‘SCHOO ce os The direction of psychology was highly influenced by Wilhelm Wundt. He had clear and definite ideas about the new psychology. He determined its goals, subject matter, research methods, and topics to be investigated. By the time controversy arose among the growing numbers of Psychologists. New social and scientific ideas were being advanced. Some disagreed h Wundt’s version of psychology and proposed their own. By around 1900, several systematic positions and schools of thought were existing. The term school of thought refers to a group of psychologists who become associated ideologically, and sometimes geographically, with the leader of a movement. Typically {he members of a school of thought share a theoretical or systematic orientation and investigation similar problems. The emergence of various schools of thought and their decline and replacement by others is a striking chapter of the history of psychology. ~ STRUCTURALISM Edward Bradford Titchener (1867 - 1927) Will ela j Jum} 8 agreed with Wundt that psychology should study immediate experience i.e. the consciousness. He defined consciousness as the sum total of mental experience at given moment. He said that mind is accumulated experiences of a life time. Germany to USA Titchener altered Wundt’s system of psychology when he brought it from Germany to United States. He offered his own approach, which he called structuralism. Titchener created the school of structuralism at Cornell University. Structuralism got the minent status in USA for two decades. He set his goal, to study of the of mental life. “What” consisted of determining the ital elements. “How” was to determine how the mental elements combine, “Why” consisted of determining the neurological correlates of mental events. Fundamental Task Titchener focused on mental elements or contents, and their mechanical linking through the process of association, but he discarded Wundt joctrin perception. According to Titchener psychology’s ro took ai nora the nature of the elementary conscious experience into its component parts and thus determine its structure.: Titchener defined consciousness as the sum of our exp exist at a given time. Mind is sum of our experiences accumi time. Consciousness and mind are similar, expect that consciot mental processes occurring at the movement where as mind invo of these processes, Titchener sought only to describe mental experience, believed that speculation concerning unobservable events has no plac Science. Titchener took the same position toward the use of theory as Sling was. Both agreed that science meant carefully describing. what could b. observed. Titchener focused on observable conscious events. He wanted tom describe the structure of mind, thus he named his version of Psychology “structuralism”. : Pure Science Titchener was’ not concerned with applying Psychological. Knowledge. He envisioned it was a pure science. He said, psychology was net _ in the business of curing sick minds or reforming society. Tts purpose was to discover the facts of the structure of the mind. He opposed the development: of child psychology, animal psychology and all other areas that did not fit with his introspective experimental psychology. Introspection He relied on introspection, yet his subjects were rigorously trained to describe the elements of their conscious states. He named it systematic éxperimental introspection. Titchener Proposed an experimental approach to introspective observation in psychology. Titchener's method of introspection was more complicated than Wundt’s. So he trained his subject in a different way. But toward the end of his career he became more liberal and found that untrained subjects could be important source of information. Elements of Consciousness From his introspective studies, Titchener concluded that the elemental processes of consciousness consist of sensation, images and affections. . = Sensations are elements of perception. And occur in the sounds, sights, smells, and other experiences evoked by physical objects in our environment. = Images are the elements of ideas. They are found in the process that reflects the experience. 3 - Affections are elements of emotions and are found in experiences such — as love, hate and sadness. 4 According to Titchener sensations and images could vary in terms of quality, intensity, duration clearness and extensity. Titchener did not accept Wundt's tridimensional theory of feeling. * argued that feelings occurred along only one dimensions i.e. pleasant unpleasantness, Titchener studied the elements of thought, and combine to form more complex mental processes. In explaining how of thought combine he made the law of contiguity as his t association. ou= Historical und of Problems Titchener posed three essential problems for psychology. He To reduce conscious processes to their simplest components. 2. To determine laws by which these elements of consciousness were associated. : aE To conn&ct the elements with their physiological conditions. Contribution of Structuralism Despite these criticisms, historians give due credit to. the contributions of Titchener and the structuralists. Their subject matter (conscious experience) was cleafly\ defined. Their research methods based on observation, experimentation, and measurement, were in thé highest-traditions of science. : q Although the subject matter of structuralism are no longer vital, but ° the method of introspection is still used in many areas of psychology. Researchers in psychophysics ask subjects for their verbal report. Self reports are requested from people exposed to unusual eqyironments. Clinical reports from patients and responses on personality tests and attitude scales are introspective in mature. Introspective reports involving cognitive processes such as reasoning are frequently used in psychology today. _Industrial/organizational Psychologists obtain introspective reports from employees. Cognitive psychology with its interest in conscious processes, has conferred. greater legitimacy on introspection, so introspective method remains alive. Titchener gave Wundt’s approach the label of structuralism because. of its focus. The most common method used for this purpose was introspection. (That means “looking inside”). For ‘such type of experiment, a person was placed in a laboratory setting and was asked to think (introspect) about what was going on mentally as various events took place. These studies focused mainly on sensation and perception because they were the easiest processes to break down into components parts, e.g. in a study Titchener trained the subjects and they identify four components: of taste, bitter, sweet, salty and sour. A significant contribution of structuralism was its service as a target of criticism. Structuralism provided a strong, established orthodoxy against which newly developing movements in psychology could array their forces. Criticism Structuralism was essentially an attempt to study scientifically the simple sensations and how these are combined into more complex mental events. The major tool was introspection. The method of introspection was highly criticized, Some pointed out that what was called introspection was really retrospection, because the event being reported had already occurred. It was suggested one could not introspect on something without changing it, because observation changed what was being observed. Auguste Comte attacked the introspective method, arguing that if the mind were capable of observing its own activities, it would have to divideae An Introduction to Psychology itself into two parts, one doing the observing and the other being Comte claimed this was impossible. i i ind prompted ay Unconscious Mind The notion of unconscious min criticism of the introspective method. As Fried claimed, part of our me; functioning is unconscious, and then introspection is of no use in exploring jt, Artificial Effort Introspection was not the only target. The structuralist's movement was accused of artificiality and sterility for attempting to analyze conscious processes into elements. Critics charged that whole of ap experience cannot be recaptured by any later association or combination’ of the elementary parts. They argued that experience does not come to us in individual sensations, images, or effective states but in unified wholes, Something of the conscious experience is inevitably lost in any artificial effort to analyze it. Exclusion of Development Structuralism excluded several developments that were important. Study of animal behaviour was not adopted. The Structuralist definition of psychology came under attack. Titchener. regarded child psychology and animal psychology as not psychology at all, His conception of the field was too limited to embrace the new work being done and the new directions being explored. Structuralists also ignored the abnormal behaviour similarly the study. of personality, learning, psychological development and individual difference, while others were making major © breakthrough in these areas. Structuralists refusal to seek practical knowledge was also damaging. Its inability to assimilate one of the most important developments in human history the doctrine of evolution was also a major demise. For these feasons school of structuralism was short lived and died with Titchener- Ample evidence shows that many of Wundt's ideas are alive and well in contemporary psychology, whereas nothing of substance from Titchener's system has survived. He (Wundt) faced many critics, and structuralism has not survived except as a historic mark. One reason is that the method used by Wundt “introspection” can be unreliable. William James, an American philosopher criticized that Wundt and his followers were trying to divide consciousness into components, as if it were a physical structure, ‘FUNCTIONALISM The scholars associated with the founding of functionalism had n® ambition to start a new school of thought. They protested against the restrictions and limitations of Wundt's version of psychology and Titchener s structuralism, but they did not want to replace these with another formal school. Because none of the major proponents of the functionalist position claimed the ambition to ‘establish a movement in the way Wu! Titchener did. They appeared content to modify the existing orth without actively striving to replace it. Thus functionalism was never as!functions of cor , yet somewhat dif ; Function of Mind Functionalism, as the name suggests, how ‘the mind functions, or how it is used by an organism to < environment. The functional psychology movement focused on\a question i.e. what do mental processes accomplish. Functionalism em the functions of mind and behaviour in adapting to the environment. Per teraction with the environment was the major theme of the functionalists. William James ‘and other functionalists did not believe in the existence of - elementary, rigid structures of the mind. Functionalists studied the mind from ‘the stand point of its accumulation of functions and processes that lead to practical consequences in the real world. (What does the mind do? How does it do?). Functionalism | Was a deliberate protest against Wundt’s experimental psychology and Titchener structural psychology. : Application The functionalists became interested in the potential applications — of psychology to everyday problems of how people function in and adapt to different environments. The rapid development of applied psychology in the United States may be considered the most important legacy of the functionalist movement. The functionalists became interested in the potential applications of psychology to everyday problems. The rapid development of applied psychology in America may be considered the important legacy of the functionalist movement. Shahkian (1975) marks the beginning of functionalism at 1896, with the publication of John Dewey's article “The Reflex Arc in Psychology”. Some other marks the formal beginning of functionalism with the publication of Jams book “the principles of psychology in 1890”. Goal For functionalists the goal was to understand how the mind and behaviour work in aiding an organism’s adjustment to the environment, the research tools included anything that was informative including introspection; the study of animal's behaviour and the study of mentally ill. - Characteristics of Functionalism It was never a well defined school of thought with recognized leader or agreed on methodology. a According to Keller (1973) common themes were as follows; A. The functionalists opposed the sterile search for the elements 0 consciousness. ’ f ’ : The functionalists wanted to understand the function of the n not its contents. They wanted psychology to be a practical science and ply their findings to the improvement of ‘pel \d so on. iThe functionalists interest in the why of mental behaviour led directly to a concern with motivation, — ©. The functionalists accepted both mental processes and b legitimate subject matter for psychology. i 7. Functionalists were more interested in individual differences. 8. All functionalists were influenced by William James who had strongly influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution. Two psychologists who contributed directly to the founding functionalist school of thought were John Dewey and James Rowland Angell, William James (1842-1910) His work was the major American precursor of functional Psychology, and he was a pioneer of the new scientific psychology as it developed in United States. James did not found Functional psychology, but he presented his ideas clearly and effectively within the Functionalist atmosphere. His ideas were not fully developed enough to suggest a school of thought, but they contained the seeds that were to grow into the school of functionalism, a whole new movement of psychology in USA, It focused on how mental activity enabled people to function and survive. . Functional Approach, James is considered as one of the greatest American Psychologist. He wrote The Principles of Psychology with spontaneity and clarity. His writing style had magnetism and charm. He opposed Wundt’s goal for psychology, yet he offered an alternative way of looking at the'mind | Which is the functional approach to psychology. He stated that goal of Psychology is the study of living people as they adapt to their environment, He also emphasized non-rational aspect of human nature. People are creatures of emotion and passions as well as of thought and reason. Henoted that intellect can be affected by the body’s physical condition, that beliefs are determined by emotional factors, and that reason and concept formation afe influenced by human wants and needs. Definition of Psychology James defined psychology as the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions, Phenomenon Is used to indicate that the subject matter of Psychology is to be found in immediate experience, conditions refers to the importance of the body, particular the brain, in mental life. Ry | He believed that conscious are simply what they are, and they are collections or groups of elements. He was against the artificial analysis at reduction of conscious experiences into elements. He said that mental life unity. He declared simple sensation do not exist in conscious experience: exist only as the result of some convoluted process of inference. Stream of Consciousness Obviously consciousness is a continuous and any attempt to divide it into temporally distinct phases can only di James coined the phrase “stream of consciousness”, for -express this Because consciousness is always changing, we can never e)Historical Background of Psychology same thought or sensation more than once, The mind is continuous. Mind is Soa Te aS mind chooses from the many stimuli to which it is exposed. See Sam er experience combines or separates, selects or rejects some cee nes, Aeclared that consciousness is a “stream”. It changes ease cannot be chopped up like a laboratory specimen. less has a purpose or function, and it is more important to conduct studies of function than to investigate a static; academic structure. ce James emphasized the function of consciousness. He believed that sciousness must have some biological utility or it would not have survived over time. The function of consciousness is to enable us to adapt to our environment by allowing us to choose. He distinguished between conscious choice and habit. . Method He stated that psychology deals with a personal and immediate consciousness so introspection must be a basic method. That means looking into our own minds and reporting what we there discover. . James was aware of the difficulties of introspection, and he accepted it as a less than perfect form of observation. He believed that introspective results could be verified by appropriate checks and by comparing the findings obtained from several observers. James did not make widespread use of the” experimental method, he acknowledged it as an important path to psychological Knowledge, primarily for psychophysics research, the analysis of space perception and research on memory. To supplement introspective and experimental methods James recommended the comparative method. He explained about emotion and habit formation. As his theory of emotion was quite different from average notion. James’s views on emotion have stimulated considerable controversy and a great deal of research. Habits He described all living creatures as bundle of bahits. According to James, habits are formed as an activity is repeated. Repetition causes the same neural pathways to, from and within the brain to become more entrenched, making it easier for energy to pass through those pathways. Thus James had a neurophysiological account of learning was very close to Pavlov's. Habits are functional because they simplify the movements required to achieve a result. Habits increase the accuracy of behaviour, reduce the fatigue and diminish the need to consciously attend to performed actions. For James, it is habit that makes society: possible through habit formation we can make our nervous system our ally instead of our enemy. If Esteem James also described the concept of self and self rad pan ‘an interactionalist on mind body question, as he believed that bodily events cause thought and that thoughts cause behaviour. Pragmatic Approach James had pragmatic approach. According to mi usi ea aibelet, thought or behaviour must be judged by its consequences, Believing in free will was emotionally satisfying to James, so he believed in it. ‘efulness is the best criterion for determining the validity of an |He believed that nothing useful should be omitted, so he encour, the use of any method that would shed light on the complexities of hi existence. As he utilized introspection and experimentation, as well as, study of animals, children and abnormal humans. James ‘expanded subject matter of psychology by studying all aspects of human existe including behaviour, Cognition, emotion, volition and ever Feligic experiences. James’ book was a major influence on American Psychology, and its Publication inspired tributes even a century later. It affected the views of | thousands of students and inspired psychologists to shift the new science of Psychology away from the structuralist view and toward the formal founding of the functionalist school of thought. Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924) He was just next to William James as his influence on American Psychology. He set up first psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University USA in 1883. Besides founding a psychology laboratory, Hall founded the first US journal dedicated to psychological issues, The American Journal of Psychology in 1887. He taught a number of students, who later became Prominent psychologists, James McKean Cattell and John Dewey were also among them. Educational Psychology Hall was interested in many areas. He contributed More to educational psychology than to experimental psychology. He agreed that the experimental was important for psychology but became impatient with its limitations. Developmental Psychology Hall is often called a genetic psychologist because of his concern with human and animal development and the related problems of adaptation. Hall's genetic interests led him to psychological study of the childhood, which he made the core of his psychology. He gave the idea of recapitulation theory. He asserted that children in their personal development repeat the life history of the human race. At one time it could be claimed that majority of American psychologists had been associated with Hall either at Clark University or at Johns Hopkins. 7 Books In 1888 Hall left John Hopkins to become the first president of Clark University. Hall published two volume book entitled, Adolescence; “Its Psychology and its Relation Physiology”, Anthropology; “Sociology, Se Crime, Religion and Education”, and focused on. a wide variety of topics: including growth norms, language development, diseases of childhood, hygiene, juvenile crime, lying, showing off and bashfulness, fear, cu and friendship. He also focused on the importance of sex differentiation for psychological development. John Dewey (1859-1952) . He is commonly considered as founder of functionalism school thought, even though William James, Munsterberg and Hall certainly important ground work, Besides psychology Dewey also developed 2interest in the philosophies of H ir Pl legel and Kant. Dewey wrote “The | Saas in Psychology” (1896) which many think marks the formal begi of the school of functionalism. Dewey's significance for psychology lies in hi influence on psychologists and other sch n pene ota fer scholars and his development for the “a He stayed at the University of Chicago for ten years. He established a laboratory school which became the corner stone for the progress education movement. He applied the psychology to educational and philosophical preveren Psychology to educational and_ philosophical Dewey was in view that neither behaviour nor conscious experience could be reduced to elements. It is strange that Dewey himself never called his views functionalism. According to Dewey, dividing behaviour into elements was no more justifiable. Dewey claimed that there is a stream of behaviour just as there is stream of consciousness. He argued that the behaviour involved in a reflexive response cannot be meaningfully reduced to basic sensorimotor elements. Dewey says behaviour should not be treated as an artificial scientific construct but rather in terms of its significance to the organism adapting to its environment. He believed that subject matter for psychology had to be the study of the total organism as it functions in its environment. As an evolutionist Dewey thought that social change was inevitable. He continued his work applying psychology to educational and philosophical problems. He believed that education should be student oriented rather than subject oriented. Dewey believed that education should facilitate creative intelligence and prepare children to live effectively in a complex society. James Rowland Angell (1869-1949) Angell viewed that the function of consciousness is to improve the ‘organism's adaptive abilities. The goal of psychology is to study how the mind assists the organism in adjusting to its environment. Angell said functional psychology was not at all new, but had been a significant part of psychology from the earliest times. He molded the functionalist movement into a working school of thought. He made the psychology department at the University of Chicago the most influential of its day. It became the major training ground for functional psychologists. At University of Chicago he remained for 25 years. Angell’s text book psychology was very successful and it appeared'in four additions in four years. ‘ Angell described three major themes of functionalist movement; : 1. Functional psychology was interested in mental operations, but mental operation in isolation was of little interest. The task of functionalism is to discover how a mental process operates, what it accomplishes: under condition it occurs. P te logy of the fundai 2 Functional psychology is the psychology r consciousness. Functional psychologists needed to di essential services consciousness is performing for the 0$2 _ An Introduction to Psychology Functional psychology is the psychology of psychophysical and is concerned with the total relationship of the organism environment. Functionalism encompasses all mind body functions Fecognizes no real distinction between mind and body. Mental processes mediate between the needs of the organism and the environment. Mental function help the organism survive. With one’s habits organism adjusts in familiar situation, but in unfamiliar situation, mental Processes help in adapting the environment. Chicago School In 1906 Angell delivered presidential address to the APA, At the time of his address the spirit of functionalism was already widely accepted. Angell just shaped that spirit into a prominent, active enterprice with @ laboratory, a body of research data, an enthusiastic staff of teachers and a dedicated core of graduate students. He guided them to the status of formal school. However he continued to insist that functionalism did not constitute a separate school and should not be identified with the University of Chicago. But functionalism often referred as Chicago School. | James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) The functionalist spirit of American psychology was also well represented in the life and work of J. M. Cattell. He promoted a practical test= oriented approach to the study of mental processes. Cattell’s psychology was concerned with human abilities rather than thé content of consciousness. That is why he seems to be a functionalist. Measurement and Statistics He met Galton and admired his vast interests and his emphasis on measurement and statistics. Under Galton’s influence he became one of the first American psychologists to stress quantifications, ranking and ratings. Cattell developed the widely used order of merit ranking method and was the first psychologist to teach the statistical analysis of experimental results. Due to the emphasis on statistical analysis, American psychologists began to focus on studies of large groups of subjects, He believed that psychology must have the foundations of experiment and measurement. He continued the testing program at Columbia and collected data from students. He tried to measure the range and variability of human capacities differed from the intelligence. He used complex tasks of mental ability Cattell’s strongest influence on American psychology was through his. bei | an organizer, executive, administrator of psychological science and practice Mental Test He’ became professor of psychology at University Pennsylvania and then at Columbia University where he remained for years. In 1890, Cattell used the term mental tests and administered 2: of such tests to his students. * ‘ ns He became an ambassador of psychology, delivering ee lg and promoting practical applications of the field. He contributed to the development of psychology through his students,his work on mental testin find forente 4 9, the measurement promotion af pote secre \t of individual differences Harvey A. Carr (1873-1954) Carr elabofated Angell’s theoretical posit i ‘2 . position. Functionalism had won’a recognized position, under his supervision. Functionalism reached its peak as @ formal system at Chicago. He maintained that functional psychology was the American Psychology. He regarded other versions as dealing only limited aspects of the field. Carr's text book “Psychology” (1925) presents functionalism in its Most refined form. He defined the subject matter of psychology as mental activity such as memory, perception, feeling, imagination, judgment and will. The function of mental activity is to acquire, fixate, retain, organize and evaluate experiences and to use than to determine one’s action. Carr explained the adaptive or adjustive behaviour. At Chicago, functionalism Promoted the study of objective, overt behaviour. Functionalism helped to redefine American psychology to the point where eventually it would focus only on behaviour banishing the study of the mind altogether. Although the primary development and founding of the functionalist school of thought occurred at the University of Chicago, another approach was being shaped by Robert Woodworth at Columbia University. Columbia was also the academic base for two other psychologists with a functional orientation. One was James Mckeen Cattell and the other was E. L, Thorndike, Whose research on problems of animal learning reinforced the functionalist trend toward greater objectivity. Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869-1962) At Columbia University Woodworth shaped another approach. Columbia was also the academic base for J. M. Cattell and E. L. Thorndike. Dynamic Psychology Woodworth did not belong formally to the functionalist school like Angell and Carr. Much of his work was written in functionalist spirit. Woodworth was interested in what people do and why they do. He was primarily interested in motivations, so he called his psychology as dynamic psychology. Woodworh introduced into functionalism a “dynamic psychology” that elaborated the teaching of John Dewey and William James, Woodworth emphasized the physiological events that underlie behaviour. His dynamic psychology focused on cause and effect relationship and his primary interest was in the forces that drive or motivate human beings. He believed that psychology’s goal should be to determine why people behave as they do. ists should not explain the behaviour in reference to stimulus eae Pacing They should not miss the important part of their study the living organism itself. Woodworth chose the symbols S-O-R to de his theory in order to emphasize the Importance of the organism. He term mechanism to refer to the way an organism interacts withni res the organism’s b Woodworth suggested, the subject both consciousness and Behaviour, The external stimul tl janism’s overt response may be observed objectively, but _ inside the organism can be known only through introspe Woodworth accepted introspection as a useful tool for psychology a observational and experimental methods. He had a wide variety of ideas, and delivered lectures on such | as abnormal psychology, social psychology, tests and statistics, he ge “seminars on movement, vision, memory, thinking and motivatio believed that psychologists should accept valid information about humans, matter from where it comes. He maintained eclectic attitude. é Criticism of Functionalism : 1. One criticism on functionalism was that the term’itself had not b defined clearly. Harvey Carr explained the exact definition supported the term. 2. Another criticism from Titchener and his follower relates to th definition of psychology as a whole. an Critics also found faults with their interest in practical concerns. 4. Ruckmick, a student of Titchener, examined different text books determine how the term functionalism is defined. He charged that th functional psychologists were being inconsistent and ambiguous, — sometimes use this term to describe an activity and sometimes ref to its usefulness. Harvey Carr argued that the two definitions of bott referred to the same processes. 7 This practical application of psychology to real life problem is amo functionalism’s most important and lasting contribution. 4 Contributions ae Functionalist had an immense impact on the development psychology in USA. 2. . Research on animal behaviour, became an area of psychology. The functionalists also included studies of infants, children, and pe with mental disabilities, Functional psychologist supplemented the introspective other methods to collect data such as Physiological research, | tests, questionnaire, and objective description of behaviour. Functionalist as a school of thought did not finished but main stream of psychology. Functionalist lost its di Ise most of its major tenets were assimilatedHistorical. As they made the psychology more applied and pec and tried to apply psychological knowledge to real wal rae never apologized for their practical interests. Functionalism left its imprint on contemporary American psychology most significantly through its emphasis on the application of the methods and findings of psychology to the solution of practical problems. __Wundt and Titchener’s structuralism could not long survive in their original form in the American intellectual climate, so they evolved into functionalism. James, Angell and Carr developed the functional approach in academic laboratories while others were applying it in settings outside the universities. Psychology prospered a lot in America. The nature of American psychology changed immensely under the influence of functional approach. Psychology is no longer restricted to lecture halls or laboratories but extends into many areas of everyday life. The applied psychologists took their psychology into the real world, into the schools, factories, advertising agencies, courthouses, child guidance clinics, and mental health centers. Today applied psychologists work in testing, educational and school psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, -industrial/organizational psychology, forensic psychology, community psychology, health and rehabilitation ‘psychology, family services, exercise and sports psychology, military psychology, media psychology, addictive behaviour, religion, cultures and concerns of minority groups. BEHAVIOURISM Behaviourism was a revolutionary movement. It was promoted by John B. Watson. John Broadus Watson (1878 - 1958) Functional psychologists were not eager to formalize their position. The movement toward functionalism was evolutionary. In 1913, a protest movement intended to shatter the image of previous both schools. This evolutionary movement was called behaviourism. It was promoted by 35 years old psychologist John B, Watson. Watson just wanted to smash both of the schools, He wanted no modification of the past, or compromise with It. Basic Tenets The basic tenets of Watson's behaviourism were simple, direct and bold. He called for a scientific psychology that dealt only with observable behavioural acts that could be described objectively in terms of stimulus’ and “Response”, Watson's psychology would reject all mentalistic concepts and terms. According to Watson such words as image, sensation, consciousness were meaningless for a science of behaviour. He believed consciousness had no value for behavioural psychologist. Further he consciousness had never been seen, touched, smelled, 0 Therefore introspection, which assumed the existence of became irrelevant of no use to a science of behaviour. ee +e 6 _An Introduction to Psychology k Like all founders, Watson organized and promoted Ideas ay that already were acceptable in society. Watson effectively brought the major force (i.e. objectivism and mechanism, animal psychology functional approach) to form his system of behavioural psychology. ‘So objectivistic, mechanistic and materialistic influence inevitably led to » Kind of psychology i.e. behaviourism, .a science of behaviour that vi human beings as a machines, Study of Behaviour Watson ciaimed behaviourism is a direct outgrowth of studies in animal behaviour during the first decade of 20" century. Watson insisted that psychology must restrict itself to the subjective study of behaviour. Only the most stringéntly objective methods of investigation Were acceptable in the behaviourist’s laboratory. To Watson these methods included; Observation with or without the use of instruments Testing methods The verbal report method The conditioned reflex method » TS The primary subject matter for Watson’s behavioural Psychology was the elements of behaviour, i.e. the muscular movements and glandular secretions. As a science of behaviour, psychology would deal only with acts that could be described objectively, In methods and subject matter Watson behaviourism was an attempt to construct a science free of subjective notion _ and methods, a science as objective as physics. Watson treated three major topics, instincts, emotions, and thoughts. Like all systematic theorists, Watson developed his psychology in accordance with the underlying belief that all areas of behaviour would be considered in objective stimulus - response terms. Extreme Objectivity Watson stirred the public for a society based on Scientifically shaped and controlled behaviour, free of myths, customs and conventional behaviours. But not all psychologists were ready to accept the extreme objectivity that Watson proposed. Many psychologists including some who supported the principle of objectivity, believed that Watson’s program omitted important components such as sensory and perceptual process. Watson's Personality To some degrée, the acceptance of Watsonian behaviourism was a function of Watson's personality, A charismatic figure, he Projected his ideas with enthusiasm, optimism, and self confidence, He was strong and appealing speaker who scorned traditional and rejected the current psychology. These personal qualities, plus the spirit of the times as he manipulated effectively declared Watson as one of psychology’s pioneers. By the 1920, the field of psychology had already captured the public's attention. Given’ Watson’s charisma, personal charm, persuasiveness, message of hope, Americans were in trance of Psychology, Much of the was convinced that psychology provided the path to health, happiness, | prosperity. Watson suggested that Pavlov's work on the conditionedBea? a ee a could be used to explain human as well as animal's be never fully accepted or used Pavlovian concepts in his work. Prediction and Control Watson elaborated a stimulus response he stated the goal of psychology as the prediction and control of be He stated “psychology from the standpoint of behaviourism is concer the prediction and control of human action and not with an analysis « consciousness”. Watson says “I believe we’ can write a psychology, define i as Pillsbury, and never go back upon-.our definition, never use the term ~ consciousness mental. states, mind, content, introspectively verifiable, imagery and the like....... It can be done in terms of stimulus and response, in - terms of habit formation, habit integration and the like”. : Watson did not use the term stimulus and response in as narrow a sense’ as the Russian psychologists, For him a stimulus could be a general environmental situation or some internal condition of the organism. A response was anything the organism did. For Watson there were four types of behaviour. Explicit learned behaviour; such as talking, writing, playing baseball. » _ Implicit learned behaviour; such as the increased heart rate caused by the sight of road accident. > Explicit unlearned behaviour; suct’ as grasping, blinking and sneezing. Implicit unlearned behaviour; such as glandular secretions and circulatory changes. According to Watson, everything that a person does, including thinking, falls into one of these categories. 2 Watson had to reduce language and thinking to some form of, behaviour and nothing more. Speech is a type of overt behaviour. Thinking is implicit sub-vocal speech. Watson believed that humans inherit the emotions of fear, rage and love. All adult emotions such as hate, pride, jealousy and shame are derived from fear, rage and love. Watson’s productive career in psychology lasted fewer than 20 years, but he profoundly affected the course of psychology’s development for, many years to come. Watson made psychology more objective in methods and terminology. His behaviourism effectively overcame the earller mainstream positions in psychology. William McDougall (1871-1938) One of the Watson's more forceful opponents was W. McDougall, He is known for his instinct theory of behaviour and for the impetus his book on. social psychology gave to that area. McDougall instinct theory states that human behaviour de innate tendencies to thought and action. Although initially this idea | received, it rapidly post lost ground to behaviourism. Watson notion of instincts. : a —jgall redefined psychology as the i logy ay be best and most comprehensi itive science of the conduct of living creatures’. cae _ Purposive Behaviour McDougall did not deny the importai events. Hé thought that one could study such events objectively by their influence on behaviour. McDougall studied purposive behaviour y different from reflexive behaviour. McDougall saw behaviour as goa and stimulated by some instinctual motive rather than by envi events. He believed that purposive nature of behaviour is the most j aspect. He referred to his position as “hormic” psychology. ( “Horme” means urge) Instincts A belief in instincts formed the core of McDougall theory. Acc to McDougall, all organisms are born with a number of instincts that provid the motivation to act in certain ways. Perception, Behaviour and tion are the three components of each instinct. In 1908 the English psychologist William McDougall stimulated interest in studying social behaviour with the publication of his b “Introduction to Social Psychology”. The book had gone through fou editions by the early 1920's. By the 1920's with the publication of a second basic text on the subject by Floyd Allport, social psychology had emerged as a lively branch of the study of behaviour. In the 1980's this branch include some of the most interesting and useful work done in psychology. e.g. what does language communicate? How do people influence each other? How do people interpret others behaviour? How do they form attitude? What kinds advertising and political propaganda change attitude? There are some of the questions social psychologists pursue and answer. 7 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) He was one of the important researchers in the development of anil psychology. Thorndike fashioned a mechanistic, objective learning theory t focused on overt behaviour. He believed that psychology must. stud} behaviour, not mental elements or conscious experiences. He expl learning on terms of concrete connections between stimuli and responses. (H argued that behaviour must be reduced to its simplest elements; stimu response units) as they are elements of behaviour, Laws of Learning On the basis of his observation and experimentat animal's behaviour he introduced learning based on the repetition of tendencies that leads to success. This kind of learning has come to be kt as trial and error learning, although, he preferred to call it trial and success, This learning is based on the repetition of response tendenck lead to success. Thorndike introduced law of effect and law of e series of experiments on animals, He named them as laws of learning. — Thorndike investigations of human and animal learning are most significant research programs in the history of psych logy. 7 awork not al practices, verbal behaviour, testing, transfer of training and the measui jomena. : ___ Watson wrote that Thorndike’s research laid the fou behaviourism. Pavlov also paid the tribute to Thorndike. Like Thorndike had a penchant to measure everything. He believed (like telligence to be highly heritable. He believed that educational e should be stratified according to student's native intellectual ability. Thorndike’s work was to have a significant influence on psychology, and it can be seen as representing the transition from school of behaviour. Although Thorndike is generally viewed as being within the framework of » functionalism because he believed that only useful associations are selected and maintained. His insistence that learning occurs without ideation brought him very close to being a behaviourist. i 2 NEO BEHAVIOURISM Watson's behaviourism was the first stage in the evolution of behavioural school to thought. 7% The second stage, neo-behaviourism can be dated from 1930 to about 1960, and_includes the work of Tolman, Hull and Skinner. These neo- behaviourists agreed on several points, which are as follows; ‘~ ~The core of psychology is the study of learning. : Most behaviour can be accounted for by the laws of conditioning. Psychology must adopt the principle of operationism. The 3rd stage in behaviourism’s evolution, neo-behaviourism, socio- behaviourism, dates from about 1960 to the present. This stage includes the work of Bandura and Rotter and is distinguished by a return to the” consideration of cognitive processes while “maintaining a focus on the — observation of overt behaviour. Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959) ‘ .@ Tolman’s approach to behaviourism is presented in his book, *Purposive Behaviour, in Animals and Man”. His term purposive ie a ‘a system combining the objective study of behaviour with the con: purposiveness. Like Watson, he rejected introspection. ‘As a behaviourist, Tolman believed that both the initiati behaviour and the final resulting behaviour must be capabl ‘observation and operational definition, He listed five independent causes of behaviour. ae i ‘= Environmental stimull Physiological drives~ Heredity Previous training Behaviour is a function of these five variables. Between the independent variables and the resulting response behaviour a(deng variable) Tolman inferred a set of unobserved factors, the intery variables, which the actual determinants of behaviour. By specifying the independent and dependant variables whic observable events, Tolman was able to provide operational definitio internal states. He initially referred to his approach as operationg behaviourism before selecting as operational behaviourism before selecti the more precise term “intervening variable”. Tolman proposed a cognitive explanation for learning, suggest that repeated performance of a task strengthens the learned relationship b environmental cues and the organism's expectation. In, this way, orga gets to know its environment. Tolman called these learned relationships “sign Gestalts,” and they are built up by the continued performance of a task, Tolman in also considered as a forerunner of contemporary cognitive psychology, his work had great impact on problems of learning and his concept of intervening variable. Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952) : Clark Hull and his followers dominated American psychology from the 1940's Until the 1960's. during this era he was considered the most devoted psychologist to the problems of the scientific method. He applied his mathematical and logical command to psychological theory. His form behaviourism was more sophisticated and complex than Watson. Machines According to Hull, behaviourists should regard their subjects machines, and human organism is one of the most extraordinary mad He made it clear that method of study would be objective and quanti He explained how a mathematically defined psychology would develop. followers would need discipline, commitment and patience. Method He introduced fourth method for scientific research as already thre methods were widely in use. They were simple observation, systemati controlled observation, and the experimental testing of hypotheses: proposed hypothetico-deductive method. Which involves esta Postu'ates, from which experimentally testable conclusions can be dey Need Seduction Theory Hull explained two types of drive, prit seconaury. He also introduced law of primary reinforcement. He st learning cannot take place in the absence of reinforcement, necessary to bring about. a reduction of the drive. The reinforcement characterizes Hull's system as a need-reduction Reduction or satisfaction of drive is thesole basis of reinforcement. —response. If a response made in a certain situation leads to drive uct on, h strength is said to increase. For Hull increase in habit strength co nst learning. Hull’s theory can be seen as an elaboration of Woodworth’ concept. Hull attempted to create a general behaviour theory that all sciences could use to explain human behaviour. j Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) B. F. Skinner was the world’s most influential psychologist for decades, who made a permanent mark on psychology. He is considered, “leading figure in behaviour science of this century”. In 1950's Skinner was the major embodiment of American behavioural psychology. He attracted a large, loyal, and enthusiastic band of followers. He developed a program for the behavioural control of society, promoted behaviour modification techniques and invented an automated crib for tending infants. Skinner advocated an empirical system with no theoretical framework within which to conduct research. Skinner's behaviourism is devoted to the study of responses. He was concerned with describing rather than explaining behaviour. His research dealt only with observable behaviour. He believed that task of scientific inquiry is to establish functional relationships between experimentally controlled conditions and the organism's subsequent responses. i: He differentiated between respondent and operant behaviour. Skinner: called reflexive behaviour as respondent behaviour, because it is elicited by a known stimulus. Operant behaviourist operates on the environment in such a way as to produce consequences. Operant behaviour is simply emitted by the organism. The most important aspect of operant behaviour is that it Is controlled by its consequences, what went on within the organism is — unimportant. Skinner's purely descriptive behaviourism has been called the organism approach. He introduced law of acquisition, which states, strength of an operant behaviour: increase when it is folloy presentation of a reinforcing stimulus. He introduced the reinforcement. Lah aire ea Criticism of Skinner's bahay core has been | “extreme positivism and opposition to theory. Critics argu 0 all theorizing. Skinner's ove ! ar /, Despite the |laboratory, cial organizational and other real world setti challenged by the work of the neo-behaviourists, including and Julian Rotter who take a more socio-behavioural approach. For Skinner there is no talk of drive reduction, satisfying affairs, or any other mechanism of reinforcement. A reinforcer i that when made contingent on a response, changes the rate with whi . __ fesponse is made. Reinforcement can be identified only through its ef behaviour. Behaviour Modification Skinner persuaded many behavioural psycholog that with an awareness of environmental conditions and the applica Positive reinforcement, human behaviour could be guided, modified shaped. Modification of human behaviour, individually and in small group, can be seen widespread. Behaviour modification through positive reinforcement. a frequently used clinical application in mental hospitals, factories, pris. and schools to change undesirable behaviours to more acceptable ones. Behaviour modification works with people the same way o Conditioning works to change the behaviour of rats and pigeons, due to Positive and negative reinforcement. Operant conditioning and reinforcement have been applied in the workplace, where behaviour modification programs _ have been used to reduce absenteeism, improve job performance and safe work practices, and technical job skills. Behaviour modification has also been successful in altering the behaviour of patient in mental hospitals. By rewarding patients for appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for goods or privileges and positive behavioural changes can be’ induces by not reinforcing negative or disruptive behaviours. Punishment is not a part of behaviour modification program. to Skinner, people should not be punished for failing to behave in d ways. Instead they are to be reinforced or rewarded when their bel changes in positive ways. Albert Bandura (1925) Bandura, Rotter and their followers are primarily behaviourists, their form of behaviourism is considered social learning approach, later called a social cognitive approach, Bandura’s social cognitive theory is extreme form of behaviourism. His research focus was to behaviour of human subjects in interaction, He did not use introspection modifying sehaviour. : Vicarious Learning Bandura’s system is cognitive as well as b agrees with Skinner that human behaviour can be reinforcement, yet direct reinforcement is not necessary empirically demonstrated and supported that we can learn tl [eeboreement, by observing how other people behave andLearning by vicarious” reinforcement indicates the n icates the ce anticipate and appreciated consequences one observes i Modeling Bandura suggests that there is not < ; and response, or between behaviour and anroicaniont Gate mechanism is interposed between stimulus and. response, a mechanism is the person's cognitive processes. So, cognitive process ha powerful role in Bandura’s social cognitive theory. We learn “through modeling” and patterning on behaviour rather than learning by direct — reinforcement. So Bandura’s approach is social learning theory, because ‘studies behaviour formed and modified in social situation. y This theory has been widely accepted in psychology as an effective way to study behaviour in the laboratory and to modify it in clinical settings. __ Albert Bendura stresses that behaviour is determined not only by environmental conditions but also by how thoughts modify the effects of environment on behaviour. He believes that imitation is one of the main ways in which we learn about our world. : To reproduce a model’s behaviour, we must enter and store the information in memory, which is mental (cognitive) process. Thus social cognitive theorists have broadened the scope of behaviourism to include not only observed behaviour, but also the ways in which the mind processes information about the environment. Julian Rotter (1916) Rotter was the first psychologist to use the term, “social learning theory”. He developed a cognitive form of behaviourism, Rotter's laboratory research was rigorous and well controlled typical of the behaviourist movement. He studied only human subjects and social interaction. Rotter believed that we perceive ourselves as conscious beings capable of influencing the experiences that affect our lives. Rotter focused considerable research on our beliefs about the source of our reinforcers. Locus of Control Some people believe reinforcement depend on their own: behaviour, these people are said to have internal locus of control. Other people believe reinforcement depends on outside forces such as fate, luck oF the actions of other people they are said to have external locus of control. Rotter’s research has shown that internal locus of control people tend to be physically and mentally healthier than external locus of control people. He also developed a test to measure locus of control. Bandura, Rotter and the other neo-behaviourist who support the — cognitive approach still consider theméelves behaviourists. Behaviourism helped shape the course of psychology during first half of this century and ‘out growth, stimulus response psychology, is still influential. Response psychology (S -R) studies the stimuli that elicit responses, the rewards and punishment that maintain these the modifications of behaviour obtained by changing the palMany mod f behaviourists. f “GESTALT SCHOOL German protesters focused their attack on Wundt's elementis believed that we do not experience things in isolated pieces — meaningful, intact configurations. We do not see patches of green b fed; we see people; cars, trees and clouds. These are meaningful, i conscious experiences. German word for “configuration”, “form” a who Gestalt, so this new type of psychology was called Gestalt psychology. The Gestalts were opposed to any type of elementism in psycholo The attempt to reduce consciousness or behaviour to the basic elements called the molecular approach to psychology.’ Wundt, Titchener, Pavlov a Watson used an approach. Gestalt argued that a molar approach should taken. According to molar approach consciousness would mean concentrating on phenomenological experience. The term phenomenon means “that which appears” so phenomenology is the study of that which naturally appears'in. Greerousness a technique used by Gestalists, i.e. concentrating on goal directed behaviour. The Gestalts were clearly holists. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) In 1910, Max Wertheimer launched the idea of Gestalt psychology. Therefore, he is considered ine iounder of Gestalt Psychology. The idea was that our perceptions are structuied in ways.that sensory stimulation not enough. Our perceptions are different from the sensations that comprise them. Wertheimer introduced the concept of phi-phenomenon. This Phenomenon is usually taken as the formal beginning of the school of Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt psychologists believe that there is more to perception t meets the eye. In other words, our perception goes beyond the $@ elements, the basic physical data provided to the sense organ. Phi-phenomenon For Wertheimer's research problem, Koffka and Kohle! served as subjects, involved perceiving apparent movement, i.e. perce| motion when no actual physical movement has taken place. Wert! referred to it as the “impression” o| phenomenon. He argued that it di perceived and could not be reduce: He disliked the term “apparent” motion because it implied motion was not really perceived. He later Concluded, we perc meaningful figures, not elements that somehow combine to form only is the whole different from the sum of its parts, but “the part are themselves, determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole. Pegs| publication Wertheimer’s publication in 1912, as Exp tion of Movement was considered the formi ‘school of thought. He continued to work on perception and e earlier interest in problem solving. The outcome was productive thit pemaap ed Education Wertheimer was concerned with the application of Gestal to education. He concluded that problem creates a cognitive disequi ‘and the solution restores a cognitive harmony and this restoration is actual reinforcement. Because learning and problem solving are perso satisfying, they are governed by intrinsic rather than extrinsic reinforce cs Wertheimer thought we are motivated to learn and to solve problems because itis personally satisfying. Learning based on Gestalt’s principle is based on an understanding of the structure of the problem; it is easily remembered and generalized to other relevant situation, He gave delightful examples of productive problem solving. : Wertheimer launched Gestalt psychology with his research on a perceptual phenomenon, apparent motion, and the study of perception, became an important part of the Gestalt program. Their major effort was to describe the basic determining rules how phenomenon become organized into whole, meaningful figures (these Gestalt organizing principles first articulated by Wertheimer). Principles of. Perceptual Organization Wertheimer presented the principles of perceptual organization of the Gestalt school of psychology In & paper published in 1923. He asserted that we perceive objects in the same way We perceive apparent motion, as unified wholes rather than clustels of individual sensations. These Gestalt principles are essential rules by which We organize our perceptual world. One underlying premise is that perceptual organization occur instantly, whenever we sense various shapes or patterns, Perceptual organization is spontaneous and inevitable whenever we look or listen. ~ Proximity, continuity, similarity, closure, simplicity and figure and ground are the principles of perceptual organization. These organizing principles do not depend on higher mental processes or past experiences but are present in ~ ‘timull themselves. Wertheimer believed that the details of a problem should be considered only in relation to the total situation. Further problem solving should proceed from the whole problem downward to the parts, not the reverse. He challenged traditional educational practices, such as mechanical _ drill and rote learning. He found repetition to be rarely productive and cited as evidence a student's inability to solve a variation of a problem when t solution had been learned by rote rather than grasped by insight. He z that facts such as names and dates should be learned by rote, thi association strengthened by repetition. He conceded that useful for some purpose, but he maintained that repetition mechanical performance rather than to understanding ort thinking. a I" ee to study Wer pers | these observations Maslow developed the concept and fatter promoted humanistic psychology. Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) Kurt Koffka was the most inventive of Gestalt psychology, long fruitful association with Wertheimer and Kohler at the Univ Frankfurt. ¥ Koffka wrote an: article for the American Journal “Perce; introduction to Gestalt theory”. He presented the basic concepts o Psychology along with the results and implications of considerable The word perception in the title created the lingering misunderstandi Gestalt psychologists dealt exclusively ‘with perception and movement had no relevance for other areas of psychology. Gestalt psychology was more broadly concerned with ¢9 Processes, with problems of thinking, learning, and other aspects of conscig experience. In 1921, he. extended Gestalt ideas into the realm developmental psychology by writing “The Growth'of the Mind”. In 1935, wrote his most important book “Principles of Gestalt Psychology” 4 Koffka made an important distinction between the world as it is, he called the geographical environment, and the world as we perceive ity behavioural environment. It is the latter perception that determines how act. The distinction between physical reality and reality as perceived Koffka to a point that would soon be elaborated by Kurt Lewin, with fi concept of “life space”. 7” Wolfgang Kohlar (1887-1967) «Kohlar was the spokesman for the Gestalt movement, His bot written with care and precision became standard works on @ psychology. § Kohlar spent 7 years studying the behaviour of chimpanz recorded his work “The Mentality of Apes”. He produced his most research the study of problem solving in apes. His publication na and Stationary Physical Gestalts (1920), a book that won considerab its high level of scholarship. Kohlar Suggested that Gestalt theory | general law of nature that should be extended to all the sciences. Insight Kohler argued the solutions to problems occur when indi view the entire problem field and rearrange the elements of the p a new configuration. Solutions have a Perceptual quality to them, occur quickly, once the components have been reconfigured. term insight to label such a process. In Gestalt view, the orga able to perceive the relationships among the various par before insight learning can occur: Research reinforced the learning involves a reorganization of one’s Psychological en\the essence, or ultimate meaning of an experience. Sensory inforn be fragmented and incomplete, but when the information interacts force fields in the brain, the resultant cognitive experience is comp! € organized. The law of pragnanz asserts that all cognitive experiences. be as organized, symmetrical, simple and regular as they can be, give, Pattern of brain activity at any given movement. Perceptual Constancies Perceptual constancy refers to the way we res, to objects as if they were the same, even though the actual stimulation 9 senses receive may vary greatly. The empiricists explained percepty, Constancies as the result of learning. But Gestalt disagreed; Kohler asserteg_ that constancies are a direct reflection of ongoing brain activity and not q result of sensation plus learning. The perception cannot be explained simply as a collection of elements or the sum of the parts. The perception is a whole, a Gestalt, any attempt tp analyze or reduce it to elements will destroy it. According to Kohlar the word Gestalt can be used to refer to objects as well as to their characteristic forms. The term is not restricted to the visual or even the total sensory field. It may encompass learning, thinking, emotions _ and behaviour. Gestalt psychologists used the term in general functional sense and they attempted to deal with the entire province of psychology. Contribution as School of Thought The Gestalt movement left an indelible imprint on psychology and influenced work on perceptions, learning, thinking, Personality, social psychology and motivation. Separate Identity Gestalt psychology retained its separate identity. Its major tenets were not fully absorbed into mainstream psychological thought. It continued to foster interest in conscious experience as a legitimate problem for psychology. A phenomenological approach to psychology is more widely accepted by European psychologists than it is in United States. Its influence can be — seen in the American humanistic psychology movement. Many aspects of contemporary cognitive psychology also owe their origins to Gestalt. psychology. The Gestalt focus on conscious experience was not like the approach of Wundt and Titchener but centered on a modern version phenomenology.’ Contemporary adherents of the Gestalt position believe that consciol experience does occur and is legitimate subject for study. Influence of Gestalt psychology can be seen on the humanistic Psychology movement phenomenological approach as well. Many aspects of contemporary cogni psychology owe their origins to Gestalt Psychology. Kurt Lewin is usually not considered a founder of Gestalt p He worked with Wertheimer, Koffka and Kohlar. Most of his work can be as an extension or application of Gestalt Principles to the topics of motiv personality and group dynamics.Slow Impact Gestalt psychology had slow i ‘aa Peerraisne beestiek ct cevera| ressors, Mpa ce First behaviourism was at the peak of its popularity. = Second there was the language barri ublica asap digg ne guage barrier. The major Gestalt publicati ‘~ Thirdly many psychologists incorrectly believed Sah dealt only with perception. M waa Fourth the founder Wertheimer, Koffka and Kohlar a z a settled at small colleges in the USA that did not have graduate programs, so it was difficult for them to attract disciples to carry on their ideas. ~ Fifth reason was that American psychology had advanced for beyond the ideas of Wundt and Titchener, which the Gestalt psychologists were opposing ism of Gestalt Psychology & — Critics of the Gestalt school of thought change that the organization of perceptual processes was not approached as a scientific problem. Experimental psychologists assert that the Gestalt position is vague and that basic concepts are not defined with sufficient rigor to be scientifically meaningful. Gestalt’s experimental work is inferior to behavioural psychology research because it lacks adequate controls and its un-quantified data are not amenable to statistical analysis: ~ Kohler’s notion of insight has also been questioned: | Suis psychologists consider Gestalts psychologists to be using poorly defined physiological assumptions. PSYCHOANALYSIS The term psychoanalysis and the name Sigmund Freud are recognized throughout the modern world. Other prominent people in’ the history of psychology, such as Fechner, Wundt and Titchener are little known outside psychology. Freud has maintained a high level of visibility among the gener! public (he appeared on the cover of Time Magazine three times, the last time 60 years after his death.) he is one of a handful of Freud undoubtedly would have agreed that individuals pivotal in the history of civilization who have altered the way humans think about themselves. Freud suggested that in all recorded history, there have been three great shocks to the collective human ego. TS first was when Copernicus showed us thi yt the Sanus mi The second revelation came when demonstrated that we are only a higher form from lower forms of animal life, and Freud a nroclaiming that we are not the rational rulerp of our lives _ influences of unconscious forces of which we are unaware,psychological problems are caused by disturbed human between these parent children relationships are most important. Basic Needs and Anxiety She believed that every child has needs, to be safe from pain, dangér and fear and to have biological satisfied. When child feels lonely and helpless in hostile world, basic a occurs. Basic anxiety is the fundamental concept in Horney’s system. Adjustment Pattern Horney’s describes three major adjustment patterns tg cope basic anxiety. Horney agreed with Freud on the importance. of ¢ childhood experience and unconscious motivation. She was much optimistic about people's ability to change their personalities. Her optimism about the possibility of avoiding neurosis was welcomed by psychologists ang _ Psychiatrist as well. THE HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY In the early 1960's a group of psychologists headed by Abraham Maslow started a movement referred to as third force psychology. These Psychologists claimed that the other two forces in psychology, behaviourism and psychoanalysis, neglected a number of important human attributes. They said that by applying the techniques used by the natural sciences to the study of humans, behaviourism likened humans to robots, lower animals, or computers. For the behaviourist there was nothing unique about humans. Modern humanistic psychology began as a protest movement against behaviourism and psychoanalysis. Humanistic psychologist criticized scientific Psychology in general because it modeled itself after the physical sciences by. assuming determinism and seeking lawfulness among classes of events Scientific. Psychology excluded many. important human attributes from study, due to the difficulty of measurement. Processes such as willing, valuing, and seeking meaning are examples of such attributes, as are such emotions as love, guilt, despair, happiness, and hope. The major argument against psychoanalysis was that it concentrated mainly on emotionally disturbed people and on developing techniques for making abnormal people normal. According to third force information must be _ given to already healthy individuals that is to reach their full potential to become healthier. They viewed that a model of human was needed that attempted to provide. Against Determinism Third force Psychology remains _ influential contemporary psychology. It contrasts vividly with most other types, becé it does no. assume determinism in explaining human behaviour. It that humans are free to choose their own type of existence. Il attributing the causes of behaviour to stimuli, drive state, genetics or experience, third force psychologists claim that the most important behaviour is subjective reality, Because these Psychologists do noti sy eae n Science Science in its present form is n understand human nature. A new human scienc science world not studies humans as the physical sci objects. Rather it would study humans as aware, choosing, val and unique beings in the universe. Traditional science does not | must therefore be rejected. : Positive Qualities It emphasizes a person’s positive qualities, the ¢ for positive growth, and freedom to choose any destiny. Hun psychologists Maslow and Rogers stress that people have the a control, their lives and avoid being manipulated by the environment. Mor over people can choose to live by higher human values, such as altruism and — free will. They also think that people have tremendous potential for self understanding and that the way to help others achieve self understanding is by being warm and supportive. Rogers rejected the assumption that people are controlled by instincts, _ just as he rejected the notion that people are controlled mainly by biological forces or rewards and punishment. Humanistic approach which is also known as the phenomenological approach, it holds that people control themselves and that each person is essentially good, with an innate tendency to grow” towards his or her potential. Personal Perception According to this approach behaviour is determined primarily by each person’s capacity to choose how to think and act. These choices are dictated by each individual's unique perception of the world. If ‘one perceives the world as a friendly place, one is likely to feel happy and secure, but if one views it as dangerous and hostile one will probably be defensive and anxious. The humanistic approach does not lead to a search for laws that govern the perceptions, judgments, decisions, and action of people in general. ‘ The humanistic approach celebrates immediate, individual experiences. Many of its proponents assert that behaviour and mental processes can be understood not through universal laws but, rather, through appreciating perceptions and feelings that can be fully experienced only. by the involved, The humanistic approach was endorsed and elaborated by At Maslow, Vikor Frankl and others who become prominent theorists influences in psychology today is limited, mainly because many ps find it too vague. % ‘ Humanistic psychology, which rejects the should be entirely, scientific, sees humans as indivisible w " to reduce them to habits, cognitive structures, or S-R ¢Subjective reality is the primary guide for human. behavio Studying individuals is more informative then studying wt individuals have in common. Each human is: unique, learned about one human is irrelevant to the understanding A major effort should be made to discover those things that, and enrich human experience. A Research should seek information that will help solve human pro The goal of psychology should be to formulate a complete des of what it means to be a human being. Such, a description include the importance of languages the valuing process, the ful of human emotions and the ways humans seek and attain meanj their lives. Humans have a free will, so they are responsible for their action: Phenomenology is the most appropriate method to study the in subjective experience. To be understood, the human must be studied as a whole. Hedonism is not a major motive in human behaviour. Ins seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, humans seek meaningful characterized by personal growth. » Living an authentic live better then in authentic. Human beings can't be studied objectively or scientifically. 9 os. 99 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Maslow has been called the spiritual father of humanistic psychd and probably did more than anyone else to spark the movement and on it some degree of academic respectability. Abraham Maslow is re as the most responsible for making humanistic psychology and formed B of psychology. He was driven to understand the greatest achieveme which we are capable. He studied small sample but there were outste and different from normal average individual. First Humanistic Psychologist It is argued that Alfred Adler shi considered the first humanistic psychologist because he defined a hea style as one reflecting a considerable amount of social interest 2 concept of creative self stressed that what a person becomes in matter of personal choice. Certainly Adler's Peery had much in comm the theories latter called humanistic. Non-Scientific According to Maslow, psychologists often use ‘method to cut themselves off from the poetic, romantic, and spiritu of human nature. Humanistic psychologists flatly reject the goal of | and céntrolling human behaviour Which so many scienti psychologists accept.Hierarchy of Needs According to Maslow human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. The lower the needs in the hierarchy, the more basic they are and the more similar they are to the needs of other animals. Higher the needs in ‘the hierarchy, the more distinctly human they are. Maslow’s proposed hierarchy of need can be arranged as psychological _needs-safety- belongingness-to the self actualization. Fe Self Actualization By self actualization Maslow meant reaching one’s full human potential. In this respect Maslow states musicians must make music, artists must paint, poets must write if they are to be ultimately at peace with themselves. What humans can be, they must be. They must be true to their — ‘own nature. This need is called self actualization. Basic Assumption The humanists assume that humans are basically good, if placed in a healthy environment they will naturally live a harmonious life. For humanists, the major motivation in life is the actualizing tendency, which is innate and which continually drives a person toward those activities and events conducive to self-actualization. It stresses the unique quality of the human spirit. Humanistic psychologists take the views that we human being are totally different from other organisms. We are distinguished by the fact that we have values and goals, we seek to express ourselves, to grow to fulfill ourselves, and to find peace and happiness. Our thought and aspirations appear to be the most important of all aspects of behaviour. The humanistic psychologists take a broad and very hopeful view of the true quality of human nature, its accomplishments, and its potentialities. They believe that human beings are strongly motivated to realize their possibilities for creativity, dignity and self-worth. The techniques of psychotherapy used by humanistic psychologists are built around the assumption that people will always grow in a constructive way if their environment permits them to do so. In general, humanistic psychologists are not particularly interested in studying specific aspect of behaviour. They do not analyze human behaviour by breaking it down into fragments, In some ways they are more oriented toward philosophy, literature and religion. -Many humanistic psychologists have been associated with efforts to ‘expand consciousness and achieve unity of mind and body through encounter IPS, sensitivity training and other kinds of mental and physical “reachingAt the time of his death in 1970 Maslow's ideas were influe only within psychology but also in fields such as medicine, : mai theology, education and nursing. Existential Psychology Existential psychology is related to humay Psychology in many ways. It also emphasizes the quality of the human spi _ They believe strongly in the importance of freewill. They maintain that events in our lives do not control our destinies, it is actually our own attit toward the events which we are free to choose for ourselves, We are alj responsible for our own behaviour, since we can make our own decision and thus control our own attitudes and thoughts and rise above even the most adverse events in our environment. The techniques of psychotherapy used by existential psychologists are designed to create a sense of identity and self determination that fosters commitment and love. 4 Freedom to Choose The existentialist’s views human nature as essentially neutral. For them the only thing we are born with is the freedom to choose ( the nature of our existence. Most existential philosophers view. that there is no human essence at birth. We are free to choose our own essence as a unique human being. Sartre says, “Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself such is the first principle of existentialism”. We can exercise our freedom to create any type of life we wish, good or bad. The major motive in life is to create meaning by effectively making choices. Pessimistic Approach Many existential thinkers have reached the conclusion that without meaning, life is not worth living, but that with meaning, humans can tolerate almost any conditions. The existentialists are more pessimistic, For them humans have no built in guidance system but only the freedom to choose, because we are free, we cannot blame God, our parents, genetics, or circumstances for our misfortune only ourselves. Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987) He is best known for a popular approach to psychotherapy called person centered therapy. Rogers also advanced a Personality theory based on a single motivational factor similar to Maslow’s concept of self-actualization. Roger's ideas did mot derive from that study of emotionally healthy people but from applying his therapy on his subjects. The name of Roger's, — therapy indicates his view of the human personality. He places the responsibility for improvement on the individual rather than on the therapist. He assumed that people can consciously and rationally. change thelt thoughts and behaviours form undesirable to desirable, He-agreed that personality is shaped, by the present and how we consciously perceive it. Fully Functioning Person He stressed that the greatest motivating force personality is the drive to actualize the self. He explained the role of regard in for healthy personality. Roger's called psychologically - person as fully functioning person, ally Roger's unique person centered therapy has had a major psychology. His, personality theory was also well weds ReCriticism = - in clinical settings. have generated considerable supportive Humanistic psychology equates behaviourism with the work and Skinner and criticized on behavioural approach. psychology criticizes | behaviourism, — psychoanalysis, psychology in general, but all three have made sig contributions to the betterment of the human condition. Humanistic psychology overlooks the cumulative nature of science by _ insisting that scientific psychology does not care about the loftier human attributes. The problem is that we are not yet prepared to study such attributes. Humanistic psychologists offer the description which is more likely” found in poetry and literature, century ago. It represents a type of wishful thinking that is not supported by the facts that more objective psychology has accumulated. We should not ignore facts just because they are not to our liking. Humanistic psychology rejects traditional scientific methodology. Then what should be used instead? If intuition or reasoning alone is to be used it can’t be claimed psychology but philosophy. If doing so, it will take to pre-scientific era. By rejecting animal research, they are ignoring valuable source of knowledge. “ Their. concepts and terms have not been defined clearly. Even definition of humanistic psychology is not clear yet. Contribution » ~ The expansion of psychology’s domain is humanistic psychology’s major contribution. . Humanistic psychologists claim that behaviourism, and psychoanalysis tell only part of the story and-some important human attributes cannot be studied using their traditional method. ‘ Humanistic psychologists do not want to discard scientific inquiry, they _ . want to expand our conception of science. ‘chology, there is now an increased tendency to study the whole | paper Rata concerned with not only how people learn, think and mature biologically and intellectually but also how people y plans to attain future goals and why people laugh, cry and meaning in their lives. In short; Humanistic ps} has | new life into psychology.In retrospect, history indentifies two _ the formal sense but who contributed groundbreaking fesearch center and books considered milestones in cognitive psychology. They are George Miller and Ulric Nei highlight some of the personal factors involved shaping thought. Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of cognition, conduct experiments and develop theories that explain how mer are organized and function. But explanation requires that the tl Predictions about observable events, namely behaviour. Cognition refers to the mental processes of perception, information processing by which the individual acquires knowledge, * problems and plans for the future. George Miller (4920) George Miller received his master’s degree in speech in 194] years after receiving his Ph. D., he published a landmark Psycholinguistics, “language and communication”, By the mid 1950's after investigating statistical learning information theory and computer based models of the mind, Miller cone that behaviourism was not, as he put it, “going to work out”, The si between computers and the operation of the human mind impressed his view of psychology became more cognitively oriented. . The Magical Number Seven In 1956, Miller published an article, wi Since become a classic, entitled “The Magical Number Seven, Plus oF Two". Some limits on our capacity for processing information. In t Miller demonstrated. that our conscious capacity for short term numbers (words or colours) is limited approximately seven ™ information. That is all we are able to process at any given poin importance and impact, of this finding lies in the fact that it d conscious, or cognitive, experience at a time when bet dominated psychological thought. Processing Information In addition, Miller's use of the phra: information” indicated the influence of a computer based mind. ; ; ___ At Harvard, Miller established ‘investigate human mind. Miller did ct inint in how the mind structures’ or organizes Psychologists argued in favour of an innate tendency to ¢ experience into meaningful wholes and patterns. The mii coherence to mental experiences, this process is the cognitive psychology. sail Cognitive psychologists believe that the individual a creatively arranges the stimuli received from the environment, capable of participating in the acquisition and application of deliberately attending to some events and choosing to commi memory. We are not passive responders to external forces or blank which sensory experience will write. Research Areas Cognitive factors are considered by researchers in j areas, attribution theory in social psychology, cognitive dissonance t motivation and emotion, personality, learning, memory, perce} information processing in decision making and problem solving, community, school and industrial organizational psychology have also s emphasis on cognitive factors. Cognitive Neuroscience A new disciplined cognitive neuroscience is a of cognitive psychology and the neurosciences. The goals of this field determine how brain functions give rise to mental activity”, and to™ specific aspects of information processing with specific brain regions”. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY The newest approach to psychology, evolutionary psychology that people are biological creatures that have been “wired” or progra evolution to behave, think, and learn in ways that have fostered sul many past generations. Evolutionary psychology. Is a broad field that makes use of findings from other disciplines, including animal behaviour biology, 9 neuropsychology, and evolutionary theory. Evolutionary psycho with four fundamental questions. - What accounts for the present nature of the human mind. come to be shaped the way it is? ‘ How are the components, parts and. processes of the mind ~ organized? i ro What are the functions of mind, what is it designed to do? ~ In what way does stimulus interact with the g ti predispositions of the mind to produce current b"positive peychology. i Baten Their was that it had become far too competently. They said psychology has e and victimized. They describe positive psy m _ giving a strong emphasis to and conducting more research on ! topics. : Experiences that people value subjectively such as hope, happiness. Positive individual traits such as capacity for love, work, talent and interpersonal skills. Positive group and civic values such as résponsibilitys nui civility and tolerance. Seligman noted that the field’s relentless focus on the negative has psychology blind to many instances of growth, mastery, drive and i that develop out of undesirable painful life events. He asked psychologists to develop a more positive conception of human nature and human potentiaj. —__ Seligman’s call for a positive psychology has received a enthusiastic response research studies, articles, and books began to forth. By 2001, studies of subjective well being, dealing with the cot and causes of happiness and other positive emotions, had shown strongest increase in number of publications over the past 40 years. Topics Today's textbooks on positive psychology typically cover topies st as subjective well being, the science of happiness, life satisfaction, pos affectivity, emotional creativity, optimism, hope theory, goal setting and happiness and positive psychology on the job. Marriage and personality variables do seam to influence approach to life. Research evidence shows that married people levels of happiness than do people who have never married, ¢ d. People who score high on measures of Subjective W high in self-efficacy, internal locus of control._ Future Development As the future development of positive | formal movement or school of thought, Seligman and Psychology pioneers have a less structured goal. “We see Posi as a mere change in focus for psychology, from the study of s worst things I like to the study of what makes life worth living. We Psychology as a replacement for what has gone before, but supplement and extension of Het Often people associate Psychology with problems such as dep stress and anxiety, Two movements emerged to focus on the positive Of psychology on People’s lives. One is humanistic and the other is po Psychology. ‘ Anyhow positive psychology is taking a vastly different app human nature. Summery We have seen how each of the schools of thought in psy developed, prospered for and then became part ef main ye Each school attained success in its own way and each made si ion. There are a number of other All of the approaches have contributed to our fund of kno Nv have raised proactive questions about human behaviour and Today's students of psychology, without Necessarily agreeing or can profit greatly from the findings and theories Of all of them. id