Ha PEs Understanding ® Applications > Woter molecules are pelarand hycrogen bonds. | | 5 Corrnarison ofthe thera properties of water form between them, with those of methane. Lse of water as a coolant in sweat. Metheds of transport of glucose, amine acids, cholesterol, fats, oxygen and sodium chloride in blood in relation to thei soubiliy in water. > Hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the adhesive, cohesive, thermal and solvent properties of water > Suastances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. @ Nature of science > Use theories t explain natural phenomena: ‘the theory that hydrogen bonds form between water molecules exalzins water's oroperties. Hydrogen bonding in water Water molecules are polar and hydrogen bonds form between them. Awater molecule is formed by covalent bands between an oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms, The bond between hydrogen and exygen texto ral nvolves unequal sharing of electrons — it is a polar covalent bond, This ae oat because the nucleus of the oxygen atom is more attractive to electrons fou Seze" than the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms (figure 1). inwis Hud" Because of the unequal sharing of electrons in water molecules, the cect aon hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge and oxygen has a partial sperecareaaive tae negative charge. Because water molecules are bent rather than linear, a the two hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the molecule and form a Figure 1 Water mcectles ‘one pole and the oxygen forms the opposite pole. Positively charged particles (positive ions) and negatively charged particles (negative ions) attract each other and form an ionic bond. ‘Water molecules only have partial charges, so the attraction is less but it Ww is sill enough to have significant ellecs, The auzaction bewveen water . molecules is a “hydrogen bond. Strictly speaking itis an intermolecular Fe wagrosue force rather than a bend. A hydrogen bond is the force that forms when a hydrogen atom in one polar molecule is attracted to a slightly negative hyp ieord atem of ancther polar covalent molecule, “AFgure Tre cotesine Although a hydrogen bond is a weak intermolecular force, water ircisatesthe presence of molecules are small, so there are many of them per unit volume of water aninteraleculr fr and large numbers of hydrogen bonds (figure 2). Cellectively they give between the molecules. ‘water its unique properties and these properties are, in tum, of immense 'scolledaherogen bord importance to livingBEATER, GE Xx @) Hydrogen bonds and the properties of water Use theories to explain natural phenomena: the theory that hydrogen bonds form between water molecules explains water's properties. There is strong experimental evidence for hydrogen Tt might seem unwise to base our understanding bonds, but it remains a theory that they form of the natural world en something that has not between water molecules, Scientists cannot prove been proven to exist. However this is the way ‘without doubt that they exist as they are not directly that science works - we can assuime that a theory visible, However, hydrogen bonds are avery useful is correct if there is evidence for it, iit helps to way of explaining the properties of water. They predict bebavicur, if it has net been falsified and explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent if it helps te explain natural phenomena, propentes of wate Iti these distinctive properties that make water so useful to living organisms, Properties of water Hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent properties of water. Cohesive properties Cohesion refers to the binding together of two molecules of the same type, for instance two water molecules, Water molecules are cohesive - they cohere, which means they stick to cach other, due to hydrogen bonding, described in the previous section, This property is useful for water transport in plants, Water is sucked through xylem vessels at low pressure. The method can only work if the water molecules are not separated by the stiction forces. Due 10 hydrogen bonding this rarely happens and water can be pulled up to the top of the tallest trees ~ over a hundred metres. Adhesive properties Hydrogen bonds can ferm between water and other polar molecules. «causing water to stick to them. This is called adhesion. This property is taseful in leaves, where water adheres to cellulose molecules in cell walls. If water evaporates from the cell walls and is lost from the leaf via the network of air spaces, adhesive forces cause water to be drawn out of the nearest xylem vessel, This keeps the walls moist so they can absorb carbon dicxide needed for photosynthesis Thermal properties ‘Water has several thermal properties that are useful 10 living organisms «High specific heat capacity, tHydrogen bonds restrict the motion of ‘water molecules and increases in the temperature of water require hydrogen bonds te be broken, Energy is needed to do this, As a result, the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of water is relatively large. To cool down, water must lose relatively large amounts of energy. Water’s temperature remains relatively stable in comparison to air or land, soit fsa thermally stable habitat for aquatic organisms. «High latent heat of vaporization. When a molecule evaporates it separates from other molecules in a liquid and becomes a vapour molecule, The heat needed to do this is called the latent heat of 69Ha PEs How co scientific explanations cifer from seude-scientific explanations? Homeopathyis@ practice wnete remedies ae preparec oy dissolving ‘things lke charccal, spider venom or deaclyrightshace. Ini ‘rratner ‘tincture? cf harmful substance isiltted ‘agpinand again to tne pointwhere 2 sample fem the solutions unicely to cortaina single molecule of te soli. hristhisultedilte solution tatis claimed tchave medicinal properties. The properties ae eferrectoasthe “nernoryof wate” Despite te large numer of ractitiowes ofthis practice, no homegpathic enedy nas everbeen ‘shown towork ina large randomized slaceoo-contralled clinical rial vaporization. Evaporation therefore has a cooling effect. Consideratle amounts of heat are needed to evaporate water, because hydrogen bonds have to be broken, This makes it a good evaporative coolant. Sweating is an example of the use of water as a coolant. © High boiling point. The boiling point of a substance is the highest temperature that it can reach in a liquid state, For the same reasons that water has a high latent heat of vaporization, its boiling poi ‘Water is therefore liquid over a broad range of temperatures. to 100°C, This the temperature range found in most Solvent properties Water has important selvent properties. The polar nature of the water ‘molecule means that it forms shells around charged and polar molecules, preventing them from clumping together and keeping them in solution. ‘Water forms hydrogen bonds with polar molecules. Its partially negat ‘oxygen pole is attracted to positively charged ions and its partially positive hydrogen pole is attracted to negatively charged ions, so both, issolve, Cytoplasm is a complex mixture of dissolved substances in which the chemical reactions of metabolism occurs, Hydrophilic and hydrophobic Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. ‘The literal meaning of the werd hydrophilic is water-loving. It is used to scribe substances that are chemically attracted to water. All substances that dissolve in water are hydrophilic, including polar molecules such as glucose, and particles with positive or negative charges such as soditum and chloride fens. Substances that water adheres to, cellulese for ‘example, are also hydroph Some substances are inscluble in water although they dissolve in other solvents such as propanone (acetone). The term hydrophobic is used to describe them, though they are not actually water-fearing. Melecules are hydrophobic if they do not have negative or positive charges and are nonpolar, All lipids are hydrophobi ng fats and oils ©,° ° 0.°0% 0 o ofecoe ° Sa ° ot aoe CoE SPIE % ool ° oo 0 © COIMCOlmce 0° =o IMME 0° © Colma Colm co © Colm So © 0 MONS Po oo bn © SO COMS°o «=o CUI o 8 00 of 0% 0 8 0°00 0% 0 oe 5 eo © ooo {A Figure 3 Wren to nerpcler melecules in water come int contact, week interections fort bbetweer them an rove ycroger tones form between water roleculesBEATER, GE Xx fa nonpolar molecule is surrounded by water melecules, hydrogen bonds form between the water molecules, but not between the nonpolar molecule and the water molecules, I wo nenpolar molecules are surrounded by water molecules and random movements bring them together, they behave as though they are attracted to each other. There i a slight attraction between nonpolar melecules, but more significantly, if they are in contact ‘with each other, more hydrogen bonds can form between water molecules, This is not because they are water-feating: its simply because water molecules are more attracted to each other than to the nonpolar molecules, AS a result, nonpolar molecules tend to join together in water to form larger and larger groups, The forces that cause nonpolar molecules to join together into groups in water are known as hydrophobic interactions. © Comparing water and methane Comparison of the thermal properties of water with ‘those of methane. ‘The properties of water have already been described. Methane is a waste product of anaerobic respiration in certain prokaryotes that live in habitats where oxygen is lacking. Methanogenic prokaryotes live in swamps and cther wetlands and in the guts of animals, including termites, cattle and sheep, They also live in waste dumps and are deliberately encouraged to produice methane in anaerobic digesters Methane can be used as a fuel but if allowed to escape into the atmosphere it contributes to the greenhouse effect. Water and methane are both small molecules with atoms linked by single covalent bonds, However water molecules are polar and can form hydrogen bonds, whereas methane molecules are nonpolar and do not form hydrogen bonds, As a result their physical properties are very different ‘The data in table 1 shows some of the physical properties of methane and water, The density and specific heat capacity are given for methane and water in a liquid state. The data shows that water has a higher specific heat capacity, higher latent heat of vaporization, higher melting point and higher boiling point, Whereas methane is liquid over a range of only 22 °C, water is liquid over 100 °C Property | Methane Water Forru | Ch, #0 Nolecularrrass | 16 18 Dersity [O46 gperent™ Agper er Specifichestcavacity | 22 Jpergper"c 42. pergoerC Latentheat of vaporization | 760g 2287 ig Nekingpcire | -t82°c ot Boiling 20int I =160°C I 100°C a decorposingcganic meter st «Tele 1 Corparig rethane vd water nittappesinice aLHa PEs ® Cooling the body with sweat Use of water as a coolant in sweat. Sweat is secreted by glands in the skin, The sweat is carried along narrow das to the surface of the skin where it spreads out, The heat needed for the evaporation of water in sweat is aken from the tissues of the skin, reducing their temperature, Bloed flowing through the skin is therefore ccoled, This isan elfective method of cooling the body because water has a high latent heat of vaporization, Solutes in the sweat, especially ions such as sodium, are left on the skin surface and can sometimes be detected by their salty taste. Swweat secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus, Of the brain, It has recepters that monitor blood temperature and also receives sensory inputs from temperature receptors in the skin, If the body is overheated the hypothalamus stimulates the siveat glands to secrete up to two litres cf sweat per hour. Usually no sweat is secreted if the body is below the target temperature, though when adrenalin is secreted we siveat even ifl we are already cold. This is because adrenalin is secreted when our brain anticipates a period of intense activity that will tend to cause the bedy to overheat, ® Transport in blood plasma There are methods af cooling other than sweating, though many of these also rely on heat loss due to evaporation of water, Panting in dogs and birds is an example. Transpiration is evaporative loss of water from plant leaves; it has a coc which is useful in hot environments. \ Methads of transport of glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, fats, oxygen and ‘sodium chloride in blood in relation to their solubility in water, Bloed transports a wide variety of substances, several methods to avoid possible problems and ensure that each substance is carried in large enough quantities for the body's needs. Sodium chloride is an ionic compound that is freely soluble in water, dissolving to form sodium ons (Na') and chloride ions (CI-), which are canted in blood plasma. Amino acids have both negative and positive charges, Because of this they are soluble in water boat their solubility varies depending on the R ‘group, some of which are hyclrophilic while others are hydrophobic, All amino acids are soluble ‘enough to be carried dissolved in blood plasma, Glucose is a polar melecule. I s freely soluble in water and dissolved in blood plasma, ‘Oxygen is a nonpolar molecule, Because of the small size of the molecule it dissolves in water but only sparingly and water becomes saturated with oxygen at relatively lew concentrations, Also, as the temperature of water rises, the solubility of oxygen decreases, so bload plasma at 37 °C can hold much less dissolved exygen than water at 20C of lower. The amount of oxygen that blocd plastna can transpurt arcund the body is far teu Tittle to provide for aerobic cell respiration, This problem is overcome by the use of hemoglebin in red blood cells, Hemoglebin has binding sites for oxygen and greatly increases the capacity of the bleod for oxygen transport,Fats molecules are entirely nonpolar, are larger than oxygen and are insoluble in water, They are Monoseccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccherides and palysaccharice polyners, Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated, > Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis ortrans, isomers, > Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids anc one glycerol. Applications > Structure anc function of cellulose anc starch in plants and glycogen in humans, > Scientific evidence for health risks of trans-fats and saturatec fats, > Lipids are more suitable for long-term energy storege in humans than carbohydrates. > Evaluation of evicence and the methods used to obtain evidence for health claims mace about lipids. @ Nature of science > Evaluating claims: health claims made about linidsneed to be assessed, Use of molecular visualization software to compare cellulose, starch and glucogen, Deterrrination of body mass index by calculation or use of a nomograrr. 73