can be used to make small polymer particles in a colloid. These, after

coating a substrate or templating an inorganic coating, create a rough surface.

Emulsion polymerization is a type of free-radical polymerization. It requires four parts: a

non-water soluble monomer, a surfactant, a free-radical initiator, and water. Before

polymerization, the components can either be mixed together in preparation for a batch reaction,

or kept separate and continuously added to the reactor to better control reaction rate. In either
case, the surfactant is first dissolved in water. When enough surfactant is added, the critical

micelle concentration (CMC) is reached, and micelles form. Micelles are spheres of oriented

surfactant molecules. Each molecule consists of a hydrophobic tail attached to a hydrophilic head,

which often has a positive or negative charge. In a micelle, the tails point inward while the heads

are outside, close to the water. In both batch and continuous reactions, when the monomer is

added to the reactor, it first exists in relatively large droplets, due to its insolubility in water.

Some monomer moves into the micelles, where it finds more favorable conditions surrounded by

the hydrophobic tails of the surfactant. The initiator, which is added as a solution in water during

continuous reactions, remains dissolved in the water, and begins the polymerization when the

temperature is raised and the mixture is agitated by stirring. With heating and agitation, the

initiator generates free-radicals, which start the polymerization chain reaction. Due to the much

larger surface area of the micelles compared to the monomer droplets, the initiator reacts with

monomer inside the micelles. The free radical attacks the double bond on a monomer molecule,

bonding to it and causing the combined molecule to have a free radical on the end. This reacts

with another monomer molecule, and the process continues until another initiator free radical

terminates the chain. Typically there is one growing chain per micelle at a time, leading to

polymer particles with nearly identical molecular weights. Heat produced by the reaction is

readily absorbed by the water, eliminating any chance of a runaway reaction. When all monomer

has been consumed, what remains is a colloidal dispersion of solid polymer particles in water.

Surfactant remains in the dispersion, so when coating a glass slide, surfactant must be removed

by washing with water. This residual surfactant coats the polymer surface in the dispersion,

repelling other coated (therefore similarly charged) particles and preventing the agglomeration

that would otherwise result due to van der waals forces between the polymer particles.
 3. Experimental Section

3.1. Chemicals. In the experiments, n-butyl acrylate (nBA), tert-butyl acrylate (tBA), and

methyl methacrylate (MMA) were used as monomers, Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and

Cetyldimethylethylammonium bromide (abbreviated herein as CTAB) were used as surfactants,

and Ammonium persulfate (APS) and Sodium persulfate (SPS) were used as initiators. In some

reactions small amounts of Triton X-100 (TX-100) surfactant were also used. TX-100 is a

nonionic surfactant, having no charge on its hydrophilic head, and acts as a steric stabilizer for

the polymer particles. Due to its lack of charge, the TX-100 can coat the polymer particles even

after they are dried, allowing for easy restabilization as a dispersion in water.

3.2. Materials, Equipment, and Suppliers. MMA, tBA, SDS, CTAB, SPS, APS, AIBN

were supplied by Aldrich Chemical Inc. and used as is. TX-100 is a product by Union Carbide,

and the colloidal silica used was Ludox HS-40, a Grace Davidson product. The TiO2

nanoparticle powder was PC 105, supplied by Millennium Chemicals. HCl was supplied by JT

Baker and diluted to 1 M concentration with deionized water before use. NH4OH was obtained

from Fisher Scientific, and also diluted to 1 M concentration with deionized water before use.

Chemicals were massed on a Mettler AE 260 DeltaRange electronic balance. Reactions were

heated and stirred on a Corning Stirrer/Hotplate, and glass slides were spincoated with polymer

dispersion on a Directview 1000 spincoater by Specialty Coating Systems, Inc. Two sonicators

were used for sonic stirring: a VWR Scientific Products Aquasonic model 75HT, and a Misonix

Sonicator 3000. Continuous reations were performed using a Thermo Separation Products

ConstaMetric 4100 pump to control rates of addition of chemicals. Contact angles were

measured with a Ramé-hart Instruments Inc. goniometer outputting to a computer with

Dropimage software. TGA analysis was performed using a TGA 2050 Thermogravimetric

Analyzer by TA Instruments.

3.3. Particle Systhesis. Composite PnBA/PMMA/Silica copolymer particles were

created by seeded continuous emulsion polymerization. Silica nanoparticle dispersion started in

the reactor, and MMA pre-emulsion was continuously added, followed by nBA pre-emulsion.

PMMA/PnBA copolymer particles were prepared by emulsion polymerization involving periodic

addition of nBA pre-emulsion after an initial emulsion polymerization of MMA at 80°C for 2 h.

PtBA particles were prepared by batch emulsion polymerization, performed at 80°C with

constant stirring for 1 h 45 min.

Titanium Dioxide/PMMA polymer composite dispersions were prepared from powdered

TiO2 nanoparticles, which were first dispersed in water, then used as seeds for emulsion

polymerization of MMA using SDS or CTAB and various initiators. TiO2 nanoparticles were

dispersed at various pH values, and the best dispersion was determined by observation and

remaining TiO2 wt. % after 24 h.

The general procedure for creating TiO2/PMMA composite particles involved a batch

emulsion polymerization with periodic addition of 20% wt. TiO2 dispersion. The dispersion was

prepared by mixing TiO2 nanoparticle powder with water adjusted to the desired pH, then

placing this in a sonic stirrer for 1 h. The polymerization was carried out in a 200 mL flask with

magnetic stirring at 750 rpm, heated in a water bath. 15g of MMA was added to 50g of water

with initiator, surfactant, and .05g TX-100 dissolved in it. Different combinations of SDS and

CTAB surfactants and SPS/APS and AIBN initiators were used, each involving different

amounts, depending on the chemicals used. The pH of the water was adjusted beforehand to the

desired value by addition of HCl. This mixture was stirred in a sonic stirrer for 30 minutes, and

then placed in the water bath with stirring, beginning the reaction. TiO2 dispersion was added
periodically at intervals of either 30 min or 1 h. Also, a continuous reaction was performed

where MMA pre-emulsion was added at a constant rate to 20% wt. TiO2 dispersion at the desired

pH with added surfactant.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Synthesis of PMMA/PnBA copolymer.

Exp 19:
PMMA/PnBA copolymer
In the first stage, 5g of MMA was added to a 200 mL flask containing .08g of SDS
and .1209g of SPS dissolved in 30g of water. This was polymerized in a water bath at
80°C for 2 h with magnetic stirrer running at 400 rpm. In the second stage of the
reaction, nBA pre-emulsion was added to the PMMA dispersion in 3 1g portions at
different time intervals. The nBA pre-emulsion consisted of 1g of nBA, and .005g of
SDS dissolved in 2g of water. After addition of the first portion of pre-emulsion, the
mixture was reacted in an 80°C water bath for 40 minutes with constant stirring. After
the second pre-emulsion addition, the mixture was reacted for 80 minutes under the
same conditions. The final pre-emulsion was then added, and the mixture was reacted
for an additional 40 minutes.

After reaction completion of the PMMA/PnBA copolymer synthesis, the polymer

dispersion was spincoated onto a glass slide, dried, rinsed with distilled water, and dried again. A

water contact angle of 111.4° was measured on the surface. This angle was a result of the

structure of each polymer particle, combined with the inherent roughness of the polymer surface.

Each particle had a core-shell structure that was created by the two step reaction. In the first step,

PMMA core particles were synthesized. Then, in the second part of the reaction, each particle

was coated with a shell of PnBA. The surface only has a contact angle of around 111.4°, and a
higher contact angle cannot be achieved using this procedure due to 1) the surfactant adsorbed on

the surface; 2) the surface roughness is not in the optimum region.

4.2. Synthesis of Composite Silica/PnBA/PMMA copolymer.

Exp 24:
Composite Silica/PnBA/PMMA copolymer
7.5g of 30% wt. silica colloid and 10 mL of .0475 M SPS initiator solution were added to a 200 mL flask. This
was placed in an 80°C water bath with magnetic stirring at 400 rpm, and pre-emulsion and initiator solution were
fed in continuously using a pump. The first stage pre-emulsion consisted of 3g of MMA mixed with .03g of SDS
and .1g of TX-100 dissolved in 10g water. This was fed into the reaction mixture at a rate of .2 mL/min, along
with a .0238 M solution of SPS initiator fed at .1 mL/min. When all of the first stage pre-emulsion had been
added, the second stage was fed in at a rate of .2 mL/min, while the initiator solution continued to be added at .1
mL/min. The second stage pre-emulsion was prepared from 1g nBA mixed with .03g of SDS and .1g of TX-100
dissolved in 10g water.

Experiment 24 produced PMMA core, PnBA shell polymer particles with embedded

silica nanoparticles intended to harden the polymer. And the polymer coating, obtained by

spincoating the dispersion on a glass slide at 500 rpm for 10 sec, had an average water contact

angle of less than 20.0°. SEM pictures showed silica nanoparticles adhered to the polymer

surface. The hydrophilic silica particles on the surface of the polymer, hydrophilic due to the

hydroxyl groups on the silica surface, combined with inherent surface roughness to cause the

coating’s very hydrophilic nature, according to Cassie’s equation. The minimization of Gibbs

free energy explains the appearance of silica particles on the polymer surface. During the

reaction, the hydrophilic silica particles migrated to the polymer-water interface due to the van
der Waals force attraction. When at the interface, the attraction force of water acted on the

particles to prevent them from embedding in the polymer. Still stuck to the polymer surface, they

were present after coating, and drastically lowered the contact angle.

Figure 3.2° contact angle on Silica/PnBA/PMMA surface

4.3. Synthesis of PtBA polymer particles.

Exp 25:
poly(tert-butyl acrylate)
Synthesis was performed as a batch reaction in
a 200 mL flask with magnetic stirrer running at
400 rpm. 15g of tBA, .15g of SDS (.026
M), .1159g of APS (.025 M), and 20g of water
were reacted at 80°C for 1 h 45 min, yielding a
white colored dispersion of PtBA particles. This
was spincoated onto a glass slide at 500 rpm for
10 seconds, then dried and rinsed with distilled
water to remove surfactant. After re-drying, a
water contact angle of 140.4° was measured on
the surface.
Contact angle: 140.4°

85° contact angle on rough poly(n-butyl acrylate) surface

In the PtBA systhesis, a white colored colloid was formed. The spherical polymer

particles in the dispersion adhered to the glass slide during drying, creating a somewhat rough

surface film when the particles agglomerated on the substrate. The tert-butyl groups caused a

low surface energy that combined with the roughness of the surface to create the high contact

angle.
 tert-butyl acrylate n-butyl acrylate

tBA has a distinct advantage over nBA in single polymer nanocomposite particle coatings. The

tert-butyl group’s shape of 3 CH3 groups oriented around one carbon atom makes for a harder

and more hydrophobic polymer than does the straight hydrocarbon chain of the n-butyl group.

The hardness allows for easier coating of substrates, and the lower surface energy of tert-butyl

groups contributes to a more hydrophobic coating.

4.4. Synthesis of polymer/TiO2 composite particles.

4.4.1. Preparation of TiO2 dispersion. Forming a good TiO2 dispersion in water required the

testing of various samples. The formation of a dispersion with little to no precipitation or

gradient was found to depend on the pH of the solution. 1M HCl was used to make acidic

solutions, and 1M NH4OH was used for basic solutions. Acidic conditions were found to be

better for TiO2 nanoparticle dispersion, although too low of a pH caused more precipitation. A

pH of 1.58 provided the best dispersion of TiO2. A neutral solution failed to disperse any TiO2,

having complete precipitation within 24 h. Basic solutions showed a visible gradient in particle

concentration, caused by gravity, and were decided to be undesirable for TiO2 dispersion.

Two tests were performed to find the best pH for TiO2 dispersion. First, 0.2% wt.

solutions of TiO2 in water were prepared at various pH values, including 10.25, 10.1, 10.0, 9.8, 7,

2.25, 1.6, and 1.3. These were left standing for a period of 4 days. All 4 basic solutions

developed a concentration gradient over the 4 days, and most of the TiO2 particles precipitated to

the bottom. The neutral pH had complete precipitation of added TiO2. The two higher acidic pH

values had apparently good dispersions by observation, and the lowest pH had partial
precipitation and appeared clearer than the other acidic dispersions. Because of the better results

for acidic solutions, but the lack of a visually obvious best pH, another test was performed. 5

20% wt. TiO2 dispersions were prepared, each at a different acidic pH. Values of 2.23, 2.07, 1.94,

1.58, and 1.29 were tested, as well as pH 7 as a control. First, the dispersions were mixed by

agitation followed by 1 h in a sonic stirrer (sonicator). The dispersions were then left standing for

24 h, and were subsequently weighed. The liquid dispersion was then poured out; the remaining

precipitate was dried, and then weighed again. Finally, each container was cleaned, dried, and

weighed again to obtain the empty container weight. From this data, the remaining wt. % of TiO2

in each of the dispersions was calculated (fig. 3).

Colloidal TiO2 Content

12.00%

10.00%

8.00%
TiO2 wt. %

6.00%

4.00%

2.00%

0.00%
1 1.5 2 2.5
pH

Figure 3

Clearly, a pH of 1.58 had the best retention of dispersed TiO2. Thus, several polymerizations

were performed at this pH using TiO2, to try to incorporate TiO2 nanoparticles into a polymer. It

was not possible in the experiments to obtain a dispersion with no precipitation, because of larger

TiO2 particles that always precipitated.

4.4.2. Synthesis of polymer/TiO2 particles. In the polymerization experiments with

embedded TiO2, each sample was spincoated onto a glass slide at 1000 rpm for 10 seconds, then
 dried and rinsed with distilled water to remove surfactant. These were then cut to small size,

mounted for the SEM, then sputter coated with gold. Also, a small amount of polymer dispersion

from each experiment was dried on a hotplate, and then put into the TGA for analysis of TiO2

content and decomposition temperature. The results are as follows:

Exp 28: Exp 30: Exp 31:

TiO2/PMMA composite
.288g of SDS surfactant and .238g of SPS
initiator were used, and the water pH was
adjusted to 2.1. The reaction was carried
out for 5 h at 80°C, with 2g of 20% TiO2
dispersion (pH 1.58) added initially, and
2g more added every hour until 10g had
been added.
TiO2/PMMA composite
This was performed at pH 1.58 using .288g
of SDS surfactant and .228g of APS
initiator. The mixture was reacted for 2 h at
80°C, with 2g of 20% TiO2 dispersion (pH
1.58) added initially, and 2g more added
every 30 min until 10g had been added.
TiO2/PMMA composite
.153g of AIBN and .288g of SDS were
used, and pH was adjusted to 1.58. The
reaction was carried out for 4 h at 60°C,
with 2.5g of 20% TiO2 dispersion (pH
1.58) added initially, and 2.5g more added
every hour until 10g had been added.

Exp 32: Exp 33:

TiO2/PMMA composite
This reaction used .0238g of SPS, .3785g
CTAB, and had a pH of 1.58. The
reaction was performed at 60°C for 6 h,
with 2g of 20% TiO2 dispersion (pH 1.58)
added initially, and 2g more added every
hour until 10g had been added.
TiO2/PMMA composite
One mixture was prepared in the reactor, a 200 mL flask equipped with a magnetic stirrer.
This mixture consisted of 10g of 20% wt. TiO2 dispersion at pH 1.58, 20g of water adjusted
to a pH of 1.58, and .017g of CTAB. A MMA pre-emulsion was added continuously to the
reactor, at a rate of .1 mL/min. This pre-emulsion was prepared by mixing two components
separately, then combining them and placing the mixture in a sonic stirrer for 30 min. The
first part of the mixture was prepared by dissolving .15g of CTAB and .15g of TX-100 in
30mL of water adjusted to pH 1.58. The second part was .153g of AIBN dissolved in 15g of
MMA. The polymerization was carried out at 60°C with 400 rpm stirring for about 8 h, being
terminated after the last of the pre-emulsion had been added.
 TiO2 wt.% in polymer particles

1 12.00%

10.00%
0.8

Exp 28
weight fraction

8.00%
0.6 Exp 30
Exp 31
Exp 32 6.00%
0.4 Exp 33
4.00%
0.2
2.00%

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0.00%
28 30 31 32 33
Temperature, C
TiO2 wt.% 3.05% 7.34% 10.37% 1.85% 2.98%

Figure 4: TGA results of the polymer/TiO2 composites

Experiment 28 was carried out at a higher pH, at which less TiO2 could disperse.

Therefore, as can be seen in the SEM picture, TiO2 particles exist on the polymer coating surface.

This accounts for the 3.05% TiO2 wt. percent value obtained by the TGA. In experiment 30 a

thick paste was formed, which consisted of TiO2 mixed with heavily agglomerated polymer,

visible in the SEM picture. This led to the conclusion that the reaction rate was too high, and the

H+ ions were causing the polymer to agglomerate. A slower initiator was needed to facilitate a

stable reaction. A large amount of TiO2 was incorporated into the polymer particles, however,

and agglomeration only occurred during the last hour of the reaction. Next, in experiment 31,

AIBN initiator was used, which creates free radicals more slowly than persulfate initiators

(APS/SPS). AIBN had to be dissolved in the monomer, but this was achieved using the same

general procedure as the previous reactions. A very large chunk of TiO2 and polymer formed

around the magnetic stirbar. The remaining dispersion, when left unagitated overnight,

completely precipitated. The SDS had been prevented from functioning correctly by the H+ ions

in solution, since SDS is an anionic (-) surfactant. This led to massive agglomeration of polymer,

which had a negatively charged coating of SDS, because of attraction imparted by oppositely
charged H+ ions. The polymer itself consisted of a wide range particle sizes, some as large as 1

micron in diameter, visible in the SEM photo. This further demonstrates the faulty functioning of

SDS. This experiment showed that cationic surfactant needed to be used in acidic conditions, to

keep the polymer colloid stable. The next reaction, experiment 32, produced more uniform

particles but failed to incorporate much TiO2 into the polymer. This was due to a fast reaction

rate, similar to what was seen in experiment 30, resulting from the use of SPS. Experiment 33

was carried out slightly differently, using a continuous reaction setup that improved TiO2 content

in the polymer. Also, CTAB and AIBN were used, combining the advantageous effects of both

slower reaction rate and cationic surfactant. This experiment had good TGA results, but still did

not have as much incorporated polymer as desired. Results indicate that TiO2 particles cannot be

incorporated in higher amounts into the polymer at pH 1.58.

5. Conclusion

Emulsion polymerization was used in two methods toward the goal of obtaining a

superhydrophobic surface. Core/shell structured particles were synthesized, which showed a

stable coating but midrange contact angle. Polymer/silica composite particles were produced,

incorporating much of the colloidal silica into the polymer. PtBA particles were prepared that

created a very hydrophobic coating, showing the superiority of the tert-butyl group over the n-

butyl group in hydrophobic polymer coating preparation. The optimal pH for dispersion of TiO2

nanoparticles was determined, and dispersions at this were used in reactions. Low pH was shown

to negatively affect the function of SDS, and possibly the incorporation of TiO2 particles into the

polymer. Slightly higher pH showed good results, but agglomeration occurred in the last hour of

the reaction. Modification of this reaction’s procedure could lead to composite particles with up

to 10% wt. TiO2, allowing further research into the creating of a templated silica surface, to

eventually create a durable superhydrophobic coating.

 Acknowledgement

I thank Prof. C.P Wong and Yonghao Xiu for their mentorship throughout the research,

and specifically Yonghao for teaching me several of the concepts which are discussed in this

paper. I also thank the Georgia Tech Packaging Research Center for giving me the opportunity to

conduct research as a part of their pre-college student program.

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