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Annotated Bibliography

Topic: Reclaiming the Medusa Myth as a Symbol for Modern Day Feminism

Research Question: How has the Medusa Archetype and Myth Changed over Time into a

Symbol of Feminism?

This annotated bibliography looks at Medusa as a symbol for feminism. My sources

address the birth, and evolution of her myth; media examples that show different

perspectives on her portrayal; and sources that show how Medusa is still relevant as a

feminist symbol today.

Alban, G. M. E. (2013). Medusa as female eye or icon in Atwood, Murdoch, Carter, and Plath.

Mosaic: A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature, 46(4), 163.

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A354146877/AONE?u=fitsuny&sid=bookmark-AONE

&xid=ab5c56a1

This essay examines the Medusa archetype within famous feminist works from

Margaret Atwood, Iris Murdoch, Angela Carter, and Sylvia Plath.

The author does a good job of examining the Medusa archetype in these works. In

Atwood’s Cat Eye, she uses the Medusa gaze to mirror her protagonists with one

another. In Murdoch’s A Severed Head, Medusa is portrayed by showing her duality as

a character. She is seen as a smart, powerful, scary and sexual being. In Carter’s

Bloody Chamber, she showcases Medusa’s power in a maternal form by helping a

victim stand against her patriarchal oppressor. Lastly, In Plath’s Medusa, she shows

her subject’s fight with the Madonna gaze, and how to free herself from it.
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In conclusion, through analyzing, and drawing excerpts from these works, the author is

able to conclude that Medusa is shown as an “evil eye or icon,” able to defend herself

against harm, and use her gaze against her oppressors. Showing that Medusa can be

portrayed as evil without being inherently misogynistic is important to showcase how

her myth has different feminist interpretations.

Attiah, K. (2020, October 19). The #MeToo Medusa is an Epic Tragedy. Washington Post, NA.

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A638850358/AONE?u=fitsuny&sid=bookmark-AONE

&xid=c675b54c

The #MeToo Medusa is an Epic Tragedy, is a paper by Karen Attiah that examines the

#MeToo movement, and Medusa as the symbol behind it. During the trial of Harvey

Weinstein, “a serial sex offender,” a Medusa statue by the artist Garbatti was on

display outside the courthouse. This was met with lots of controversy, as some women

argued that a statue that seductive should not be the face of a movement against male

abuse. According to Attiah, Medusa was one of Athena’s handmaidens, and her beauty

was unparalleled as a mortal, which earned her many unwelcome advances.

Unfortunately, she caught the eye of Posedion, who raped her in Athena’s temple. As

empowerment, Athena turned Medusa into a Gorgon with snakes for hair, so whenever

someone were to look upon her, her gaze would turn them to stone. Thanks to Athena,

Medusa was able to use the male gaze against her oppressors, and protect herself from

abuse, which is exactly what the The #MeToo Movement is about. The use of

Garbattti’s statue is a reminder that since we live in a patriarchal society, women’s

strength is always underestimated. The paper proves Medusa’s modern relevance, and
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shows how her story is still useful for present-day feminist movements, such as The

#MeToo movement.

Dexter, M. R. (2010). The Ferocious and the Erotic: "Beautiful" Medusa and the Neolithic Bird

and Snake. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 26(1), 25+.

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A228249657/AONE?u=fitsuny&sid=bookmark-AONE

&xid=6ffef7e5

This article examines the myth of Medusa, across history, and different cultures.

Dexter aims to show that Medusa is not a “feminine monster,” and is much more

complex than male views tend to show her. Dexter provides a thorough background on

the myth of Medusa, and shows how the myth has changed over time, from place to

place. The author states that in Ancient Greece, Medusa was associated with Hades,

the Greek god of death; Perseus, son of Zeus; snake symbolism, and healing. In the

mid-first century, the location of the myth was moved from Greece to Libya. In

Neolithic cultures of Europe, and the Near East she is a goddess with wings. The

author concluded that “Medusa was a synthesis of the Near Eastern male demon spirit

and the Neolithic European Goddess of the life Continuum.” (Dexter, 2010). This

paper provides cross-cultural backgrounds on the myth of Medusa, and how it has

changed over time, which is important because it showcases her history.

Nouhy, E. E. (2017). Redeeming the Medusa: An Archetypal Examination of Ted Hughes’

The Iron Woman. Children’s Literature in Education, 50(3), 347–363.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10583-017-9327-5
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This paper examines the novella “Iron Woman,” by Ted Hughes, and argues that he

portrayed Medusa in a positive light rather than the monstrous one she is usually

portrayed in. However, Medusa is never directly mentioned in the novella. The author

draws parallels from the Myth of Medusa as well as Ted Hughes’ personal life. The

myth of Medusa is a story about a beautiful woman who was turned into a monster, as

punishment by Athena. Nouhy argues that Hughes uses the Medusa Archetype for his

character, Iron Woman. This novella tells the story of a woman who escapes from a

marsh, and suffers because of all the toxic waste thrown there. As a result of her

suffering, she decides to enact revenge on all the men who have hurt her. Nouhy

makes good points about the parallels between Hughes Personal life, by referencing

Hughes’ wife, Sylvia Plath’s works. Specifically, her protagonist in “Lady Lazarus.”

Nouhy says that Plath wrote about her anger towards her husband, and projects it to

the entire male sex, just as Iron Woman wants to destroy all the men in the story. It is

evident in the novella, that Hughes feels responsible for his wife’s suicide, and his

inability to prevent it. He writes himself into the character “bird-watcher,” whose only

role is to observe people. The author concluded by saying The Iron Woman uses the

myth of Medusa to help the reader face their fears. This paper shows that even without

the direct reference to Medusa, the influence of her myth can still serve as a means to

empower women.

Fizee, S. T. (2019). The Medusa Gaze in Contemporary Women's Fiction: Petrifying, Maternal

and Redemptive. Interactions, 28(1-2), 113+.

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https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A582204288/AONE?u=fitsuny&sid=bookmark-AONE

&xid=351ca372

This paper examines the book The Medusa Gaze in Contemporary Women’s Fiction,

by Gillian Alban. In the book, Alban analyzes several female characters across

different genres, and how they are associated with the Medusa Gaze. Fizee states that

the Medusa gaze is a symbol of empowerment and rage, for a victimized woman.

Alban shows Medusa as someone who is proud of her power, rather than the

victimized woman she is usually showcased as. Fizee comes to the conclusion that

Alban portrayed a real sense of feminism within her book, which is something writers

before her have failed to do. Alban is persistent about women using their own power

to further themselves, and distance themselves from becoming victims. This piece is

relevantt because it is able to highlight the most feminist parts of Medua’s myth, and

why they are feminist. However, Alban seems a bit too radical, and shows no tolerance

for women who allow themselves to be victims.

Kapoor, M. (2021). The Present-Day Medusa: Foregrounding L'ecriture Feminism in the

Contemporary Retellings of Mythology. Journal of Comparative Literature and

Aesthetics, 44(1), 79+.

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A655104004/AONE?u=fitsuny&sid=bookmark-AONE

&xid=1d1ce531

This paper highlights the use of the Medusa myth in contemporary retellings, and how

it has helped provide a new perspective on female characters that are not stereotypical.

By doing this, it shows the importance of the past, and present in retellings. This
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article makes good points about the oppression of women, and their position in society,

while highlighting the methods they use to show women outside of the patriarchy.

Kapoor specifically states that in Helene Cixous’ essay, “The Myth of Medusa,''

Cixoush turned Medusa into a figurehead who embraced her femininity, and sexuality,

while challenging patriarchal values. It was in this essay that Cixous introduced the

concept of L’ecriture in writing, “which concentrates on the representation of the

feminine body and questions the male oriented thought process which suppresses

female voice.” (Kapoor, 2021). Kapoor questions whether the authors mentioned in the

article did more good than bad for gender equality. Kapoor comes to the conclusion

that authors, such as Margret Atwood, who have written seemingly feminist novels

still use femine steorotypes in her work. Lastly, there is always more space to explore

different versions, of feminist characters like Medusa outside of the typical narrative.

This piece highlights different uses of the myth in contemporary fiction, and the

impact that has on gender specific roles in society.

Mento, C., & Settineri, S. (2016). The Medusa Complex: The Head Separated from the Body

in the Psychopathology of Negative Effects. Mediterranean Journal of Clinical

Psychology. 4(1)

https://cab.unime.it/journals/index.php/MJCP/article/view/1236

This paper examines the myth of Medusa culturally and psychologically.

The authors believe Medusa to be a symbol of the cycle of life, fear, disgust,

admiration, strength, and anger. The authors make good points about the physiological

significance of this myth. They highlight that it is a myth full of complexity, that
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shows Medusa as a strong female character and a mother. However, it does not fail to

highlight the more gruesome aspects of her myth, such as her rape, punishment, and

the villianization of her character. The authors conclude that Medusa is an outlet for

female rage, which has been something the media has shied away from representing,

because it “spoils the beauty of women.” (Mento, C. & Settineri, S., 2016). Through

the myth, the audience can learn to embrace all of their emotions, even those seen as

“ugly.” The piece highlights the importance of the Medusa myth, as an outlet for

female anger through physcolanalzaying her.

Medusa: How the Literary Muse Became an Emblem for Feminism. The Interdependent.

https://wp.nyu.edu/interdependent/2-6-Medusa/

This article highlights the history of Medusa, and her importance today as a feminist

icon. Medusa was a symbol for female strength in ancient Greek times, and since then

has been used as a sex symbol in modern films, and is the logo for the high fashion

brand “Versace.” Looking at Medusa, we are able to question rape culture within our

society, and address the misogny behind it. In the paper the author draws up several

examples of Medusa’s representation in Media, including Ovid’s Metamorphoses,

Susan R. Bowers’ essay on “Medusa and the Female Gaze,'' Freud's essays, Dante’s

Inferno, and Robert Lowell’s Poem, “Near the Ocean.” She shows that Medusa gives

women the opportunity to empower themselves. In another part of the essay, the author

parallels Medusa’s story with the #Metoo movement and comes to the conclusion that

when men are in power, even the truth cannot bring them down. She also draws up a

parallel between Medusa and Billie Eilish. The author argues that Eilish is a modern
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symbol for Medusa because she dresses and behaves outside of normal feminine

standards, which causes unnecessary harassment towards her. Lastly the author

presents a series of poems that describe the unfortunate female experience in today’s

time. This paper is relevant because it helps explain Medusa’s myth and why she has

been seen as a feminist symbol through out time.

Silverman, D. K. (2016). Medusa: Sexuality, Power, Mastery, and Some Psychoanalytic

Observations. Studies in Gender & Sexuality, 17(2), 114–125.

https://doi-org.libproxy.fitsuny.edu/10.1080/15240657.2016.1172926

This paper highlights how myths have represented female strength, fear, anger,

retaliation, and freedom.

The author psychoanalyzes the origin of the myth of Medusa, Medusa herself, and

Athena. The article makes good points about Greek society around the time the first

version of the myth came to be. Greece was a patriarchal society at the time, and the

Medusa myth was very important for the empowerment of women, because of this.

Women saw Medusa as an outlet for their anger and frustration against their

oppressors. Women’s sexuality were constantly ignored, and were only used for their

reproductive abilities. The Medusa myth challenges this idea, ans shows that woman

are constantly present throughout their sexual encounters, and need to be considered.

The article also discusses the lack of morality in Greece, highlighting how

misogynistic it is for men to get away with their crimes. Another point the author

makes is Freud’s portrayal of Medusa, which shows her as a “castrating”symbol for

men. The author argues against this. In conclusion, this paper highlights the
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importance of the Medusa Myth to women in Ancient Greece and how the story serves

as a means to break out of typical feminine stereotypes.

Sterling, M. (2021). The Femme Fatale: Danger And Pleasure Ideology In The Female Sexual

Archetype. Mattie Sterling

https://www.mattiesterling.com/s/The-Femme-Fatale-Danger-And-Pleasure-Ideology-I

n-The-Female-Sexual-Archetype-Mattie-Sterling.pdf

This paper examines the Femme Fetale trope, and explains why it is actually

mysogonistic, rather than feminist. According to the paper, the Femme Fatale trope,

which originated in France, is “A dangerous and severe projection of a woman that

utilizes her promiscuous sense of sexuality, sexual identity, and femininity to

manipulate men and society for her benefit.” (Sterling, 2021)

The paper highlights Eve, from the bible; Medusa, in Ovid’s Poetry; and Portia, from

Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice as examples of this trope. The author shows how

the trope was negatively popularized in Film Noir, during the 1940’s and 50’s.

Sterling states that throughout time, the The Femme Fatale trope has grown into

something that has allowed women to embrace their sexualities. It promotes

exaggerated stereotypes such as, “The wild woman, the neurotic woman, the psycho

ex-girlfriend, the killer ex-wife, and the crazy female stalker.”(Sterling, 2021)

However, it also manages to defy hetronamotiave standards and highlights women’s

pleasure within a patriarchal society. Sterling argues the issue with the trope is that it is

mostly shown through the male gaze. This paper explains what the Femme Fatale

trope is and show examples of it. One of these examples is Medusa. Although, this
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paper is not entirely focused on her, it will be useful to show the misogynistic bias that

has been formed around her character.