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M1: ENVIRONMENT
Environment
• Refers to the immediate surroundings of an individual
• A complex system that deals with a network of living
and non-living entities
3 Main Components
• Physical Components (air, water, land, energy)
• Biological Components (plants, animals)
• Socio-Economic Components (people, communities,
institutions, values)
Ecosystem
• The basic functional unit of nature
• The interaction of the community (living components)
and non-living environment
THE SEVEN ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES
1. Everything is connected to everything else
• The intricate relationships of various elements of the
ecosystem bind the components together into one
functional unit.
• The trees in the forest are home to ferns, orchids,
birds, insects, and mammals. When these plants and
animals die, their products of decomposition
contribute to soil fertility. Plants provide oxygen to
animals for aerobic respiration while animals furnish
carbon dioxide to plants for photosynthesis. The
quality of the soil determines the type of vegetation
that exists while vegetation contributes to the
minerals of the soil when they die.
• Human interaction with nature oftentimes alters
ecosystems. The waste we improperly dispose of
brings about the deterioration of land and water
quality.
2. All forms of life are important
• All living organisms were created for a purpose in
relation to humans, other species on earth, and the
global ecosystem in general. The variety of life forms,
manifested by the different levels of biological
diversity – community, species, and genes –
contributes to the stability of the environment.
• Food webs, food chains, and ecological relationships
link plants and animals together in the web of life.
Even bacteria, insects, snakes, and rats have
ecological functions even though humans perceive
them as parasites or pests.
• The Philippines ranks high among the biodiversity
hotspots – the richest but the most threatened
terrestrial ecosystems in the world.
• The composition of biological diversity naturally
changes slowly but the rate of transition has become
faster due to factors such as habitat destruction.
Deforestation may diminish forest species such as
birds that are vulnerable to modification of their
home. Pollution of waters reduces the quantity of
fishes, shells, algae and other aquatic life. Over
harvesting of natural products likewise contributes to
the unsustainable use of food and material resources.
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Biological Diversity or Biodiversity
• The variety of all life forms on Earth – plants, animals,
microorganisms
3 Types of diversity
• Ecosystem diversity
o Interdependence within species
• Species diversity
o Basic unit of biological classification
• Genetic diversity
o Variation within species
3. Everything must go somewhere
• By-products of consumption go back to the
environment. Everything that we throw away have to
go somewhere. Even plants and animals have their
own wastes. It is the law of nature that the by-
products of metabolism return to the soil and then
converted into minerals, to be again absorbed by
plants and eaten by animals. But what happens if
what we throw is an artificial product such as plastic?
• In our present consumer-oriented, setting up an
ecological solid waste management system
becomes necessary for maximizing the use of
resources. Ecological solid waste management
recommends that solid wastes be reduced,
segregated, re-used and recycled. Biodegradable
materials are either to be eaten again or composted.
• Industries have their own responsibility in reducing
their effluents. End-of-the-pipeline technologies are
augmented by clean technologies in raw product
extraction and manufacturing.
• The “polluters pay” principle adopted by
governments intensifies the campaign for clean land,
water and air. Waste exchange programs by industry
turn wastes of one industry into raw products of
another. In that way, habitats for organisms are not
destroyed or deteriorate.
4. Ours is a finite Earth
• Everything that we need is provided by nature in
abundance – food, water, energy, minerals and air.
However, some resources that we depend upon
nowadays are extracted excessively but are slow to
replace.
• These non-renewable resources experience limits of
supply. For instance, fossil fuels produced over
thousands of years may be exhausted in a hundred
years. Some energy sources like water, and wood
may be replaced easier but have become
inaccessible due to pollution and excessive
extraction.
• The increasing population decreases the amount of
resources available to each person. Carrying
capacity, or the ability of the ecosystem to support a
number of people, maybe influenced by limit of
resources due to an increasing population.
Competition increases as the carrying capacity is
reached.
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• Per capita consumption must also be taken into
account because people in Northern countries
generally consume more food, energy and resources
than people in the developing Southern countries.
Carrying capacity may be addressed two ways:
increase resources and reduce population growth.
• Pollution reduces the absorbing capacity of air and
water. Pollution likewise reduces the availability of
land and water to produce food for human
consumption.
• Several solutions have been suggested to solve this
problem: reduction of consumption, increased use of
renewable energy, emissions trading, and pollution
control.
5. Nature knows best
• Nature manifests certain processes that enable it to
maintain balance and remain in a state of
equilibrium.
• Biogeochemical cycles.
• The flow of energy from the sun enables light to be
converted into sugar in plants through
photosynthesis, and later for consumer organisms to
obtain energy from plant starch.
• Food chains and food webs allow transfer of energy
from producers and consumers and provide the
means for all living organisms to acquire nutrition.
• Population control also occurs naturally through
predator – prey relationships.
• The equilibrium in the ecosystem is maintained, thus if
humans intervene, unforeseen negative impacts
known as ecological backlash, may arise. Floods
are often times backlashes of excessive felling of
trees.
• The importation of golden kuhol, that became a
pest, reminds us that biological organisms may not
acclimatize in a new environment or may cause
harm to indigenous species.
6. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation
• Creation presumes the existence of a Creator. The
beautiful nature around us, perfect by itself, has
deteriorated due to the negative impacts of human
use. This principle suggests how a Human-Creator
relationship is translated in our attitude towards
creation.
• Divinity in all forms of life.
• Religion is one of the most influential aspects that aff
ect values and environment.
• The goal of environmental education and biodiversity
conservation education to motivate target
audiences towards developing an eco-spirituality
that moves them into a more meaningful relationship
with nature and a greater participation in the
biophysical economic processes that make this world
a better place to live in.
7. Everything changes
• Changes in the biophysical world occur naturally.
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• Metamorphosis of caterpillars to butterflies illustrates
morphological changes that occur in living forms.
• The increase of vegetation on earth augmented the
amount of oxygen in the atmosphere through time.
• Seasons are cyclic changes that contribute to the
diversity of flowers, fruits, vegetables and other crops
during the year.
• Random changes manifested by natural catastrophe
such as typhoons and volcanic eruptions destroy
forests, coral reefs and mangroves.
• Human-induced alterations, such as climate change
and land use change, change the composition of
vegetation and animals.
• Environmental impact assessment (EIA) provides a
tool for the projection, planning and management of
change brought about by industrialization and
human settlement expansion. Effluents can be
managed through policy and pollution control
techniques by both industry and government to
achieve clean air and water.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Ecosystem Services
• Refers to the benefits provided by ecosystems that
contribute to making human life both possible and
worth living
o Wildlife is important to the heritage, culture,
and heart of a country, and we want to
preserve it as a legacy for our children.
o We have a stronger economy, diverse food
products, and advancements in medical
research as a result of wildlife and natural
ecosystems.
o The value of nature to people has long
been recognized, but in recent years, the
concept of ecosystem services has been
developed to describe these various
benefits. An ecosystem service is any
positive benefit that wildlife or ecosystems
provide to people. The benefits can be
direct or indirect—small or large.
4 TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Provisioning Services
• A provisioning service is any type of benefit to people
that can be extracted from nature. Fruits, vegetables,
trees, fish, and livestock are available to us as direct
products of ecosystems. Along with food, other types
of provisioning services include drinking water, timber,
wood fuel, natural gas, oils, plants that can be made
into clothes and other materials, and medicinal
benefits.
PROVISIONING SERVICES EXAMPLES
Resources Products
Wood Paper, Wall, Floor, Tables,
Pencils
Cotton Pillow, Cotton wears, Foam
Fruits and Vegetables Wine, Perfume, Foods
Water Drinking (purified) water,
essential to daily bases
(bath, wash, water plants)
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Regulating Services
• A regulating service is the benefit provided by
ecosystem processes that moderate natural
phenomena. Regulating services include pollination,
decomposition, water purification, erosion and flood
control, and carbon storage and climate
regulation. All these processes work together to make
ecosystems clean, sustainable, functional, and
resilient to change.
Cultural Services
• A cultural service is a non-material benefit that
contributes to the development and cultural
advancement of people, including how ecosystems
play a role in local, national, and global cultures; the
building of knowledge and the spreading of ideas;
creativity born from interactions with nature (music,
art, architecture); and recreation.
• As we interact and alter nature, the natural world has
in turn altered us. It has guided our cultural,
intellectual, and social development by being a
constant force present in our lives.
CULTURAL SERVICES EXAMPLE
• Spiritual and Religious
• Recreation
• Educational
• Aesthetic
Supporting Services
• Ecosystems themselves couldn't be sustained without
the consistency of underlying natural processes, such
as photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, the creation of
soils, and the water cycle. These processes allow the
Earth to sustain basic life forms, let alone whole
ecosystems and people. Without supporting services,
provisional, regulating, and cultural services wouldn't
exist.
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ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Environmental Ethics
• Is a branch of applied philosophy that studies the
conceptual foundations of environmental values as
well as more concrete issues surrounding societal
attitudes, actions, and policies to protect and sustain
biodiversity and ecological systems.
• Believe that humans are a part of society as well as
other living creatures, which includes plants and
animals.
• Therefore, it is essential that every human being
respected and honor this and use morals and ethics
when dealing with these creatures.
Environmental Damage
• Pollution
o Air pollution
o Water pollution
o Land pollution
• Resource depletion
o Depletion of Species & Habits
o Depletion of Fossil fuels etc...
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS PRINCIPLES
• We should have profound respect for nature
• We must maintain a harmonious relation with other
species
• Everyone should take responsibility for this impact on
nature
• Local & indigenous environmental knowledge should
be respected
• We must plan for the long term
THE ETHICAL VALUES FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
• We should recognize our moral duty to protect the
welfare not only human beings, but also of other non-
human parts of this system
• Usefulness of non-human world for human purposes
• Humans have no rights to reduce this richness &
diversity expect to satisfy vital needs
• The ideological changes is mainly that of
appreciating life quality, rather than to increase
higher standard of living
ETHICAL VALUES FOR CONSERVING DEPLETABLE RESOURCES
• Proper utilization of resources i.e the people should
maintain Ecological balance
• We should adopt voluntary measures to conserve the
resources
• If we are to preserve enough scarce resources, so
that future generation can maintain their quality of
life at a satisfactory level
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TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS ▪ Ecosystem ecology

Social ecology
• Is the study of human beings and their relation to their
environment.
Deep ecology
• Promotes that all beings have an intrinsic value.
Ecofeminism
• Is a branch of feminism that helps us look at earth as
a woman so that we can respect it in a better way.
M2: AN INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY AND THE BIOSPHERE
The scope of Ecology
• Ecology
o Is the scientific study of the interactions
between organisms and the environment.
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
o These interactions determine the distribution
of organisms and their abundance.
o Ecologists work at levels ranging from
individual organisms to the planet /
biosphere.
o Ecology integrates all areas of biological
research and informs environmental
decision-making.
• Organismal ecology
o Studies how an organism’s structure,
physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet
environmental challenges … Adaptations …
• Population
o Is a group of individuals of the same species
living in an area.
▪ Population ecology
- Focuses on factors affecting how
many individuals of a species live
in an area.
- Emphasizes energy
flow and chemical cycling among
the various biotic and
abiotic components.
• Landscape
o Is a mosaic of connected ecosystems.
▪ Landscape ecology
- Deals with arrays of ecosystems
and how they are arranged in a
geographic region.
• Biosphere
o Is the global ecosystem, the sum of all the
planet’s ecosystems.
▪ Global ecology
- Examines the influence of energy
and materials on organisms across
the biosphere.
LIMIT THE DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES
• Ecologists have long recognized global and regional
patterns of distribution of organisms within the
biosphere.
• Biogeography is a good starting point for
understanding what limits geographic distribution of
species.
• Ecologists recognize two kinds of factors that
determine distribution: biotic = living factors,
and abiotic = nonliving factors / physical
environment.
BIOTIC FACTORS

Scope of Ecological Research

• Organismal Ecology
• Population Ecology
• Community Ecology
• Ecosystem Ecology
• Interactions with other species
• Landscape Ecology
• Predation
• Global/Biosphere Ecology
• Competition

ABIOTIC FACTORS
• Community Abiotic Factors
o Is a group of populations of different species
in an area. • affecting the distribution of organisms include:
temperature, water, sunlight, wind, rocks and soil, pH
• Community ecology
• Four major abiotic components
o Deals with the whole array of interacting
of climate; are temperature, water, sunlight,
species in a community.
and wind.
• Ecosystem
o Is a community of organisms in an
area and the physical factors with which
they interact.

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Temperature
• Environmental temperature is an important factor in
distribution of organisms because of its effects on
biological processes. Cells may freeze and rupture
below 0°C, while most proteins denature above
45°C. Mammals and birds expend energy to regulate
their internal temperature.
Water and Salinity
• Water availability in habitats is another important
factor in species distribution. Desert organisms exhibit
adaptations for water conservation, salt
concentration affects the water balance of
organisms through osmosis while few terrestrial
organisms are adapted to high-salinity habitats.
Sunlight
• Light intensity and quality affect
photosynthesis. Water absorbs light, thus in aquatic
environments, most photosynthesis occurs near the
surface. In deserts, high light levels increase
temperature and can stress plants and animals.
Rocks and Soil
• Many characteristics of soil limit distribution of plants
and thus the animals that feed upon them: Physical
structure, pH, Mineral composition
GLOBAL CLIMATE PATTERNS
Macroclimate
• Consists of patterns on the global, regional, and local
levels.
Microclimate
• Consists of very fine patterns, such as those
encountered by the community of organisms
underneath a fallen log.
Biomes
• The major ecological associations that occupy broad
geographic regions of land or water. Varying
combinations of biotic and abiotic factors determine
the nature of biomes. Aquatic biomes account for
the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area.
They can contain fresh water or salt water (marine).
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Many aquatic biomes are stratified into zones or
layers defined by light penetration, temperature, and
depth.
• Major aquatic biomes can be characterized by their
physical environment, chemical environment,
geological features, photosynthetic organisms, and
heterotrophs.
AQUATIC BIOMES
LAKES
• Oligotrophic lakes are nutrient-poor and generally
oxygen-rich.
• Eutrophic lakes are nutrient-rich and often depleted
of oxygen if ice covered in winter.
• Rooted and floating aquatic plants live in the shallow
and well-lighted littoral zone of the lake.
• Water is too deep in the limnetic zone to support
rooted aquatic plants; small drifting animals called
zooplankton graze on the phytoplankton.
WETLANDS
• Is a habitat that is inundated by water at least some
of the time and that supports plants adapted to
water-saturated soil. Wetlands can develop in
shallow basins, along flooded river banks, or on the
coasts of large lakes and seas.
ESTUARIES
• An estuary is a transition area between river and sea.
• Salinity varies with the rise and fall of the tides.
• Estuaries are nutrient rich and highly productive.
• An abundant supply of food attracts marine
invertebrates and fish.
INTERTIDAL ZONES
• An intertidal zone is periodically submerged and
exposed by the tides. Intertidal organisms are
challenged by variations in temperature and salinity
and by the mechanical forces of wave action. Many
animals of rocky intertidal environments have
structural adaptations that enable them to attach to
the hard substrate.
OCEANIC PELAGIC ZONE
• The oceanic pelagic biome is a vast realm of open
blue water, constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic
currents. This biome covers approximately 70% of
Earth’s surface. Phytoplankton and zooplankton are
the dominant organisms in this biome; also found are
free-swimming animals.
CORAL REEFS
• Coral reefs are formed from the calcium carbonate
skeletons of corals (phylum Cnidaria).
• Corals require a solid substrate for attachment.
• Unicellular algae live within the tissues of the corals
and form a mutualistic relationship that provides the
corals with organic molecules.
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MARINE BENTHIC ZONE SAVANNA

• The marine benthic zone consists of the seafloor
below the surface waters of the coastal,
or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic
zone. Organisms in the very deep benthic, or abyssal,
zone are adapted to continuous cold and extremely
high-water pressure. Unique assemblages of
organisms are associated with deep-sea
hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-
oceanic ridges; here the autotrophs are
chemoautotrophic prokaryotes.
THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF TERRESTRIAL BIOMES ARE
CONTROLLED BY CLIMATE AND DISTURBANCE
• Precipitation and temperature are seasonal. Grasses
and forbs make up most of the ground cover.
• Common inhabitants include insects and mammals
such as wildebeests, zebras, lions, and hyenas.
CHAPARRAL
• Climate is highly seasonal, with cool and rainy winters
and hot dry summers.
• It is dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and
herbs; many plants are adapted to fire and drought.
• Animals include amphibians, birds and other reptiles,
insects, small mammals and browsing mammals.
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND

• Climate is very important in determining the terrestrial • Are found on many continents.
biomes in certain areas. Biome patterns can be • Winters are cold and dry, while summers are wet and
modified by disturbance such as a storm, fire, or hot. The dominant plants, grasses and forbs, are
human activity. Climate has a great impact on the adapted to droughts and fire.
distribution of organisms. This can be illustrated with • Native mammals include large grazers and small
a climograph, a plot of the temperature and burrowers.
precipitation in a region.
NORTHERN CONIFEROUS FOREST = TAIGA

GENERAL FEATURES OF TERRESTRIAL BIOMES AND ROLE OF • The northern coniferous forest, or taiga, extends
DISTURBANCE
across northern North America and Eurasia and is the
• Terrestrial biomes are often named for major physical
largest terrestrial biome on Earth.
or climatic factors and for vegetation.
• Winters are cold and long while summers may be hot.
• Terrestrial biomes usually grade into each other,
• The conical shape of conifers prevents too much
without sharp boundaries.
snow from accumulating and breaking their
• The area of intergradation, called an ecotone, may
branches.
be wide or narrow.
• Animals include migratory and resident birds, and
• Terrestrial biomes can be characterized by
large mammals.
distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants, and
animals.
• Vertical layering is an important feature of terrestrial
TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FOREST
biomes, and in a forest, it might consist of an
upper canopy, low-tree layer, shrub understory, • A mature temperate broadleaf forest has vertical
ground layer of herbaceous plants, forest floor, and layers dominated by deciduous trees in the Northern
root layer. Layering of vegetation in all biomes Hemisphere and evergreen eucalyptus in Australia.
provides diverse habitats for animals. Biomes are • Mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical
dynamic and usually exhibit extensive patchiness. layers in the forest.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, many mammals
hibernate in the winter.
TROPICAL FOREST
TUNDRA
• Tropical rain forests, rainfall is relatively constant
• Tundra covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine
• Tropical dry forests precipitation is highly seasonal.
tundra exists on high mountaintops at all latitudes.
• Tropical forests are vertically layered and
• Winters are long and cold while summers are
competition for light is intense. They are home to
relatively cool; precipitation varies.
millions of animal species, including an estimated 5–
• Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil,
30 million still undescribed species of insects, spiders,
prevents water infiltration.
and other arthropods.
• Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs,
DESERT dwarf shrubs and trees, and lichen) and supports
birds, grazers, and their predators.
• Precipitation is low and highly variable, generally less
than 30 cm per year; deserts may be hot or
cold. Desert plants are adapted for heat and
desiccation tolerance, water storage, and reduced
leaf surface area. Common desert animals include
many kinds of snakes and lizards, scorpions, ants,
beetles, migratory and resident birds, and seed-
eating rodents; many are nocturnal

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THE HUMAN POPULATION Survivorship

Population Ecology
• The percentage of members of a group that is likely
• Is the study of populations in relation to the to survive any given age.
environment, including environmental influences on
density and distribution, age structure, and
population size. Fertility Rate

Population • The number of babies born each year per 1,000

women in a population
• a group of individuals of a single species living in the
same general area. Migration

Density • The movement of individuals between areas.

• the number of individuals per unit area or volume

resulted from immigration and emigration.

Dispersion

• is the pattern of spacing among individuals within

the boundaries of the population can be clumped,
uniform, or random dispersion.

Studying Human Populations

• Demography is the study of the vital statistics of a

population and how they change over time.
• Death rates and birth rates are of particular interest
to demographers.
Demographic Transition
• Human population is growing fast in 20th century.
• Rapid growth leads to environmental problems. • Is a phenomenon and theory which refers to the
historical shift from high birth rates and high infant
Forecasting Population Size
death rates in societies with minimal technology,
• Age Structure education (especially of women) and economic
• Survivorship development, to low birth rates and low death rates
• Fertility Rates in societies with advanced technology, education
• Migration and economic development, as well as the stages
between these two scenarios.

Stages of Transition
Age Structure
Stage 1 – Preindustrial
• The distribution of ages in a specific population of a
certain time Stage 2 – Transitional

Stage 3 – Industrial

Stage 4 – Postindustrial

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Women and Fertility
Factors relating to decline in birthrate are:
• Increasing education of women
• Economic independence of women
• Don’t need to have as many children
Infrastructure
• The basic facilities and services that support a
community
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AND IMPACTS
Agriculture
• The are and science of growing plants and other
crops and the raising of animals for food, other
human needs or economic gain.
• It is a science, art, or occupation concerned with
cultivating lang, raising crops, and feeding, breeding,
and raising livestock; farming.
AGRICULTURAL & ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
• Developing measures that will encourage flexibility in
land use. Crop management in relation to climate
change is a key topic of global warning
• Increasing water management efficiency in order to
sustain agricultural production under changing
climatic conditions.
• Integrating agricultural, environmental and cultural
policies to preserve the heritage of rural
environments.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS TO AGRICULTURE
• When farming operations are sustainably managed,
they can help preserve and restore critical habitats,
protect water shed, and improve soil health
and water quality. But when practiced without care,
farming presents the greatest threat to species and
ecosystems.
o Global Warming
o Heavy Rainfalls
o Floods
o Acidic Rain
o Wind erosions
o Land slides
AGRICULTURAL IMPACTS TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Pollution
• Agricultural waste water contaminates fresh water
sources.
• Considerable attention must be given to fertilizer
inventory and soil conservation management in
order to avoid waterway contamination. Riverbank
protection must also be ensured to avoid the
impairment of aquatic environments.
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Pesticide use
• Using non selective pesticide may cause Fish kills and
contamination of drinking water.
• This is why regulations on the use of pesticides in
agricultural environments aim at making sure that
producers use them with all necessary diligence and
precautions.
Fertilizer use
• Fertilizers are commonly used in agriculture to
increase the quantity of nutrients in soil (nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, etc.).
• They may be of farm origin (animal manure and
other waste), or be purchased from commercial
suppliers, or stem from industrial or municipal activities
(fertilizing residual materials).
Wasteful water consumption
• Caused by leaky irrigation systems, wasteful field
application methods, cultivation of thirsty crops not
suited to the environment.
Climate change due to Greenhouse gas emissions
• Sources are fertilizers, livestock, wetland rice
cultivation, burning of grasslands, agricultural
residues.
• Agriculture contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions by enteric fermentation and soil manure
management, among other things.
• The government has implemented financial
assistance programs that enable farmers to reduce
their GHG emissions.
Genetic Erosion
• Wide use of genetically uniform modern crop
varieties reduces genetic diversity and potential of
modern crops to adapt to, breed for, changing
conditions and so directly threatens long term food
security.
Soil Quality and Erosion
• Increased flooding, loss of arable land, clogging of
waterways due to sedimentation
Air Quality
• Leads to acid rain
Land Conversion and Habitat Loss
• Desertification, to make room for monocultures
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SOLUTIONS
Government Regulations
• Keeping agricultural pollution in check is much
harder than it seems. For the farms to become clean
once again, levels of water, soil, and industrial
pollution have to be kept in check.
Awareness of farmers
• Farmers often unknowingly cause harm to the
environmental system. They should be taught that the
excessive use of fertilizer and pesticides have a huge
adverse impact on the whole ecosystem.
They must know:
• Applying the right quantity of pesticides and fertilizers
that are necessary to get a reasonable crop yield.
• Using cover crops to prevent bare ground when the
actual harvest is over, thus preventing soil erosion
and loss of waterways.
• Planting grasses, trees and fences along the edges of
a field that lies on the borders of water bodies. They
could act as buffers, and nutrient losses can be
avoided by filtering out nutrients before reaching the
groundwater.
• Reduction in tillage of the fields in order to reduce
runoffs, soil compaction and erosion.
• Animal or cattle waste is a big cause of agricultural
pollution. The management of these pollutants is
crucial.
• Several manure treatment processes need to follow,
which aim to reduce the adverse impact of manure
on the environmental system.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture
• The cultivation or raising of aquatic organisms,
(marine and freshwater species), in particular fish,
amphibians, echinoderms, shellfish, crustaceans or
plants, except organisms cultivated or raised for
aquarium fishkeeping purposes.
Fishing pond
• means a body of water of a maximum area of 20
hectares, containing cultured fish exclusively, closed
on all sides to hold the fish captive, and used for
recreational fishing.
AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND PROBLEMS HAVING POTENTIAL
IMPACT TO THE ENVIRONMENT
Destruction of habitat for aquaculture activities
• destruction of mangroves and coastal wetlands for
marine shrimp aquaculture
Collection of wild juveniles as stock
• overexploitation and shortages of wild stocks ex crab
culture procurement of wild larvae and crablets
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Depletion and Salinization of Water
• pumping of ground water to supply freshwater to
marine fish farms, salinization of local water supplies
leading to crop losses
Poor research in fish diseases and abuse of medicines
Weak environmental protection consciousness
Random discharge of aquaculture waste water without any
treatment
Residual feeds and excrements (fish waste)
Threat of Escaped cultured species to the wild
• cultured species have low genetic variability and
when bred with wild species off springs are less fit.
Reduced functionality of wetlands
• loss of mangrove root system could decrease
sediment stability leading to erosion which could
increase saline intrusion and the risk of flooding
inland.
Self-pollution
• discharge of aquaculture waste water to streams
and rivers.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF AQUACULTURE
Influence on the physiochemical parameters of water
• increase suspended substances and nutritional salts
in waters, cages reduce dissolved oxygen in the
water, increases concentration of water nutrient and
increases turbidity.
Influence in substrate of aquaculture facilities
• the bottom facilities increase contents of C, N, P
increasing oxygen consumption, and when organic
matters accumulate the decomposition function of
microorganisms results into bloom, and the dissolved
oxygen is depleted.
Influence on planktons and bottom dwellers
• input of outside-source materials and organic matters
increase the productivity of planktons
Escaped domestic fish and ecosystem health
• may spread diseases, becomes invasive, and can
change in genetic composition of wild species.
Habitat Destruction
• The creation of ponds for culturing marine shrimps.
Thousands of hectares of mangroves and coastlands,
which serve as nursery ground for many aquatic
organisms have been destroyed.
• Mangroves also support many marine and terrestrial
species, and also protect coastlines from storms.
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Chemicals used to Control Diseases
• To control bacteria, fungal, viral and other
pathogenic matter, drugs and chemicals may be
used on fish farms (ponds and cages).
• There is always a chance that these dissolved
chemicals may get into contact with other aquatic
organisms nearby. Too much use of such drugs can
also have an effect on humans who eat the fish.
SOLUTIONS
• Solutions will come in a variety of ways. Technology
should allow more efficient production of fish in this
way and should lead to less waste entering
ecosystems and less fish escaping. There are also
many common-sense solutions to many of the issues
mentioned.
o choosing the right site and making sure it is
assessed correctly;
o using native species to minimise impacts of
escaped fish;
o keeping farms local and smaller;
o not overstocking to minimise waste;
o improvement of feed quality (i.e feed that
doesn’t disintegrate as quickly);
o better management of waste, using
techniques such as settling lagoons or
treatment tanks;
o certification and legislation around
sustainability.
HOW CAN THE WORLD DOUBLE THE AVAILABILITY OF FOOD
WHILE SIMULTANEOUSLY CUTTING THE ENVIRONMENTAL HARM
CAUSED BY AGRICULTURE?
Step One: Freeze Agriculture’s Footprint
• Trading tropical forest for farmland is one of the most
destructive things we do to the environment.
• Most of the land cleared for agriculture in the tropics
does not contribute much to the world’s food
security but is instead used to produce cattle,
soybeans for livestock, timber, and palm oil.
• Avoiding further deforestation must be a top priority.
Step Two: Grow More on Farms We’ve Got
• Starting in the 1960s, the green revolution increased
yields in Asia and Latin America using better crop
varieties and more fertilizer, irrigation, and
machines—but with major environmental costs.
• The world can now turn its attention to increasing
yields on less productive farmlands—especially in
Africa, Latin America, and eastern Europe—where
there are “yield gaps” between current production
levels and those possible with improved farming
practices.
• Using high-tech, precision farming systems, as well as
approaches borrowed from organic farming, we
could boost yields in these places several times over.
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Step Three: Use Resources More Efficiently
• Commercial farming has started to make huge
strides, finding innovative ways to better target the
application of fertilizers and pesticides by using
computerized tractors equipped with advanced
sensors and GPS. Many growers apply customized
blends of fertilizer tailored to their exact soil
conditions, which helps minimize the runoff of
chemicals into nearby waterways.
• Organic farming can also greatly reduce the use of
water and chemicals—by incorporating cover crops,
mulches, and compost to improve soil quality,
conserve water, and build up nutrients. Many farmers
have also gotten smarter about water, replacing
inefficient irrigation systems with more precise
methods, like subsurface drip irrigation. Advances in
both conventional and organic farming can give us
more “crop per drop” from our water and nutrients.
Step Four: Shift Diets
• It would be far easier to feed nine billion people by
2050 if more of the crops we grew ended up in
human stomachs.
• Today only 55 percent of the world’s crop calories
feed people directly; the rest are fed to livestock
(about 36 percent) or turned into biofuels and
industrial products (roughly 9 percent).
• Though many of us consume meat, dairy, and eggs
from animals raised on feedlots, only a fraction of the
calories in feed given to livestock make their way into
the meat and milk that we consume.
• Finding more efficient ways to grow meat and shifting
to less meat-intensive diets could free up substantial
amounts of food across the world. Because people in
developing countries are unlikely to eat less meat in
the near future, given their newfound prosperity, we
can first focus on countries that already have meat-
rich diets.
Step Five: Reduce Waste
• An estimated 25 percent of the world’s food calories
and up to 50 percent of total food weight are lost or
wasted before they can be consumed.
• In rich countries most of that waste occurs in homes,
restaurants, or supermarkets.
• In poor countries food is often lost between the
farmer and the market, due to unreliable storage
and transportation.
• Consumers in the developed world could reduce
waste by taking such simple steps as serving smaller
portions, eating leftovers, and encouraging
cafeterias, restaurants, and supermarkets to develop
waste-reducing measures.
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M4 PEOPLE AND BIOMES Tundra Biome

Biomes
• A biome is a large area characterized by its
vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife.
TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
Grassland Biome
• Grasslands are open regions that are dominated by
grass and have a warm, dry climate.
Two Types of Grassland.
• Savannas
o Are found closer to the equator and can
have a few scattered trees.
• Temperate grasslands
o They do not have any trees or shrubs, and
receive less precipitation than savannas.
o Temperate grasslands can be prairies
which are characterized as having taller
grasses, and steppes having shorter grasses.
Forest Biome
• Forests are dominated by trees. Forests contain much
of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity, including insects,
birds, and mammals.
Three major forest biomes
• Tropical forests
o are warm, humid, and found close to the
equator.
• Temperate forests
o Are found at higher latitudes and
experience all four seasons.
• Taigas
o Are found at even higher latitudes, and
have the coldest and driest climate, where
precipitation occurs primarily in the form of
snow.
• A tundra has extremely inhospitable conditions, with
average temperatures ranging from -34 to 12 deg.
Celsius. They also have a low amount of
precipitation, just 15–25 cm per year, as well as poor
quality soil nutrients and short summers.
Two types of tundra
• Arctic tundra
o Is near the north pole and the alpine tundra
is on the tops of mountains.
o Arctic tundra experiences very limited
drainage,
• Alpine tundra
o well drained.
• The tundra does not have much biodiversity and
vegetation is simple, including shrubs, grasses,
mosses, and lichens.
• This is partly due to a frozen layer under the soil
surface, called permafrost.
HUMAN IMPACTS ON TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
Population growth
• Too many people are using limited resources.
Over consumption
• Industrialized societies are using more resources per
person from our planet than people from poor
nations.
Advancing Technologies
• We introduce technology without knowing how it will
influence the environment.
Direct Harvesting
• A large loss of rainforest and its biodiversity
Pollution
• Pollution has had many adverse influences on air,
water and land

Desert Biome
• Deserts are dry areas where rainfall is less than 50
centimeters per year.
• Deserts can be either cold or hot, although most of
them are found in subtropical areas. Because of their
extreme conditions, there is not as much biodiversity
found in deserts as in other biomes. Any vegetation
and wildlife living in a desert must have special
adaptations for surviving in a dry environment.
• Desert wildlife consists primarily of reptiles and small
mammals.
Atmospheric Changes
• Greenhouse gases due to the burning of fossil fuels
and depletion of our ozone layer
Resource exploitation
• Humans consume large amounts of resources for
their own needs. Includes the mining of natural
resources like coal, the hunting and fishing of animals
for food, and the clearing of forests for urbanization
and wood use.
Extensive overuse of nonrenewable resources

• fossil fuels, can cause great harm to the environment.

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Endangered species

• species are threatened to extinction due to habitat

destruction. Reasons: Hunting/ poaching, Habitat
loss, Overexploitation of a resource like water,
Disease, presence of invasive species

Invasive Species

• Humans may unintentionally, or intentionally,

introduce a non-native species into an ecosystem.
• This can negatively affect an ecosystem because the
introduced species may outcompete native
organisms and displace them.

Habitat change

• This is the process by which humans alter a habitat

enough so that native species can no longer live
there. We alter habitats for a variety of reasons
including cities, agriculture, dammed rivers etc.

Logging Forests Clear-cutting

• All trees are mechanically removed. Selective

cutting: only valuable trees are removed manually.
Reasons: Building materials, Paper products, Clear
land for agriculture, Clear land for roads and human
habitation, Get to materials under the land like
mining, oil sands.

Farming Current practices in farming include

• Clearing of land and/or using grasslands to feed

animals for human consumption, planting
monocultures of crops. Farming also uses pesticides
which can affect non-target organisms and will
decrease the biodiversity.

Land-use change

• Humans may destroy natural landscapes as they

mine resources and urbanize areas. This is
detrimental, as it displaces residing species, reducing
available habitats and food sources

Wildfire.

• Man-made wildfires threaten wildlife. Production of

particulate matter, creating haze.

Nuclear waste dumping

• Although most of the time the waste is well sealed

inside huge drums of steel and concrete, sometimes
accidents can happen and leaks can occur. Nuclear
waste can cause cancerous growths or causing
genetic problems for many generations of animal
and plants.

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