Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Middle Eocene mixed carbonate-siliciclastic systems in the southern T

Caribbean (NW colombian margin)
Edward A. Salazar-Ortiza,∗, Daniel Rincón-Martínezb, Liliana A. Páezc, Sandra M. Restrepob,
Sofía Barragánd
a
Servicio Geológico Colombiano, Dirección de Geociencias Básicas, Bogotá, Colombia
b
Gerencia de Desarrollo Tecnológico, Centro de Innovación y Tecnología ICP-Ecopetrol S.A. kilómetro 7 vía Piedecuesta–Santander, Colombia
c
Universidad Industrial de Santander, Escuela de Geología, Bucaramanga, Colombia
d
T.I.P. SAS, Piedecuesta-Santander, Colombia
ABSTRACT

Middle Eocene carbonates and mixed carbonate-siliciclastic deposits occur in disconnected outcrops in the San Jacinto Fold Belt in northern Colombia. Three
lithofacies were distinguished: A) claystones and siltstones with planktonic components; B) packstones/rudstones with red algae and claystone-siltstone rip-up clasts
in medium to thick plane-parallel, plane-convex, and channel-shaped beds; and C) poorly-bedded rhodolith rudstones with minor larger benthic foraminifers. The
latter are interpreted as rhodolith beds accumulated in middle-ramp settings. Lithofacies B consists of bioclasts from the middle ramp redeposited as sediment gravity
flows in individual beds and in small channel-lobe systems in the outer ramp and slope. The autochthonous sedimentation basinward from the middle ramp was
dominated by hemipelagic claystones and siltstones (Lithofacies A). In outcrops with exposure of vertical successions, these facies are arranged in a transgressive
pattern. The limited continuity of outcrops prevents any assessment of the original extension of ramps and lateral dimensions of channel-lobe systems. Comparison
with modern tropical rhodolith beds suggests that the middle Eocene carbonate factories in the southern Caribbean developed on ramps under mesotrophic con-
ditions.

ARTICLE INFO

Keywords:
Middle Eocene
Caribbean region
Calcareous red algae rudstone
Rhodalgal facies
Foraminifera/nannofossils siltstone

1. Introduction Consequently, coral structures reported from middle Eocene Caribbean

Although a long-term high-latitude and deep-water gradual cooling
started after the thermal maximum of the early Eocene (50-48 Ma;
Zachos et al., 2001, 2008), the middle Eocene was still a period of high
concentration of greenhouse gases and warm global temperatures re-
lative to any other younger time of the Cenozoic (Zachos et al., 2001,
2008; Anagnostou et al., 2016). Particularly, in regions of the tropical
belt, a large number of transient ‘warming’ events occurred throughout
the middle Eocene (Pearson et al., 2007; Zachos et al., 2008;
Cramwinckel et al., 2018), implying that hyperthermal occurrence is
pervasive outside of the very warm late Paleocene and early Eocene.
During this early Paleogene global warming the low-latitude seafloor
was nearly devoid of large coral-reef structures (Scheibner and Speijer,
2008; Kiessling, 2010; Perrin and Kiessling, 2010; Norris et al., 2013).
formations in Panama (Buchs et al., 2011; Barat et al., 2014),
Mexico (i.e San Juan Formation; Ferrusquia-Villafranca et al., 2000;
Vega et al., 2001), and Saint Barthélemy (Westercamp and Andreieff,
1983) are actually biostromes (Frost, 1977). In addition to warmer
global temperatures and a preceding decline of reef corals, the global
sea level was several tens of meters higher than in the modern ocean
during the early and middle Eocene (Miller et al., 2011), promoting the
development of thick shallow-water carbonate successions, deposited in
a variety of environments within the photic zone, and which biogenic
components are mainly larger benthic foraminifera (LBF) and crustose
algae (Nebelsick et al., 2005; Scheibner and Speijer, 2008; Payros et al.,
2010; Norris et al., 2013).
Carbonate facies and their biotic composition have been studied in
detail in the Eocene of the Mediterranean area, Alpine-Himalayan, and

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: esalazar@sgc.gov.co (E.A. Salazar-Ortiz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102507
Received 14 October 2019; Received in revised form 27 January 2020; Accepted 28 January 2020
Available online 05 February 2020
0895-9811/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Table 1
Summary of the middle Eocene formations in the Caribbean with predominance of carbonate facies. LBF: Large Benthic Foraminifera, PF: Planktonic foraminifera, BF: Benthic foraminifera.
Site Formation Age Lithology Reported Fossils References

Mexico Lacandón Paleocene - middle Detrital limestones and bioherms, packstones, No data found. Mandujano and Vásquez (1996)
Eocene wackstones
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.

Lomut/San Juan Fm middle Eocene Wackstones - grainstones with LBF, biostromes, LBF (Nummulites floridensis, N. striatoreticulatus, Pseudophragmina Ferrusquia-Villafranca et al.
conglomerates, sandstones and siltstones teres, P. advena, Helicostegina dimorpha), Bivalves, Green Algae (2000)
(Dasycladaceae), and Corals.
Cuba Peñon Fm. Middle Eocene Detrital limestones, impure limestones, LBF (Helicostegina dimorpha, Nummulites cf. Gravelli, Discocyclina Torres et al. (2001).
conglomerates. marginata, Eoconuloides wellsi, Asterocyclina sp., Pseudophragmina
spp.) coralline algae, benthic foraminera, briozoos.
Hatillo Fm. Paleocene to middle Detrital limestones LBF (Eulinderina antillea, Paleonummulites floridensis, Torres et al. (2001).
Eocene Pseudophragmina spp., Amphistegina cf. pregrimsdalei), foraminifera
and coralline algae.
Loma Candela Fm. Middle to upper Marls, calcareous sandstones, conglomerates, LBF (Nummulites striatoreticulatus, Europertia bermudezi, Beckmann (1958), Bermúdez
Eocene bioclastic limestones. Amphistegina parvula) Gasteropods, bivalves, corals. (1961), Torres et al. (2001).
Manuelita Fm. Middle Eocene to Bioclastic limestones, breccias, conglomerates, LBF (Lepidocyclina (Neolepidina) cf. Pustulosa, L. (Neolepidina) Torres et al. (2001).
Oligocene marls. macdonaldi, Eorupertia bermudezi), coralline algae.
Dominican Neiba brechoide Fm. Middle Eocene Packstones, grainstones and floatstones brechoid LBF, Corals, Red Algae, Gasteropods, Bivalves. Hernaiz et al. (2007)
Republic with LBF, interdigitate with volcanic tuff.
de Polo Unit Lower to middle Packstones and rhodolith rudstones with LBF LBF (Lepidocyclina sp., Nephrolepididna sp., Operculina sp., Pérez Valera (2010)
Eocene Eorupertia? sp., Rotalia sp., Sphaerogypsina sp. and Cushmania sp.)
Rhodoliths, Corals.
Jamaica Yellow Stettin Fm. Middle Eocene Wackstones, packstones and grainstones Green Algae (Dasycladaceae), Foraminifera, Echinoids, Molluscs Robinson and Mitchell (1999);
limestone Gr. and Corals. Mitchell (2004).
Chapelton Fm. Wackstones, packstones, marls and sandstones LBF, Decapods.
Ipswich Fm. Late middle Eocene Bioclastic and impure limestones LBF (Polylepidina sp., Eulinderina sp., Yaberinella sp., Lepidocyclina
macdonald, L. pustulosa).

2
White Troy Fm. Middle Eocene Mudstones and dolomicrites. Locally thin LBF (Amphistegina parvula, Fabiana sp. Mitchell (2004); Stemann
limestone Gr. packstones and grainstones and Lepidocyclina? Peruviana). (2004).
Swanswick Fm. Middle Eocene Foraminiferal - peloidal grainstones LBF (Eulinderina sp., Linderina sp., Lepidocyclina macdonaldi, L.
pustulosa) Rhodoliths and algal fragments.
Somerset Fm. Latest middle Eocene Fossiliferous packstones, wackstones and LBF (Fallotella cookei), Mollusks, Scleractinian corals, Calcareous
- Early late Eocene mudstones Algae, BF (Fabularia verseyi, Cushmania americana).
Montpelier Fm. Middle Eocene Mudstones and wackstones with planktonic PF: Truncorotaloides rohri, Calcareous nannofossils.
foraminifera. Thin layers of chert. Bioclastic
limestones as carbonate turbidites
Costa Rica Fila de Cal Fm. Middle - late Eocene Chlorozonan LBF-coralgal boundstones and LBF (Operculina ocalanus, Heterostegina ocalana, Pliolepidina Sprechmann et al., (1994),
bioclastic lst. macdonaldi P. pustulosa et var. tobleri Nephrolepìdina chaperi, Denyer and Alvarado (2007)
Helicolepidina spiralis, Asterocyclina geogiana, A. marianensis, A.
minima, Camerina macgillavryiri), Red Algae.
Panamá Azuero Covachon Fm. Middle Eocene Mainly detrital turbidites locally calcareous LBF (Lepidocyclina polylepidina, Asterocyclina sp., Euconoloides sp., Buchs et al. (2011)
megabreccias with shallow-water limestone blocks Amphistegina grimsdalei, A. praegrimsdalei, Pseudophragmina sp.).
and LBF in matrix of breccias.
Panamá Canal Gatuncillo Fm. Middle Eocene - Mudstones, siltstones, sandstones and Upper LBF (Yaberinella jamaicensis, Fabiania cubensis, Lepidocyclina Woodring (1957); Budd et al.
Basin Oligocene Eocene LBF-coralgal lst. pustulosa, L. chaperi, L. macdonaldi) Red Algae and Corals. (1992); Cole (1952) in Barat
et al. (2014);
Panamá Darien Porcona Fm. Late middle Eocene - Marls and bioclastic limestones. LBF (Lepidocaclina favosa, L. canellei, L. giraudi, L. miraflorensis, Barat et al. (2014)
late Oligocene Operculina dia, Pseudophragmina sp. Lepidocyclina miraflorensis,
L.canellei) and red algae.
Venezuela Tinajitas Fm. Middle Eocene Bioclastic limestones - grainstones. LBF (Lepidocyclina sp.), Red Algae (Melobesioides), Gastropods and Sageman and Speed (2003)
Bivalves.
Punta Carnero El Datil Basal bioclastic limestones with LBF, silstones and LBF (Asterocyclina sp., Discocyclina sp., Pseudophragmina sp.), PF Bermúdez and Gámez (1966);
Gr. sandstones (upper part) (Globorotalia frontosa, Clavigerinella colombiana, Globorotalia Buterlin (1970).
aragonensis, Hantkenina aragonensis, Globorotalia aspensis).
Punta Mosquito Bioclastic limestones - biostromes, marls and
sandstones
(continued on next page)
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507

Indonesian belts to reconstruct palaeoenvironmental conditions of

Guzmán et al., (2004), Vargas

Rollins (1965), Gómez (2001)

Duque et al. (1996), Guzmán
carbonate and mixed carbonate-siliciclastic platforms (Racey, 2001;
Rasser and Nebelsick, 2003; Rasser and Piller, 2004; Bassi, 2005;

and Osorio (2006)

Nebelsick et al., 2005; Barattolo et al., 2007; Bassi et al., 2009; Bassi

et al., (2004)
References

and Nebelsick, 2010; Braga et al., 2010; Brandano et al., 2009, 2010;
Brandano, 2017). In the Caribbean domain, middle Eocene shallow-
water carbonates have also been studied (Table 1). Although detailed
descriptions of facies or components are scarcely available, it seems
that most of the reported carbonate deposits, such as the ones in Mexico
(Chiapas), Costa Rica, Jamaica, Cuba, Panama, and Venezuela, are
accumulations of photozoan LBF as the main component, and varying
Globoratalia broedermanni, Globorotalia bolivariana), BF (Hanzawaia
Red algae, LBF, and PF (Clavigerinella akersi, Truncorotaloides rohri,
roblen), PF (Globigerina senni, G. simulans, Globorotalia bolivariana,
LBF (Asterocyclina sp., Discocyclina sp., Lepidocyclina postulosa, L.

Gasteropods (Turritela sp.), Bivalves (Ostrea sp.), and Red Algae

proportions of calcareous red algae formed in ramps devoid of platform-

margin coral reefs (Table 1).
cushmani, Bulimina jacksonensis, Bulimina impedens).

In this work, two middle Eocene units of the southern Caribbean are
studied: the limestones of the Arroyo de Piedra Formation (Guzmán
et al., 2004) and the mixed carbonate-siliciclastic deposits of the
Chengue Formation (Duque-Caro et al., 1996; Guzmán et al., 2004;
G. renzi, G. spinulosa).
Reported Fossils

Guzmán, 2007). These units have been mapped and described litholo-
Red algae, LBF.

Rhodoliths.

gically, but no detailed lithofacies analyses and palaeoenvironmental

interpretations of carbonate deposits have been attempted. Such ana-
lyses might provide valuable examples for studying the composition
and depositional model of middle Eocene carbonates in the tropics and
help elucidate the mechanisms of their establishment and later dis-
appearance from the geological record. The goals of this paper are: 1) to
describe the lithofacies, components, geometry, depositional model and
temporal evolution of middle-Eocene carbonates in a Southern Car-
ibbean basin; and 2) to compare the local conditions with the regional
and global context of carbonate deposition during the middle Eocene
reef-gap interval.
Mudstones, siltstones, and detrital limestones with

claystones (lower part), sandstones, massive and

Basal conglomerates, glauconitic sandstones and
Marls, siltstones, claystones and bioclastic

1.1. Geological setting

detritical limestones (upper part)

The study area is located in north-western Colombia, over an

elongated antiform structure, named San Jacinto Fold Belt (SJFB;
Fig. 1). The SJFB is limited to the east by the Romeral Fault System and
limestones

red algaes
Lithology

to the west by the Sinú lineament. The belt trends with a NE-SW di-
rection on the surface for approximately 360 km (Caro and Spratt,
2003; Guzmán, 2007). It is characterized by narrow and elongated
anticlinal structures commonly faulted along strikes and separated by
less deformed synclines. The more elevated topography (about 1270 m)
is related to the anticlinal structures (Duque-Caro, 1984).
The sedimentary pile of the SJFB Basin was deposited over the
remnants of an intra-oceanic Cretaceous Caribbean arc (Duque-Caro,
1984; Mantilla-Pimiento et al., 2009; Cardona et al., 2012), which was
Middle - late Eocene

accreted to the continental South American margin during the late

Middle Eocene

Middle Eocene

Cretaceous-early Paleocene. The SJFB Basin formed subsequently as a

Age

post-collisional basin generated by collapse and submergence of the

orogen, related to incipient subduction of the Caribbean Plate under
South America in an oblique convergent margin (Cardona et al., 2012).
The early Paleogene succession (Fig. 2), which unconformably
overlies the late Cretaceous Cansona Formation, seems to show a pro-
gressive deepening, and is composed of the following units: 1) con-
Arroyo de Piedra Fm.

glomerates, sandstones, and siliciclastic mudstones of the San Cayetano

Chengue Fm.

Macarao Fm.

Formation (late Paleocene-early Eocene, Duque-Caro et al., 1996), de-

Formation

posited in fluvial/deltaic environments (Herrera et al., 2009; Bermúdez

et al., 2009); 2) conglomerates and sandstones of the Maco Formation
(early-middle Eocene), deposited in fan deltas (Duque-Caro et al., 1996;
Guzmán et al., 2004); 3) middle Eocene Chengue and Arroyo de Piedra
formations, which are the subject of this study (see below); 4) upper
Eocene shallow-water bioclastic limestones of the Toluviejo Formation;
Table 1 (continued)

and conglomerates, sandstones, and sandy siltstones of the San Jacinto

and Pendales formations.
Colombia

Middle Eocene claystones, siltstones, and re-deposited bioclastic

Site

carbonates, included in the Chengue Formation occur in large areal

extents in NE-SW striking belts at the eastern flank of the SJFB (Fig. 1;
Duque-Caro et al., 1996; Guzmán et al., 2004, Guzmán, 2007). The

3
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507

Fig. 1. A) Geographical position of the SJFB in the northwestern margin of Colombia and general geological setting of the sector near Cartagena. B) Geological map
of the Cenozoic units and location of stratigraphic sections described in the northern Luruaco–Arroyo de Piedra sector; and C) geological map of the Cenozoic units
and location of stratigraphic sections described in the southern San Juan Nepomuceno area, eastern flank of the San Jacinto anticlinorium.

thickness reported for the Chengue Formation varies between 200 and
300 m (Guzmán et al., 2004). As for the Arroyo de Piedra Formation, it
crops out in the Luruaco-Arroyo de Piedra area, the northern part of the
SJBF. The main lithologies of this formation are bioclastic limestones,
sandstones, siltstones, and carbonate mudstones (Bueno, 1970). In the
northern sector of the study area, the Arroyo de Piedra Formation is
unconformably overlain by polymictic conglomerates and sandstones of
up to 450 m in thickness, deposited in fluvial environments (Pendales
Formation), whereas the base of the unit is not exposed. Previously, and
based on planktonic foraminifera, a middle Eocene age was assigned to

4
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
Fig. 2. A) Regional stratigraphic framework of the SJFB (ages taken from Duque-Caro et al., 1996, and Guzmán et al., 2004); and B) stratigraphic columns of the
studied localities, San Juan Nepomuceno–San Jacinto and Luruaco–Arroyo de Piedra.
the two formations (Duque-Caro et al., 1996; Parra and Rincón, 2014).
2. Methods
The study sites are located in the northern and southern parts of the
SJFB in dispersed and partly disconnected outcrops (Fig. 1). The
lithostratigraphy of the Arroyo de Piedra Formation was studied in five
stratigraphic sections aligned in a north-south transect, near the Arroyo
de Piedra village: Los Figueroa Quarry, El Poder Quarry, Casa Vieja
Creek, Argos Quarry, and C.E.C.G Quarry (Fig. 3; Table 2). Two other
sections, located in the San Juan Nepomuceno–San Jacinto area,
were studied to characterize the middle part and the top of the
Chengue Formation: the Salvador Creek and the Punta Brava quarry
(Fig. 4; Table 2).
Lithology and facies descriptions follow the nomenclature of
Dunham (1962) modified by Embry and Klovan (1971). Morphology of
rhodoliths is described according to the terms proposed by Bosence
(1983a). Field observations were complemented with microfacies
analyses of randomly oriented thin sections (ca. 2.5 × 4.5 cm) cut from
40 samples, and 3 larger sections of 5.0 × 7.5 cm. The relative abun-
dance of the different skeletal components, the major groups of LBF,
and the orders of coralline algae have been expressed through a semi-
quantitative scale (Baccelle and Bosellini, 1965). Depositional settings
were interpreted based on lithofacies and fossil content in terms of:
coralline algae, small benthic foraminifera, planktonic foraminifera,
LBF, mollusks, bryozoans, echinoids, serpulids, calcareous nanno-
plankton, ortochemicals and terrigenous fraction. Coralline taxonomy
at higher ranks follows Nelson et al. (2015). The suprageneric classifi-
cation adopted for benthic foraminifera follows Loeblich and Tappan
(1987).
In order to provide a micropalentological dating planktonic for-
aminifera and calcareous nannoplankton were studied. Fine-grained
horizons from 4 sections of the Arroyo de Piedra Formation (Fig. 3) and
5
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
one section from the Chengue Formation (Fig. 4) were sampled. For
foraminifera extraction, samples were processed using the standard
method that consists of disaggregation with a surface tension-active
chemical product (commercial soap), sometimes followed by a gentle
ultrasonic bath to improve the cleaning of the specimens. All samples
were washed through a 38 μm-mesh and picking was done from
the > 63 μm fraction. For calcareous nannoplankton analysis, smear
slides were prepared and specimens were examined by polarized light
microscopy using standard methods (Young, 1998). The planktonic
foraminifer biostratigraphy follows the extensive taxonomic and bios-
tratigraphic work on the Eocene planktonic foraminifera of Pearson
et al. (2006). In the case of calcareous nannofossils Nannotax3 (Young
et al., 2017) was used.
Additionally, benthic foraminifera genera assemblages were ana-
lyzed to interpret the palaeobathymetry at which the fine-grained se-
diments were deposited. According to the summary of modern benthic
foraminifera distributions by Murray (2006) no simple bathymetric
formulae can be applied to interpret fossil assemblages based on extant
distributions. Additionally, the palaeo-water-depth determination
might become a highly complex matter in the analyzed samples due to
the fact that reworking cannot be easily excluded. Therefore, inferred
palaeobathymetric ranges presented here are inherently broad with
considerable degrees of uncertainty.
3. Results
3.1. Biostratigraphy
Although LBF are the most frequently used biostratigraphic markers
in marine shallow-water carbonate deposits (Papazzoni et al., 2017), in
the Arroyo de Piedra Formation, LBF were sparse (Appendix A;
Figs. 5–7) and of very limited biostratigraphic use due to their poor
preservation, with clear signals of recrystallization, abrasion, and
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507

Fig. 3. North to south transect of the Arroyo de Piedra Formation sections. Stratigraphic columns with distinguished lithofacies. The basal contact with the un-
derlying unit is not exposed in any of the outcrops, whereas the contact with the overlying Pendales Formation was observed in Los Figueroa Quarry. Location of
samples taken for petrographic and micropaleontological analyses are highlighted into each column in green and red, respectively. (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

fragmentation. Nevertheless, in a thin section of sample 20224-1, from
the Salvador Creek (Chengue Formation), Baumgartner-Mora et al.
(2015) recognized specimens of Discocyclina sp., Pseudophragmina sp.
Pseudophragmina cf. stephensoni, Asterocyclina sp., Asterocyclina cf. cruzi,
Sphaerogypsina globulus, Linderina sp., and fragments of equatorial sec-
tions of Nummulites sp. The fragments of A. cf. cruzi, P. cf. stephensoni
and S. globulus suggest a middle Eocene age for the sample.
The recovery of planktonic foraminifera in clayey and silty facies
was highly variable, with high abundance in most samples and rela-
tively few samples having sparse, low diversity and moderately pre-
served assemblages (Appendix A and 2; Figs. 5–7). Benthic foraminifera
have better preservation than planktonic, which are generally broken.
Nevertheless, specific determinations were possible in most of the re-
covered microfossils (Appendix B). Calcareous nannofossils were
sometimes found in the clayey facies but were absent in the limestones,
almost certainly due to diagenetic loss.
The oldest sediments were recovered from the base of the Salvador
Creek section (samples 20223-1 and 20223-2; Fig. 4), and represent the
planktonic foraminifera biozones P9-11, suggesting an early Eocene
(late Ypresian) – middle Eocene (middle Lutetian) age, based on the
occurrence of Acarinina rohri, A. collactea, A. boudreauxi, Globorotaloides
eovariabilis, Morozovella aragonensis, Parasubbotina inaequispira, Sub-
botina eocaena, Subbotina corpulenta (Table 3). A slightly different and
possibly younger assemblage appears at the top of the Salvador Creek
section, and other sections, such as Los Figueroa and El Poder quarries
(Table 3). This assemblage is dominated by Acarinina esnaensis, A.
pentacamerata, A. soldadoensis, Clavigerinella akersi, C. colombiana, Ig-
orina broedermanni, Paragloborotalia griffinoides, Paragloborotalia nana,
and Pseudoglobigerinella bolivariana, and points to planktonic for-
aminifera biozones P9-12, suggesting a late Ypresian – middle Eocene
(early Bartonian) age.
A more accurate age attribution comes from calcareous nannofossils
(Table 3). The assemblage of Chiasmolithus solitus, Coccolithus pelagicus,
Discoaster barbadiensis, Discoaster bifax, Discoaster binodosus, Discoaster

Table 2
Location of the studied stratigraphic sections, associated formations and thickness.
Section name Latitude Longitude Formation Thickness Lithofacies A Thickness Lithofacies B Thickness Lithofacies C Total Thickness
(meters) (meters) (meters) (m)

Los Figueroa quarry 10°39′ 36.8 75°7′ 21. 5 Arroyo de Piedra - 28.7 1.2 None 38
Pendales
El Poder quarry 10°38′ 56.1 75°7′ 21. 5 Arroyo de Piedra 18.6 12.4 None 31
Casa Vieja Creek 10°38′ 50.1 75°6′ 40. 2 Arroyo de Piedra 0.7 8.1 6.2 15
ARGOS quarry 10°37′ 06.3 75°7′ 09. 8 Arroyo de Piedra 3.4 10.8 25.8 40
C.E.C.G. quarry 10°36′ 31.6 75°7′ 19. 9 Arroyo de Piedra 10.3 29 32.2 74
Salvador Creek 9°57′ 45.6 75°6′ 19. 3 Chengue 28.5 12.3 None 46
Punta Brava quarry 9°58′ 11 75°6′ 22. 6 Chengue 9 30 None 39

6
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
Fig. 4. Stratigraphic columns of the Chengue Formation in the area of San Juan Nepomuceno. The upper and basal contacts with other units are not exposed in any of
the outcrops. Location of samples taken for petrographic and micropaleontological analyses are highlighted into each column in green and red, respectively. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
deflandrei, Discoaster saipanensis, Ericsonia formosa, Helicosphaera semi-
nulum, Nannotetrina cristata, Nannotetrina pappii, Neococcolithes dubius,
Pontosphaera multipora, Sphenolithus moriformis, Sphenolithus radians,
Sphenolithus spiniger, and Rhabdosphaera tenuis suggests the calcareous
nannofossil zone NP15, corresponding to a Lutetian age. Samples
20260-5, from Arqos Quarry, and 20234-1, from Los Figueroa Quarry,
provide a wider range (biozones NP15-16), indicating that at least the
top of the Argos Quarry might be slightly younger than other sections
reaching an early Bartonian age.
3.2. Lithofacies
The following three lithofacies were distinguished in the middle
Eocene limestones and associated sediments according to components,
sedimentary structures, and bed geometry:
3.2.1. Lithofacies A: claystones and siltstones with foraminifera–calcareous
nannoplankton and radiolarians
This is a fine-grained terrigenous lithofacies recognized in all study
sections. Claystones and siltstones are dark grey to black (5 YR 2.5/1,
5 YR 6/1), arranged in very thin to medium flat beds with plane-par-
allel lamination and locally discontinuous wavy lamination (Fig. 8A).
Particularly, in the San Juan Nepomuceno–San Jacinto area (Salvador
Creek), centimeter-sized wood and leave fragments moderately pre-
served are common on layer surfaces (Figs. 4 and 8B). Local accumu-
lations of organic matter in nodules and discontinuous layers are also
found. The bioclastic fraction comprises abundant benthic, and minor
planktonic foraminifera (Appendix A, Figs. 5–7, Fig. 8D), locally ac-
cumulated in thin to medium laminae (Fig. 8C), radiolarians, and cal-
careous nannoplankton.
Interpretation: Siliciclastic mud and silt with parallel-lamination,
7
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
planktonic foraminifers, radiolarians, and calcareous nannoplankton
are characteristic of open-marine environments with varying degrees of
energy, ranging from low (Reading, 1996; Potter et al., 2005) to in-
termediate (Schieber et al., 2013). In the case of Lithofacies A, the
preservation of planktonic foraminifers, often broken (Appendix A),
could be associated with accumulations in the presence of sporadic
waves or currents (Schieber et al., 2013).
Paleobathymetry of this lithofacies, inferred from benthic for-
aminifer key taxa (Appendix A), was interpreted as outer neritic to the
shallowest upper bathyal, in the San Juan Nepomuceno–San Jacinto
area (Salvador Creek), and as upper bathyal, near the Arroyo de Piedra
village (Los Figueroa and El Poder quarries). The rarity of planktonic
foraminifera and calcareous nannoplankton in certain samples of this
facies is likely due to dilution by clastic sediments, reflecting the de-
position in neritic environments with relatively high sedimentation
rates. The occurrence of benthic foraminifera Bulimina jacksonensis,
Cibicidoides cff. eocaenus, Spiroplectammina spectabilis, Globocassidulina
subglobosa, Melonis pompilioides, Oridorsalis plummerae, Oridorsalis um-
bonatus and Uvigerina cff. elongata, found in Los Figueroa - El Poder
quarries and Salvador Creek (Appendix B) suggests that Lithofacies A
was deposited at predominant mesotrophic conditions with moderate to
high organic matter input.
3.2.2. Lithofacies B: packstones/rudstones with red algae and claystone-
siltstone rip-up clasts
This mixed carbonate-siliciclastic facies consists of packstones to
rudstones, generally arranged in medium to thick well-bedded plane-
parallel, plane-convex, and concave-plane, channel-shaped beds with
slightly erosive bases (Fig. 9A–D). Red algal fragments are the main
components with a fine-grained packstone characterized by a micritic
matrix. A conspicuous characteristic of this lithofacies is the occurrence
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
Fig. 5. Stratigraphic log of the Casa Vieja, El Poder and Los Figueroa sections showing textures and qualitative abundances of skeletal and non-skeletal components.
See Figs. 1 and 3 for location of the sections.
of rip-up clasts of siltstone and claystone. Clasts range in size from very
coarse sand to cobble, with moderate sorting, and sub-rounded to sub-
angular shapes (Fig. 9C–E). They appear locally deformed by compac-
tion effects, indicating that they were incorporated as soft particles. The
silt fraction in the clasts, is composed of monocrystalline quartz and
sporadic plagioclase grains, while the matrix is composed of clay with
oriented white mica minerals. Lithofacies B occurs interbedded with
8
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
claystones and siltstones (Lithofacies A), grouped in locally amalga-
mated bedsets (Fig. 9D). Sedimentary structures include rough planar
parallel lamination, inverse and normal gradation marked by fragments
of red algae ranging from fine sand to pebble size, and dispersive
pressure structures associated with sub-angular, cobble-sized clasts
(Fig. 9C). In the Argos quarry, in the Luruaco–Arroyo de Piedra sector, a
large channel (12 m wide and 7 m thick) with metric low angle cross-
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507

Fig. 6. Stratigraphic log of the C.E.C.G and Argos sections showing textures and qualitative abundances of skeletal and non-skeletal components. See Figs. 1 and 3 for
location of the sections.

9
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
Fig. 7. Stratigraphic log of the Salvador and Punta Brava sections showing textures and qualitative abundances of skeletal and non-skeletal components. See Figs. 1
and 4 for location of the sections.
stratification can be recognized (Fig. 10A and B). In the Punta Brava
quarry, in the San Juan Nepomuceno–San Jacinto area, syn-sedimen-
tary folds and beds broken into intra-formational megabreccias are well
exposed (Fig. 10C and D).
Coralline red algae belonging to Lithothamnion (subfamily
Melobesioideae), and in smaller proportions to Sporolithon and
10
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
Lithoporella are the main identifiable biogenic components (Figs. 5–7).
These algae occur as fragments with evidence of abrasion and frag-
mentation (Fig. 9F), and occasionally as small algal nodules (rhodo-
liths) with spherical and subspherical geometry, and laminar structure
with average diameters from 0.5 to 2.5 cm, and a maximum of 4 cm.
Geniculate coralline algae are also common. LBF are sporadic, limited
 E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.

Table 3
Summary of bioestratigraphic analyses on the stratigraphic sections illustrated in Fig. 1. Planktonic foraminifera biozones are referred to the classic biostratigraphic schemes of Blow (1969), later revised and expanded
upon by Blow (1979) low (1979), and Bolly and Saunders (1985). Calcareous nannofossils biozones are referred to the classic biostratigraphic schemes of Martini (1971).
Section name Sample Biostratigraphic Unit Age Key species and genera

Los Figueroa quarry 20234–1 NP15?/NP16 Middle Eocene Calcareous nannofossils: Chiasmolitus solitus, Discoaster bifax, Discoaster wemmelensis, Nannotetrina sp.
20234–9 P9-P12 Uppermost lower Eocene – middle Planktonic foraminifera: Clavigerinella akersi, Paragloborotalia griffinoides, Paragloborotalia nana; Acarinina spp., Catapsydrax spp.
Eocene
40583–1 NP15 Middle Eocene Calcareous nannofossils: Discoaster deflandrei, Chiasmolithus solitus, Coccolithus pelagicus, Discoaster barbadiensis, Discoaster bifax, Discoaster
binodosus, Ericsonia formosa, Helicosphaera seminulum, Pontosphaera multipora, Sphenolithus moriformis, Sphenolithus radians, Rhabdosphaera
tenuis
500341–1 NP15 Middle Eocene Calcareous nannofossils: Chiasmolithus solitus, Coccolithus pelagicus, Discoaster barbadiensis, Discoaster bifax, Discoaster binodosus, Discoaster
saipanensis, Ericsonia formosa, Helicosphaera seminulum, Neococcolithes dubius, Pontosphaera multipora
El Poder quarry 20231–4 P9-P12 Uppermost lower Eocene – middle Planktonic foraminifera: Acarinina esnaensis, Acarinina cf. esnaensis, Acarinina pentacamerata, Acarinina soldadoensis, Acarinina spp.,
Eocene Chiloguembelina sp., Clavigerinella colombiana, Clavigerinella akersi, Igorina broedermanni, Pseudoglobigerinella bolivariana.
20231–7 P9-P12 Uppermost lower Eocene – middle Planktonic foraminifera: Acarinina esnaensis, Acarinina spp., Clavigerinella colombiana, Clavigerinella akersi, Catapsydrax sp., Igorina
Eocene broedermanni, Paragloborotalia griffinoides, Pseudoglobigerinella bolivariana
20231–10 P9-P12 Uppermost lower Eocene – middle Planktonic foraminifera: Acarinina esnaensis, Acarinina cf. esnanensis, Acarinina cf. pentacamerata, Acarinina spp., Clavigerinella colombiana,
Eocene Clavigerinella akersi, Paragloborotalia griffinoides
Casa Vieja Creek 40575–1 NP15 Middle Eocene Calcareous nannofossils: Nannotetrina cristata, Nannotetrina cf. Pappii, Chiasmolithus solitus, Coccolithus pelagicus, Discoaster barbadiensis,

11
Discoaster bifax, Discoaster binodosus, Ericsonia formosa, Helicosphaera seminulum, Sphenolithus moriformis, Rhabdosphaera tenuis
Argos quarry 20260–3 NP15 Middle Eocene Calcareous nannofossils: Discoaster deflandrei, Chiasmolithus solitus, Coccolithus pelagicus, Discoaster barbadiensis, Discoaster bifax, Discoaster
binodosus, Ericsonia formosa, Helicosphaera seminulum, Neococcolithes dubius, Pontosphaera multipora, Sphenolithus moriformis, Sphenolithus
radians, Sphenolithus spiniger
20260–5 NP15-NP16 Middle Eocene Calcareous nannofossils: Chiasmolithus solitus, Coccolithus pelagicus, Discoaster barbadiensis, Discoaster bifax, Discoaster binodosus, Ericsonia
formosa, Helicosphaera seminulum, Neococcolithes dubius, Helicosphaera lophata, Nannotetrina fulgens
Salvador Creek 20223–1 P9-P11 Uppermost lower Eocene – middle Planktonic foraminifera: Clavigerinella colombiana, Pseudoglobigerinella bolivariana, Morozovella aragonensis, Acarinina pentacamerata,
Eocene Acarinina esnaensis, Paragloborotalia nana, Subbotina eocaena, Subbotina corpulenta, Parasubbotina inaequispira, Acarinina cf. A. rohri, Acarinina
collactea (?), Acarinina boudreauxi (?), Globorotaloides eovariabilis (?), Clavigerinella spp., Morozovella spp., Acarinina spp., Subbotina spp.,
Parasubbotina spp.
20223–2 P9-P11 Uppermost lower Eocene – middle Planktonic foraminifera: Clavigerinella colombiana, Pseudoglobigerinella bolivariana, Igorina broedermanni, Paragloborotalia griffinoides,
Eocene Paragloborotalia nana, Parasubbotina inaequispira, Subotina eocaena, Subbotina corpulenta, Acarinina esnaensis, Globorotaloides eovariabilis (?),
Turborotalita carcoselleensis (?), Acarinina cf. A. rohri, Acarinina spp., Morozovella spp., Clavigerinella spp., Paragloborotalia spp., Subbotina spp.
20223–3 P9? Uppermost lower Eocene? Planktonic foraminifera: Acarinina pentacamerata, Igorina broedermanni, Acarinina esnaensis, Subbotina corpulenta, Acarinina boudreauxi (?),
Acarinina collactea (?), Globorotaloides eovariabilis (?), Acarinina spp., Morozovella spp., Paragloborotalia spp., Subbotina spp.
20224–7 P4c-P15 Upper Paleocene - middle Eocene Planktonic foraminifera: Acarinina esnaensis
20224–8 Pα–P22 Lower Paleocene – upper Oligocene Planktonic foraminifera: Subbotina spp.
20224–11 P9-P12 Uppermost lower Eocene – middle Planktonic foraminifera: Clavigerinella akersi, Paragloborotalia nana, Clavigerinella spp., Paragloborotalia spp.
Eocene
20224–17 P9-P15 Uppermost lower Eocene – middle Planktonic foraminifera: Acarinina esnaensis, Subbotina eocaena, Subbotina corpulenta, Acarinina collactea (?), Globorotaloides eovariabilis (?),
Eocene Acarinina spp., Subbotina spp.
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
Fig. 8. Lithofacies. A - Mudstones and siltstones with foraminifera, calcareous nannoplankton and radiolarians. A) Laminated mudstones with planar parallel and
sporadic thin lens-shaped layers of red algal grainstone (yellow arrows) (Salvador creek); B) local accumulation of centimeter-sized wood and leaves fragments
(pointed by yellow arrow); C) benthic uniserial foraminifers with intraparticle porosity (sample 20224-11, Salvador creek); D) Planktonic foraminifera with rounded
shapes (sample 20224-11, Salvador creek). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this
article.)
to a few specimens of Lepidocyclininae, Nummulitinae and ortho-
phragminids (Figs. 5–7). As mentioned in section 3.1 LBF are poorly
preserved with clear signs of recrystallization, abrasion, and fragmen-
tation.
Dolomitization processes affected only the silt fraction in the rip-up
clasts. Dolomite occurs as euhedral rhombic crystals from 70 to 100 μm
in size. Granular equant spar cement underwent partial micritization,
and the micritic matrix is affected by partial recrystallization.
Interpretation: Bed geometries, rip-up clasts and calciclastic
deposits interstratified with thicker packages of Lithofacies A
(top of Punta Brava, base of El Poder, and Los Figueroa quarries),
clearly indicate that packstones and rudstones of Lithofacies B are re-
deposited carbonates. Channelized bodies, generally tens of meters
wide and decimeters to a few meters thick, show one to several phases
of infilling (Fig. 10), with cut and fill structures. In the Argos section,
multiple shallow channels crosscut each other and show low-angle
cross-stratification downlapping the channel base, indicating their lat-
eral migration (Fig. 10A and B). Individual channels cut plane-parallel
and plane-convex beds, and together can be interpreted as lobe-channel
systems. Synsedimentary folds and intraformational breccias point to a
certain degree of inclination of the depositional surface. The limited
thickness, up to a few tens of meters, of the carbonate bodies
(i.e. C.E.C.G., El Poder and Punta Brava quarries, Salvador Creek)
suggests a generally small size for these systems although their lateral
extent cannot be fully assessed. The outcropping lateral extension of
Lithofacies B carbonates is limited to several hundred meters, but tec-
tonic disruption and vegetation cover prevent the causes of the lateral
disappearance of limestone beds from being discerned.
3.2.3. Lithofacies C: rhodolith rudstones
It consists of rudstones with whitish (5Y 9/2) and light beige (2.5Y
12
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
8/4) colours, which are arranged in medium to thick crudely stratified
plane-parallel beds. The bioclastic fraction is predominant (Figs. 5–7)
and consists of well-preserved rhodoliths (frequently bioperforated by
Entobia, i.e. sponge borings), which sizes that ranges from millimeters to
several centimeters, and coralline algal fragments (Fig. 11A and B).
Rhodoliths can be fruticose and branching (Fig. 11A) or exhibit a
box-work to a concentric structure. They are ellipsoidal to spheroidal in
shape (Fig. 11B) with diameters between 2 and 4.5 cm. The nuclei
usually consist of Acervulinids and are relatively small compared with
the algal cover. Lithothamnion (Hapalidiales, Melobesioideae) and
Sporolithon (Sporolithales, Sporolithaceae) (Fig. 11C and D) are the
most abundant coralline algal genera, while Spongites (Corallinales,
Corallinaceae) and Lithoporella (Mastophoroideae), occur as very minor
components. Calcareous red algae of the family Peyssonneliaceae
(Fig. 11E) are the only components in some sphaeroidal nodules. Red
algae intergrowth with Acervulinids (encrusting LBF) (Fig. 11 D and F)
form 30% of nodules (foralgaliths in the sense of Prager and Ginsburg,
1989). Additional bioclasts are LBF such as Lepidocyclininae, Amphis-
tegina, Nummulites, and orthophragminids. Other biogenic components
include miliolid benthic foraminifers, occasional fragments of bivalves
and echinoderms (Figs. 5–7). This lithofacies is restricted to the basal
part of the sections in the northern Luruaco–Arroyo de Piedra area
(sections C.E.C.G. and Argos quarry and Arroyo de Piedra creek) and is
overlain by Lithofacies B.
Cements comprise up to 20% of the bulk rock (Figs. 5–7), and are
granular, blocky spar and fine-sand-sized microspar crystals, locally
micritized. Partial silicification processes can be seen as centimeter to
decimeter scale patches indistinctly affecting the bioclasts and calcite
cements.
Interpretation: The accumulations of abundant free-living, un-
attached nodules, consisting predominantly of coralline red algae and
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507

Fig. 9. Lithofacies B - Packstones/rudstones with red algae and claystone-siltstone rip-up clasts. A) Packstones/rudstones with red algae and rip-up clasts of siltstone,
in concave-plane beds (black arrows) alternating with black mudstones with foraminifera from Lithofacies A (blue arrows). Locality is Salvador Creek and person for
scale is 160 cm tall; B) channel shaped thick bed of red algal packstone to rudstone with siltstones clasts (Salvador creek); C) rudstones with red algae and dark-
colored cobble-sized rip-up clasts of siltstone with dispersive pressure processes in the locality of Punta Brava Quarry; D) granule to pebble-sized rip-up clasts of
siltstone - mudstone (yellow arrows) in Argos quarry; E) red algae rudstones with centimetric rhodoliths (red arrows) and granule to pebble-sized, sub-angular rip-up
clasts of siltstone (yellow arrows) in the Punta Brava quarry; F) red algal (blue arrows) grainstone with coarse-sand-sized mudstones clasts (purple arrow) and larger
benthic foraminifers (sample 20231-3 El Poder quarrie). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version
of this article.)

their detritus, correspond to a rhodolith-dominated carbonate system.
In the geological record, authors have indistinctly referred to these
accumulations variously as rhodolith beds, rhodolith pavements, or
maërl (Foster, 2001; Aguirre et al., 2017).
Dominance of Lithothamnion and Sporolithon in the coralline algal
assemblages points to outer neritic environments, several tens of meters
below sea level (Adey, 1979; Bosence, 1983b, 1991; Iryu et al., 1995;
Lund et al., 2000; Braga and Aguirre, 2001; Aguirre et al., 2017). In the
literature, an increase of Melobesioideae and Peyssonneliacean in
coralline assemblages has also been associated with deepening
(several tens of meters) of ancient carbonate systems such as the Pria-
bonian of Austria (Rasser and Piller, 2004), in the upper Eocene-upper
Oligocene of north-eastern Italy (Bassi, 2005; Bassi et al., 2009, 2010;
Bassi and Nebelsick, 2010), and in the Miocene of southern Spain
(Braga and Martin, 1988; Braga and Aguirre, 2001).
Nodule morphology depends, among others, of the time of residence
of rhodoliths on the seafloor. Enough time will allow thick algal covers
with respect to the nucleus to develop, generating ellipsoidal and
spheroidal rhodoliths (Aguirre et al., 2017). Rotation of the rhodoliths,
at water depths where Lithofacies C was deposited, is largely controlled
by the activity of vagrant organisms moving around algal nodules,
sporadic storms or even moderate winnowing rather than to currents or
waves (Marrack, 1999; Gagnon et al., 2012).
The common occurrence of Peyssonneliaceae algae in the C.E.C.G
quarry (Fig. 6) and the Salvador creek, and foralgaliths of melobesioids
and encrusting foraminifers (Acervulinids) are characteristic of rhodo-
lith formation in a low-energy palaeoenvironment (Prager and
Ginsburg, 1989; Rasser, 2001). This interpretation is reinforced by the
lack of sedimentary structures indicative of strong flows or currents and
the well-preserved spheroidal to ellipsoidal coralline red algal nodules,

13
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
Fig. 10. A) Panoramic view of the base and middle part of Argos section (person for scale 170 cm tall); B) schematic diagram highlighting the relationship between
lithofacies C at the base, and overlying lithofacies B with channel-shaped geometries and low angle cross-stratification; C - D) Slump structures and megabreccias in
the Punta Brava quarry. The main facies are rudstones with rodoliths and intraclasts (lithofacies B) (person for scale 160 cm tall).
with evidence of bioperforations made by a single ichnogenera (En-
tobia), which suggest low sedimentation rates and long residence times
of nodules on the seafloor (Bassi et al., 2009; Checconi et al., 2010;
Leszczynski et al., 2012). Low diversity of boring ichnogenera is ac-
cording to Aguirre et al. (2017), is associated with an increase in water
depth, as the largest bioeroders are excluded from the ichnoassem-
blages.
3.3. Vertical distribution of facies: stratigraphic sections
The northern section of the Arroyo de Piedra Formation, Los
Figueroa quarry (Fig. 5), is characterized by a homogeneous sequence,
30 m thick, of lithofacies A in thin and medium tabular beds (between
0.1 and 0.3 m thick), with parallel lamination and abundant wood
fragments; with scarce intercalated beds of lithofacies B.
The sections located in the central part, Argos and CECG quarries
(Fig. 6), have thicknesses of 15 and 74 m, respectively. Such sections
comprise a basal interval, up to 32 m thick, of lithofacies C, followed by
beds of lithofacies B with thin intercalations of lithofacies A. A channel
filled by lithofacies B, up to 7 m in thickness, can be discerned in the
upper part of the Argos section (Fig. 10). In the El Poder section (Fig. 5),
a lower interval of lithofacies A with thin beds of lithofacies B inter-
calated is overlain by a bedset of lithofacies B, 10 m thick. The out-
cropping beds in the Casa Vieja creek lithofacies C is followed by thin
beds of lithofacies A and lithofacies B (Fig. 5). Within the Chengue
Formation, in the Salvador creek section (Fig. 7), bedsets of lithofacies
B are intercalated in predominant intervals of lithofacies A. By contrast,
14
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
in the Punta Brava quarry section (Fig. 7) bedsets of lithofacies B,
showing syn-sedimentary folds and intra-formational breccias are se-
parated by thin beds of lithofacies A.
4. Discussion
4.1. Arroyo de piedra age
According to our biostratigraphic data Lithofacies A and B were
deposited in the middle Eocene, mostly between the late Ypresian and
early Bartonian. Although the age of Lithofacies C could not be directly
estimated by biostratigraphic proxies, the sedimentological model, ex-
plained below, establishes a syndepositional age of all three lithofacies.
Recently, bulk carbonate Sr isotope ratios, measured by Salazar-
Franco et al. (in Silva-Tamayo et al., 2019) in localities closer to the
ones presented in this study, provide younger depositional ages of the
Arroyo de Piedra carbonates. The authors subdivided the formation into
lower, middle and upper carbonates, assigning Bartonian - Priabonian
(41-35 Ma), Bartonian - Priabonian (39–33.9 Ma) and Priabonian -
Rupelian (35-33 Ma) ages, respectively. Based on the proximity of the
sections and similarity of the principal allochemical skeletal compo-
nents, the lower and middle carbonates of Salazar-Franco et al.
(in Silva-Tamayo et al., 2019) could be covering our Lithofacies A-B.
In our opinion, the main difficulty with the Sr Isotope Stratigraphy
is to ensure that the measured Sr isotope composition (87Sr/86Sr ratio)
is representative of the original fluid composition (McArthur, 1994).
Both circulating more recent seawater and contamination by detrital
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507

Fig. 11. Lithofacies C, Rhodolith rudstones. A) Branching rhodolith; B) large foralgalith (nodule of encrusting foraminifers intergrown with coralline algae; C)
Lithothamnion with multipore conceptacles; D) Sporolithon associated with encrusting Acervulinids. Arrows indicate a sorus of sporangial compartments; E) rhodolith
of Lithothamnion and Peyssonneliaceae interdigitated with Acervulinids (All pictures correspond to C.E.C.G. quarry); and F) bryozoan nucleus in a Lithothamnion
rhodolith.

material – commonly described by Salazar-Franco et al. (in Silva-
Tamayo et al., 2019) as interbedded siltstone and lightly bioturbated
claystones - may artificially increase 87Sr/86Sr ratios, leading to
younger ages, mainly when working on bulk carbonates and not sepa-
rated shells such as foraminifera. Although we did not perform detailed
petrographic analyses to the carbonate matrix, we found some evidence
that studied carbonates have not been significantly affected by post-
depositional diagenetic alteration and were only submitted to pre-
dominate early/meteoric diagenesis. Until future geochemical tests are
done in the carbonates, it is conceivable that the lithification of the
matrix cement took place in younger marine fluids which have more
radiogenic Sr and thus record younger ages. Therefore, and for practical
purposes, we will support our interpretation of upper Ypresian and
Lower Bartonian depositional age of the arroyo de Piedra Formation,
based on our own biostratigraphic data.
4.2. Depositional model
Despite the restrictions imposed by the limited lateral continuity of
the outcrops, and based on the information provided by components,
sedimentary structures, geometry, and the spatiotemporal relationships
of facies, the depositional model of middle Eocene carbonates of the
SJFB (Fig. 12) fits the original concept of the carbonate ramp (Ahr,
1973; Schlager, 2005), because unlike carbonate shelves, its deposits
lack of an offshore rim.
The depositional model of this mixed siliciclastic-carbonate system
is characterized, by three coeval facies belts: 1) middle-ramp rhodolith
beds, 2) outer ramp/uppermost slope channels and lobes mainly fed
from the middle-ramp carbonate factory, and 3) outer ramp/upper
slope open marine areas, with fine-grained hemipelagic sedimentation
dominated by planktonic components.
The shallowest preserved belt consists of the autochthonous rho-
dolith beds from the Luruaco–Arroyo de Piedra area, formed by in situ

15
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
Fig. 12. Depositional model of middle Eocene mixed carbonate-siliciclastic ramp in the SJFB, showing the main environments and facies.
carbonate production, and dominated by Melobesioideae and
Peyssonneliacean (Lithofacies C). This lithofacies is generally recorded
in middle-ramp settings in both modern (Lund et al., 2000; Bassi et al.,
2009; Brasileiro et al., 2018) and fossil carbonate systems (Bassi, 2005;
Brandano et al., 2005, 2009; Nebelsick et al., 2005; Puga-Bernabeu
et al., 2007; Bassi and Nebelsick, 2010; Payros et al., 2010; Aguirre
et al., 2012, 2017; Braga, 2017).
The spatial extent of rhodolith beds described in the literature varies
from less than a few hundred m2 to several km2. According to Halfar
et al. (2012), only the larger “beds” (e.g., > 1 km2) would likely be
recognized as a distinct facies in ancient deposits. However, in our
study area, the generally poor exposure and the disconnected dis-
tribution of the outcrops, which are restricted to quarries and small
creeks, prevent an understanding of the causes underlying the spatial
dispersion of the carbonate bodies. Tectonics and successive erosion
phases might have caused the scattering of ramp limestones. Conse-
quently, it is not possible to assess the original extension of the car-
bonate ramp or ramps and whether they were continuously fringing the
E-NE margin of the SJFB basin or were isolated systems separated by
areas of siliciclastic sedimentation.
Part of the algal nodules and other bioclast particles formed in the
above mentioned rhodolith beds were swept downslope from the
shallower environments by episodic gravity calciclastic flows
(Lithofacies B), and subsequent re-deposited into an outer ramp or
upper slope environments. In the Luruaco–Arroyo de Piedra sector, the
most common deposits associated to this removal mechanism are sub-
marine channels, such as the one in the Argos section (Fig. 10), filled by
allochthonous cross-stratification coarse-grained calcirudites. In the
southern San Juan Nepomuceno–San Jacinto sector, the occurrence of
syn-sedimentary folds and faults, slumps and intra-formational mega-
breccias in the Punta Brava Quarry (Fig. 10) suggest that the small lobes
of re-deposited carbonates in the southern sector formed on a slope
(Mullins and Cook, 1986), probably steeper and more distal when
compared to the northern sector.
16
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
As mentioned above, the calciclastics gravity-flows contain a het-
erozoan rhodalgal type association. These shallow-water derived allo-
chems are commonly fragmented, indicating that they suffered trans-
port, and exhibit signals of dolomitization and incipient micritization,
suggesting low lithification, typical of rhodalgal/heterozoan carbo-
nates, and the absence of early diagenetic processes (Braga et al., 2001;
Payros and Pujalte, 2008; Bassi et al., 2010). The composition of the re-
deposited Lithofacies B also reveals that no other type of carbonate
components extended shorewards, meaning that there is no direct
evidence of more proximal facies belts in the middle Eocene ramps of
northern Colombia. The absence of coral fragments or the lack of sig-
nificant changes in component proportions from Lithofacies C to Li-
thofacies B indicates that no substantially different carbonate factory, if
any, existed in the inner ramp.
The absence of middle-ramp carbonates in the southern sector
might be related to intense erosion of middle Eocene deposits during
the middle-late Eocene in the central area of the San Jacinto anticli-
norium (Duque-Caro, 1984). In the case of the channel-lobe systems,
the reduced thickness of the carbonate bodies suggests they had ori-
ginal small dimensions but even though the present-day dispersion
could have been accentuated by erosion and tectonic disruption. Only
the deeper channel-lobe systems escaped erosion.
Lobe deposits of Lithofacies B pass very abruptly into open-marine
deposits of Lithofacies A, where the autochthonous sedimentation was
dominated by hemipelagic claystones and siltstones, as accumulated in
the outer ramp to the upper slope environments. This facies is also
characterized by the common occurrence of phytodetritus (wood and
leaves fragments), which can be obvious evidence for efficient down-
slope transport of terrigenous matter (Biscara et al., 2011; Stetten et al.,
2015).
4.3. Siliciclastic–carbonate mixing
As stated before, siliciclastic and carbonate end-members of the
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
middle Eocene mixed successions of the SJFB do not pertain to two
different realms. They are part of coarse-grained, small-sized calci-
clastic submarine fan systems (CSFs), which are typified by the abun-
dance of coarse-grained calcirudites, and the scarcity of fine-grained
sediments (Payros and Pujalte, 2008).
The main mixing process behind the carbonate-siliciclastic mixture
observed in Lithofacies B is the so-called ‘‘punctuated mixing’’ proposed
by Mount (1984), where heterolithic fractions (packstones/rudstones
with red algae and claystone-siltstone rip-up clasts) from contrasting
sedimentary environments are mixed during short-term, high-energy
events such as debris flows or severe storms. The fact that these deposits
belong to a calciclastic submarine fan requires the downslope funnel-
ling of calciclastic sediment gravity flows which ripped up pre-existent
seafloor muddy material deposits, and incorporated them into the flow
as clasts, to eventually deposit them in an outer ramp/upper slope
setting.
Eventually, such terrestrial detritus initially deposited near shore,
might be re-suspended during tropical cyclones and may eventually be
transported to deeper parts of the shelf. However, remains of terrestrial
plant fragments found in deep-sea sediment can be obvious evidence for
efficient transport of terrigenous matter from land to bathyal/abyssal
environments (Nakajima, 2006; Zavala et al., 2012). Main transport
systems of terrigenous debris from land to such depths could be asso-
ciated to gravity flows, including turbidity, hyperpicnal and debris
flows. Besides the sedimentological control on the terrestrial matter
dispersion, outer shelf litter dispersion also depends of the combined
effect of wind, waves and sea surface currents on their drift (Pereiro
et al., 2018).
4.4. Sedimentary evolution
Although we cannot establish the beginning of the carbonate system
due to no exposure of the oldest intervals than the sequence already
reported, we can provide some highlights on the conditions that favour
its development. The vertical transitions from middle-ramp rhodolith
beds to channel-lobe deposits observed in sections of the
Luruaco–Arroyo de Piedra sector (Fig. 3) indicate a progressive increase
in water depth possibly driven by tectonics/subsidence. According to
Mora et al. (2017), after a lower to middle Eocene plate tectonic re-
adjustment and the onset of flat subduction of thick oceanic Caribbean
Plate under the South American Plate, the San Jacinto area experienced
renewed fore-arc extension and subsidence. Therefore, relative sea-
level rise and increase in accommodation space probably forced a lower
terrigenous input, promoting the growth and accumulation of rhodo-
liths for long periods of time with the subsequent development of
middle-ramp rhodolith beds (Lithofacies C), common in highstand and
transgressive systems, especially when a balance between production
rates and creation of accommodation space is achieved (Nalin et al.,
2008; Aguirre et al., 2012, 2017; Leszczynski et al., 2012).
The continued rise in sea level and further deepening of the system
led to widespread deposition of fine-grained clastic facies in open
marine environments (Lithofacies A). This might have determined
changes in environmental parameters such as light availability, tem-
perature and hydrodynamic regime, likely resulting in inhibition of the
massive biogenic production of carbonate on the seafloor, gradually
drowning the ramp environment.
4.5. Carbonate factory: prevalence of rhodalgal-foralgal facies
As mentioned previously, few studies reported middle Eocene cal-
careous systems in the Caribbean realm (Table 1), and even less provide
detailed descriptions of facies or components of the limestones. From
the literature review presented in Table 1, it is possible to observe that,
for the vast majority of formations, the biogenic components are
dominated by larger and small foraminifera, coralline algae, coral,
bryozoan, echinoids, and mollusks, namely a Photozoan (LB-foralgal)
17
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 99 (2020) 102507
association. In opposition, the biogenic components of the
calcareous factory (Lithofacies C) and tributary channelized networks
(Lithofacies B) of the Arroyo de Piedra formation, in northern Co-
lombia, are typically dominated by Heterozoan (Rhodalgal) associa-
tions, namely red algae, mainly Hapalidiales, Sporolithales and peys-
sonneliaceans, outweighing the contribution of encrusting LBF and
planktonic and smaller benthic foraminifers. Such dominance of rho-
dalgal facies was also reported in the middle Eocene of the Dominican
Republic (Pérez-Valera, 2010).
Rhodolith beds extend over neritic areas in a wide range of ocea-
nographic settings (Carannante et al., 1988; James, 1997; Foster, 2001;
Vigorito et al., 2005; Westphal et al., 2010; Wilson, 2012; Foster et al.,
2013; Kamenos et al., 2017). Particularly, in the Chengue Formation,
the presence of radiolarians and diatoms has been interpreted as an
increase in nutrients in the water column (Duque-Caro et al., 1996). In
this study, we also report increased abundance of calcareous nanno-
fossil genus Chiasmolithus, as well as a marked abundance of the
planktonic foraminifer species Clavigerinella colombiana, Clavigerinella
akersi, and Pseudoglobigerinella bolivariana, which are better adapted to
eutrotrophic, cold-water environments (E.g. Wei and Wise, 1990;
Bralower, 2002; Pearson et al., 2006; Coxall et al., 2007).
Since none of the previous research on middle Eocene paleoceano-
graphy and sedimentology of the Caribbean has allowed the re-
construction of controlling factors (such as water temperature, salinity,
nutrification, oxygenation, hydrodynamic energy, or substrate rigidity),
the reasons behind the distribution/dominance of these facies across
the middle Eocene Caribbean remain elusive. Therefore, more geo-
chemical and micropaleontological studies in the Caribbean realm are
needed for reconstructing local water temperature and palaeopro-
ductivity. Also, a re-analysis of all middle Eocene carbonates compo-
sition and sedimentology are required in order to define the real facies
composition, water energy and substratum instability that drove the
carbonate-grain associations found in the area.
5. Concluding remarks
The middle Eocene carbonates and mixed carbonate-siliciclastic
deposits in the SJFB, included in the Arroyo de Piedra and Chengue
formations, occur in disconnected outcrops in two major areas:
Luruaco-Arroyo de Piedra and San Juan Nepomuceno–San Jacinto.
They comprise autochthonous rhodalgal and foralgal facies formed in
middle ramp rhodolith beds, and rhodalgal facies with claystone rip-up
clasts redeposited basinward in small channels and lobes fed mainly
from the middle-ramp carbonate factory. The channel-lobe systems
formed in the outer ramp and slope settings, dominated by fine-grained
hemipelagic sedimentation dominated by silt and clay and planktonic
components. The vertical facies transitions exhibit a generally trans-
gressive pattern. The lack of lateral continuity of outcrops hampers any
assessment of the original extension of ramps and dimensions of
channel-lobe systems. Palaeogeographic reconstructions indicate that
these carbonate systems developed in the tropical belt. Modern analo-
gues of tropical middle-to outer-ramp rhodolith beds suggest they ac-
cumulated at several tens of meters in depth under mesotrophic con-
ditions.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo ICP-Ecopetrol S.A
for funding the Project “Estudio de rocas pre-Neógenas en el Caribe
Colombiano a través de cronoestratigrafía, geoquímica, análisis de
proveniencia y termocronología” (Projects 2020030005 and
2020030006), in which this research was framed. Dr. Juan Carlos Braga
Alarcón (Granada University) is specially thanked for his comments to
the manuscript and helpful discussions in the field. The technical sup-
port of the Geologic Samples Laboratory in ICP is gratefully acknowl-
edged. We thank Luis F. Peña (ICP-Ecopetrol) the help in processing the
E.A. Salazar-Ortiz, et al.
samples. Gustavo A. Torres and Claudia P. Cárdenas (Corporación
Natfrac) provided planktonic foraminifer-based age control for several
of the samples. We appreciate geodatabase management provided by
Mauricio Pinzón and Davis Guerra (Corporación Natfrac). We are
grateful to David Nesbit for the edition of the English text.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102507.
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