WELL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

The air rotary and down-the-hole hammer drilling systems are similar in
design and function with the main difference being the ladder system,
having the additional cutting action of the air-driven hammer.

First, we will profile the air rotary system followed next by the down-the-
hole hammer. The air rotary drilling system is primarily designed for
drilling and consolidated formations, offering good penetration rates and
quick cuttings removal. This system usually consists of a truck mounted
drill and separate support vehicle, which carry supplies required for the
drilling process, such as water in welding equipment.

If the horsepower requirements for the truck are similar to the

horsepower requirements of the drill, one engine can be used for both by
utilizing a transfer case. This rig’s equipment includes an air compressor
and both water and mud pumps to help facilitate the removal of cuttings,
depending on the geology encounter.

Please note for demonstration purposes, no surface casing is being used

to better illustrate these processes. Air rotary drilling systems can utilize
a number of cutting actions, rotary crush, rotary cut, or rotary percussion.
Shown here is rotary crush action. The flushing media used is dictated by
the geology and options include air alone, air and water combined, or with
the addition of drilling foam and polymers to further enhance cutting
removal.

First air alone. Please note the quality of the cuttings. They are a very
clean representative samples of the formation. Water is added to enhance
the air’s ability to remove the cuttings. Utilizing the supply truck’s
reserves and a direct circulation system. Water is pumped by the injection
pump from the truck down the hole, through the drill string and up the
annular space between the screen and the borehole. Removing cuttings
out of a hole and onto the adjacent ground.
Notice how the quality of the cuttings has changed. The addition of water
has masked the cuttings, making it more difficult to identify the
formations and record them accurately.

Drilling foam can be added to the water which helps fill voids and
suspend the cuttings in the annular space. Operators must mix carefully
to ensure foaming action occurs down the borehole, as opposed to in the
mixing tank. Manufacturer’s guidelines and recommendations must be
followed closely to ensure optimum performance and safety when using
these products. The foam fills the annular space, further enhancing the
removal of the cuttings. Once the foam has dissipated, you can clearly
see the cuttings again.

The drill string sections are threaded together to enable drilling

advancement.

Penetration rates are dictated by the geology. For consolidated material,

slow penetration rates requires slow rotation speeds, and lower volumes
of flushing media. As the material becomes less consolidated the rotation
speeds and penetration rates increase as do the demands on the flushing
medium.

The drill string is then tripped out of the borehole to facilitate casing
installation.

By utilizing a rib stabilizer on the drill string, the resulting borehole is

smooth, straight and true. Best facilitating the grouting operations to
follow them.

The steps involved with the casing installation may include initially
welding a casing shoe on the first section of pipe. This shoe protects the
end of the casing during hole construction and enables the casing to be
properly seated with the rock. The shoe must be welded to provide a
watertight seal around the pipe. Care should be taken to collect. spent
welding rod ends.
Additional sections of casing may require centralizers to be welded onto
the casing to assist with uniform ground placement as per regulation 903.
A casing elevator’s are fixed to one end of the casing and is hoisted into
the air and into position, safely and securely.

Two technicians are required to safely install the casing as one person
operates the hoist while the other assists by using a rope sling. Additional
sections are welded or threaded together as the casing installation
occurs.

Grouting occurs to fill the annular space between the borehole and casing
as per best management practices and regulation 903.

The bucket auger is used primarily on unconsolidated material, for

constructing large-diameter boreholes ranging from 24 inches to 48
inches. These large-diameter boreholes are ideally suited for areas
producing low-yielding wells in aquitards.

The drilling system consists of a truck-mounted drill with a separate deck-

mounted engine, which must be capable of generating enough torque to
overcome the friction associated with drilling such a large-diameter hole.

The support equipment required includes a service truck to carry the

casing and grouting materials. Two drilling technicians are required to
operate the bucket auger drilling system.

The cutting action is rotary cut. The bucket is rotated and advanced until
it is full of cuttings, at which time it is tripped out of the hole, swung to
one side, and a trip is released, emptying the cuttings onto the adjacent
ground. Note that no flushing media is used, since the bucket auger
removes the cuttings as hole penetration occurs. This produces cuttings
which are clean, unmasked, and representative of the geology.

This drill utilizes a large-diameter table drive to rotate the telescoping

kelly, which in turn advances the bucket auger. Penetration rates are
generally quite rapid in favorable conditions. During the drilling process,
the hole may require the installation of temporary or working casing to
stabilize the hole until permanent casing is installed. Drilling continues
through the working casing, using a smaller bucket until such time as an
adequate aquifer is located. The four telescoping sections of the kelly bar
enable the bucket auger to drill up to 100 feet in depth, without the use of
additional kelly bar sections.

The next step in this process is the installation of the permanent casing,
which can be manufactured from concrete, galvanized steel, or fiberglass.
Shown here is the installation of concrete casing using a tile center. The
annular space between the casing and the borehole wall at the aquifer
area is filled with permeable material, such as gravel or washed stone.
The well is grouted and developed to a sand-free state, as per Regulation
903.

The percussion method of drilling, cable tool, churn drills, sputter, or

pounders it’s sometimes referred to, is one of the oldest cutting actions
utilized in the drilling industry. Developed in China over 4,000 years ago,
the cable tool is tried and true, responsible for millions of successful
wells around the world. This system is still used today because of its own
unique advantages, which include one person operation, low equipment
cost compared to other systems. Simple, rugged design requiring minimal
maintenance. Low horsepower requirements of this rig, and finally cable
tools have proven to be virtually indestructible. These machines are
mainly used today for drilling in unconsolidated materials and soft rock
formations where relatively shallow depth wells are required
approximately 100 feet or less. Slow penetration rates are characteristic
of this drilling system.

Support equipment required for this drilling process are basic, a small
truck with welding equipment, torches and a small amount of makeup
water. A separately mounted deck engine powers the rig. The cable tool
uses the percussion cutting action, utilizing a 1,200 pounds real string,
and usually a carbide button bit. This bit goes up and down once per
second, performing four important drilling functions at once, penetrating
the material beneath the bit, reaming the sides of the hole, crushing the
geology into fine particles and mixing these cuttings with water.

The drilling action in conjunction with approximately five gallons of

introduced water mixes with the cuttings, which require bailing after
approximately four feet of drilling. This flushing system requires the drill
string to be tripped out of the hole and the bailer to be tripped into the
hole. The bailer is simply a hollow tube with a check valve on the bottom,
which fills with the cutting slurry mixture. The action of the dart valve
enables the bailer to collect cuttings for ID and recording purposes as per
regulation 9903 as well as removing accumulating cuttings by dumping
them in the mud spa. The bailer is also useful for measuring approximate
water pumping rates and levels at any time during the well construction.
The cuttings from the borehole are usually well mixed and small in size,
representing an accumulation of the formations encountered since last
bail.
Cable tool drillers have developed the ability to interpret the feel of the
drill string to improve well log accuracy and in identifying aquifers. The
cable tool drilling process typically consists of drilling, removing the
cuttings, identifying the geology, monitoring the waterflow, if present, and
then advancing the casing. There are two methods for casing
advancement, the drive cap and the drive blocks. The drive cap is
primarily used by cable tool operators until such time as increased
friction is encountered.

The drive blocks that enable more energy to be transferred, to assist with
driving the casing down. The casing advancement continues in
overburdened situations until such time as a suitable aquifer is
encountered, or until the casing is firmly seated in bedrock after which
casing is no longer required as the geology itself or rock stabilizes the
hole. The large bull reel shown here supports the cable, which in turn
supports the drill stream. The speed at which it is turning here is typical
of hole advancement in unconsolidated material. Ideally, casing is added
in 10 foot sections to improve efficiency. Additional casing sections are
usually welded, ensuring a watertight seal as required per regulation 903.
The annular space between the working casing of the permanent casing
is commonly grouted after borehole construction.
The differences between the air rotary system and this drilling system are
primarily the cutting action and the resulting cuttings, as shown. The
down- the-hole hammer uses the rotary percussion cutting action through
the use of a button bit. This system is best suited for well consolidated
formations, offering excellent penetration rates. Compressed air provides
the percussive energy to power the hammer. The resulting exhaust
removes the cuttings. Note the quality of the cuttings. They are large,
clean, and unmasked, representatives of the geology. Water only is added
to the air to assist with both, cuttings removal and suppressing dust. This
results in an aquifer, which requires minimal time to develop.

The example in the video (0:51) utilizes a chalk line to show the
correlation between penetration rates and drill string rotation. This
example is relevant to a six inch hole diameter only. First too slow
rotation for the geology is represented by the wide space in between
chalk lines. Next, is correct rotation speed, as shown by approximately
three-eights inch spacing between chalk lines. Finally, excessive rotation
speed is shown, as noted by minimal spacing between chalk lines.
The reverse circulation drilling system is quite unlike any of the other
systems profiled in that it is a very large rig requiring a big footprint for
both the rig itself, as well as the machine dug settling pit.

These rigs are primarily associated with drilling large diameter wells in
unconsolidated material ranging from 24 inches to 50 inches in diameter
and up to 1000 feet deep.

The cutting actions used in the reverse circulation system include the
rotary cut and the rotary crush actions. Shown here is in this video rotary
cut.

The unique direction of a water based flushing media is profiled. This fluid
is sent down the annular space between the drill string and the bore hole,
removing cuttings back up the drill string and into the settling pit. This pit
must be very large to accommodate a sufficient amount of fluid, which is
required to flush the large amount of cuttings generated in drilling a
borehole of this diameter.

The excavated material needs to be replaced with fluid. As drilling

continues, further increasing the quantity of fluid required for this drilling
process.

In addition to the makeup fluid required, a significant amount of fluid is

displaced and lost to the original formation as this system does not
typically use bentonite and therefore does not entirely seal the hole during
drilling. While increasing the demand for liquid use during borehole
construction, this system has the advantage of reducing development
time as compared to traditional mud rotary drilling.
Hello, this is Marvin Glotfelty, here with another in NGWA: Industry
Connected video. I am a hydrogeologist from Arizona and also a licensed
well driller. And a lot of the workshops I’ve given on different drilling
techniques, and I’ve talked in this video series previously about dual
rotary drilling. There’s a lot of different types. But another couple of the
standard types that are pretty universal are direct rotary drilling. There’s
direct mud rotary and direct air-rotary. Oh, I want to show you some of the
slides here. I’m going to share my screen, show you some information
that we can then consider.

First with mud rotary drilling, it of course has advantages and

disadvantages, just like all drilling types. So the advantage is, while we’re
drilling, we are keeping the borehole full to the brim, full to the land
surface, with drilling fluid, also called drilling mud. So what does that do?
That stabilizes the borehole. It keeps it from caving in on us, even if it’s
loose, unconsolidated material. And we can adjust the properties of this
drilling fluid to make sure that that happens. And so that also means that
we’re going to collect good, reliable cuttings and other data from the
borehole as we go. That’s important.

And we can address problems with, like I said, adjusted drilling fluid. If we
have swelling clays, if we have lost circulation where our drilling fluid is
seeping into a porous formation. If we have hard drilling and all these
different things, if there’s different properties in the formation, which
there will be, we can just change the drilling fluid to address them.

So what are the downsides? The downsides is, these drilling fluids are not
given away for free, they cost some money. So as long as we can manage
that, the overall cost will not be exorbitant, but it is an additional cost
because it’s a consumable material that we require during the drilling in
mud rotary. And the other thing is we can’t tell where the water table is
because the borehole’s full to the brim, not until we’ve completed and
isolated a portion of the aquifer from the land surface.

So that’s okay. Here’s a cartoon of the drilling fluid circulation. So you can
see that we have a mud pump shown on the back of this truck, and of
course the silly colors on the truck are just so we can point out different
parts of the rig. I don’t think anybody would ever paint a rig like this. But
we can pull the drilling mud up through the mud pump, up through the
stand pipe, the Kelly hose, and down to the drill bit. And then as it
circulates up the borehole outside of the drill pipe, it’s going to carry the
cuttings with it which can be deposited in that mud pit.

Now the mud pit can be below ground as shown, or it can be above
ground. Either way, it’s the same difference. So this means that we can
control our properties and collect our cuttings and really have a lot of
good information as we go. So the big part of this though, is the drilling
fluid, being able to control that and change it.

So let’s consider what that drilling fluid does. If we look close there’s in, at
the microscopic level, there’s a bunch of platelets that are like little tiny
sheets of paper, that are the bentonite clay. They’re not shaped like a little
ball, they’re shaped like a little sheet of paper. And so if they’re dispersed,
they’re floating around in the fluid mixture, in the water, and there’s a little
bit of soda ash and things like that mixed in there with other chemicals
perhaps.
But then when they flocculate, they stick together. And that means that
the thickness, the viscosity, of the drilling fluid can be higher, even though
we didn’t add additional bentonite, that’s cost some money. So that
means that we can carry cuttings out of the borehole better and things
like that. So that’s, when you hear people talking about the benefits of
flocculation of drilling fluid, this is what we’re talking about. It had the
property where it can pick it up, so at the same uphole velocity we can
carry more cuttings out of the borehole, which is what we want to do.

The other thing that happens with drilling fluid is some of the water seeps
out of the drilling mud and leaves behind these clay partlets stuck to the
borehole wall, and this is how we form a wall cake. What we like is to have
a little bit of water, not too much flow out to their formation, and make a
relatively thin and hard wall cake. If we have a thin, hard wall cake, it’ll be
very stable and easy to remove later on when we’re going to develop the
well and finalize it. If it’s a thick, fluffy wall cake, it’s the opposite. It won’t
be as stable and it’ll be more difficult to remove.

So this is a property of the drilling mud, not a property of the formation,

so we can control it. And so it’s one of the things that we measure, one of
many things. And I’ve got photos of how we measure things. In the upper
left is a mud scale, so we’re just measuring the weight of the drilling mud.
Usually, of course, water weighs about 8.3 pounds per gallon. Drilling mud
might weigh 8.8, maybe nine pounds per gallon. But if we get it real heavy,
like 9.4, 9.5 pounds per gallon, unless we’re intending that, and
sometimes we are, but unless we’re intending that, that means that what
we’re doing is recirculating solids. Fine solids that are the native silts and
clays from the formation, and we’re not getting them removed as we
recirculate and recirculate this drilling fluid.

That’s bad because that means our wall cake, for one thing, will be getting
not as thin and hard as we’d like it. To measure that amount of water that
goes out, called filtrate or water loss, that’s what’s shown in the device in
the center there with the green frame. That’s a filter press, so we’re just
measuring how the drilling fluid responds. And then on the right, you see
the young lady with a marsh funnel measuring the viscosity or thickness
of the drilling fluid.

So the mud engineer can come to the drilling site, as you see on the lower
left, with a pickup truck or some sort of a vehicle to check all these things
and some others too. In addition to the weight and viscosity, the mud
engineer can look at chemical properties, such as pH, maybe calcium
content, chloride content, things like that. They have titration devices and
so they can measure these things. They can measure the rheology, the
flow properties called plastic viscosity, yield point, gel strength, things like
that. So there’s a lot of stuff that’s kind of exotic, but the mud engineer
can tell all the folks and the parties involved whether that’s a problem or
not.

And then the filtrate, that’s what we’re measuring with the filter press in
the middle of the screen. And the solids content can be directly measured
with a small Imhoff cone, but also is reflected by how heavy the drilling
mud is. So all that stuff is good, that means we have control to some
extent, as we interact with mother nature as we’re drilling in the well. And
that’s a good thing, so this is a good … That’s why direct mud rotary is a
very commonly used approach and it’s very successful.

But there’s other alternatives with almost the same drilling rig, such as
direct air-rotary. What if we’re drilling at a place where we want … We’re
going to have a stable borehole, no matter whether we have drilling fluid
or not, and we’d like to give the advantages of air rotary. So with air rotary,
we have a very rapid penetration rate compared to other drilling types,
and we have quick bottoms-up time.

So that means, to the geologist, that when we drill cuttings at say a

thousand feet, they will be at the land surface almost immediately, very
quickly. So we don’t have to wonder how long it’ll take or calculate how
long it’ll take for the drilling fluid to bring them to the surface. This
happens very fast with compressed air. And we can identify where the
water table is as we drill, can’t do that with mud rotary but we can do it air
rotary.

And of course the wall cake in this case, it’s only really there because of
some soap and because of natural formations, not because of any
introduced material. And so it’s thin and basically minimal. So the
disadvantages, I’ll show you in a cartoon that’s coming up next why it’s
not feasible in some unconsolidated or unstable formations. We have to
switch to mud in some cases. Or if the borehole makes water faster than
the air compressor can remove it, well, then it keeps the bit from
adequately turning on that formation rock. And so it makes it a problem
called water logging or flooded out bit where we’ve got too much water
coming in. Good problem to have, but it can be a limitation to this type of
drilling.

So here’s what the cartoon looks like. Very similar to the mud rotary rig
you noticed, except that instead of being … Once we label things are a
little bit different. This brown device on the back of our drill rig is now an
air compressor instead of a mud pump. So we blow compressed air
through our stand pipe and Kelly hose, directly down the bit to remove the
cuttings. And they come up and now, instead of we’re calling our
discharge line a flow line, we just rename it as the blewie line.

And so notice that the borehole is not full of fluid to the land surface. This
is the water table somewhere down here. And so we can fill this with
foam, but we can’t fill up with water because we’re drilling with
compressed air. So that means that if the upper borehole is wanting to
cave in on us, that’s when we might have to switch to mud. But there are a
number of things we can do to generally stabilize the bore hole while we
drill, and it is a good and efficient way. And of course, I’m showing a
rotary tricone drill bit cartoon on the bottom, but we can also use a down-
the-hole hammer and have a pneumatic hammer type drilling, which in a
hard or brittle formation is really effective.
So here’s what we can do. We can add water, just a little bit of mist, and
that’s going to keep the dust down. And if you think of compressed air as
a fluid, which it actually is, it’s a compressible fluid, then you’re raising the
viscosity of that fluid. So you’re cleaning the hole a little bit better when
you add a little water.

Further yet, if you add foam, so water plus detergent, that’s what’s shown
in the upper right, then you get slugs of cuttings coming out a little bit
better. So you’re cleaning the hole. And remember that it doesn’t matter
how much you pulverize rock, unless you get it out of the hole you haven’t
advanced the borehole at all. And then if you need higher viscosity, yet
you can do stiff foam, and that’s detergent plus water, and then add a
little polymer to it. And that’s what’s shown on the left.

So we have these different levels of viscosity, even in air-rotary drilling,

that we can do. And once we’ve added some foam, some detergent, we’re
going to have a little bit of a surfactant surface on that borehole wall. It’s
going to slightly stabilizes. We have some help there, and so if it’s a hard
rock formation, no problem. But if it’s a unconsolidated formation,
depending on the nature, we may or may not be able to drill.

I’ve had experience where I could draw pretty deep in unconsolidated

formations within a rotary, but I think it wasn’t anything that I did right it
was the luck of the draw that the formation was just behaving itself. So it
can be good or it can be not so good. Either way, we of course have the
discharge at the land surface. That can be very high velocity as we see
here, or it can be slow, little flow out. Really variable, depending on a lot of
things. The nature of the borehole, the nature of the air package, all kinds
of different things. And so it can just be different situations, depend from
a hole to hole.

Either way, I really advocate both mud rotary and air rotary for drilling. It’s
just a good way to go. I’m sharing my screen there. So with that, that’s a
primer, mud and air rotary drilling 101 for you. So I hope you have a great
day and we’ll talk to you next time. Thanks.
Private drinking water wells: planning for water use
When planning for a private drinking water supply, it is important to determine if the
well capacity will meet water demands. The well capacity — the amount of water
that can be produced — must be accurately determined.

well flow rate — a measure of the gallons of water that can be produced per minute.
The flow rate must be capable of providing the total quantity of water needed every
day — the total daily demand. In addition, the flow rate should be sufficient to meet
temporary large demands that occur throughout the day — the peak use demand. If
the amount of water produced by the well is greater than the total daily demand,
but the flow rate is insufficient to meet the peak use demand, intermediate storage
can be used to supplement the water supply during peak use periods.

In addition, it is important to determine if the well water quality is adequate for its
intended use. Drinking water does not need to be pure to be safe for consumption,
hygiene, and other domestic uses. Whether drinking water is safe will depend on
which substances are present and in what amounts. Water quality can be
determined by having a sample tested by a certified laboratory. If water quality does
not meet the minimum standard desired, water treatment may be an option.

The design discharge of an efficient water well system is constrained by the hydrogeology of the aquifer.
Some of the aquifer information that can be obtained from historical data includes depth to water
below the ground surface, saturated aquifer thickness, transmissivity, storativity, water quality, and
aquifer type (e.g., confi ned, unconfi ned, or semiconfi ned, and whether the aquifer is consolidated or
unconsolidated.) Well logs, historical production data, and specifi c capacity history also may be
obtained from nearby wells to provide an estimation of the technical and economic feasibility of
constructing a water supply well in the area. Once an evaluation is made and it appears that it is
technically and economically feasible to construct a well at the site, a more detailed analysis should be
made prior to the actual construction of the well. This may include information for preliminary design
obtained from a test hole at the selected site.

WELL LOGGING
Well logging, also known as borehole logging is the practice of making a detailed record (a well
log) of the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole. The log may be based either on visual
inspection of samples brought to the surface (geological logs) or on physical measurements made
by instruments lowered into the hole (geophysical logs). 

Storativity (S) is a dimensionless measure of the volume of water that

will be discharged from an aquifer per unit area of the aquifer and per
unit reduction in hydraulic head. 

The rate of flow under unit hydraulic gradient through a cross-section

of unit width over the whole saturated thickness of the aquifer

Site selection should be on the basis of the following considerations:

1. Hydrogeology, previous drilling history,

2. Quantity of water (discharge rate, Q ) desired and water quality,

3. Legal aspects such as federal, state, and local laws, wellhead protection, and any subdivision
regulations,

4. Disposal of borehole cuttings and water used in drilling and testing, and 5. Location of the desired
water supply.

DATA COLLECTION

A typical test borehole (usually a 6- or 8-in. [150 or 200 mm] diameter) is drilled at the proposed site to
collect lithologic and water quality information necessary to design the well. The test borehole may be
logged geophysically and sampled for water quality analyses, and if desired, completed as a small
diameter observation well (e.g., 2- or 4-in. [51 or 102 mm]) diameter casing and screen. Another
common method of gathering lithologic and water quality data before completion of the water well
project is to fi rst drill a 17 ½-in. (445 mm) diameter pilot borehole in which geophysical borehole logs
are run and aquifer zone testing is performed to determine the vertical variation in water quality (and to
a certain degree the production potential; see Chapter 4, Section 4.6). In this case, if the pilot borehole
shows promising results, the borehole may be enlarged (i.e., reamed) and completed with the
permanent casing, screen, and fi lter pack

The information collected from a test borehole or small-diameter test well includes • Depth to water
below ground surface, • Thickness of the water bearing formation, • Samples of the aquifer material, •
Water samples for quality analysis, and • Geophysical and geological logs.

Determination of Borehole, Casing, and Screen Dimensions

The actual diameter of the borehole depends on the diameter of the casing and screen, which, in turn,
depends on the proposed pump impeller diameter. The pump impeller diameter is contingent on the
design discharge rate, Q .

Determination of Casing Materials Another major decision in designing a well casing is to specify the
material from which the casing is to be constructed. Material selection depends on the required
strength and the water quality. The casing must have suffi cient strength to withstand water and drilling
mud pressure during installation. The material also needs to withstand corrosion if corrosion potential
exists in the well site area

DESIGN OF FILTER PACK

the nature of the aquifer formation plays an important role in the type of well completion: naturally
developed, artifi cial fi lter pack, or open borehole. Unless the well is being drilled in a consolidated rock
formation that will maintain its integrity with time, an artifi cial fi lter pack (i.e., gravel envelope) is
recommended. As a result, fi lter-packed wells are common in alluvial/colluvial, unconsolidated, and
poorly consolidated formations.

Characteristics of Filter Pack A fi lter pack serves the following purposes: i. Stabilizing the aquifer
materials, thereby preventing migration of fi ne-grained materials into the well, ii. Creating a highly
permeable zone between the aquifer and the well, thereby increasing the effective well radius, r e , (see
Section 2.1.1, Chapter 2), and iii. Minimizing rate of incrustation permitting the use of larger screen slot
openings in cases of relatively thin, permeable aquifers, and where the chemical properties of
groundwater suggest a potential for incrustation (see Chapter 6).
The purpose of the fi lter pack is to stabilize the aquifer. The highly permeable nature of the fi lter pack
also increases the effective well radius because of the higher hydraulic conductivity of the fi lter pack. To
ensure high permeability, the fi lter pack is washed and screened to remove fi ner particles and angular
grains that tend to lower permeability and reduce effectiveness. It is important to center the casing and
screen string in the borehole and properly place the fi lter material (e.g., using a tremie pipe; see
Chapter 4) to ensure that there is an adequate fi lter pack around the well screen
DESIGN OF WELL SCREEN The main criteria in designing the well screen are the diameter and thickness,
type, slot size, and material. There are, however, a number of different types of well screens ranging
from vertical milled slots to continuous wire wrap. The most common are the horizontal louver and the
continuous wire wrap. Some other commonly used well screens are shown in

To design an economically feasible well, the net present worth (NPW) should be maximized. To do this,
the costs of drilling different depths and diameters need to be added to the other costs, casing, screen,
pump system, and so on. The discounted costs then are subtracted from the discounted benefi ts (value
of the discharge) to determine optimal design parameters. Theoretically, the economic optimum
dimensions of the borehole, casing, and fi lter pack design would be a trade-off between diameter and
length of casing, screen, and volume of the fi lter pack. However, such an exercise normally is not worth
the effort, because the design criteria usually are constrained by the geohydrology of the aquifer. Fig. 3-
5. Maximum discharge and specifi c capacity of an actual well 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % Ma ximun Dra wdown (s) % Max mi um Specifie Capacity (SC) 0 10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100 % M aximum Dis chrarge (Q) % Max. Q %Max. SC 106 HYDRAULICS OF WELLS The effi
cient operation of a groundwater system (a water well and a pumping plant) may be measured by two
basic means: hydraulic (physical) and economic. The hydraulic aspects measure physical output power
(i.e., output horsepower) divided by the input power (or input horsepower). Also, see Section 2.5,
Chapter 2. The economic effi ciency is measured by comparing the benefi ts with the costs. Both the
water well and pumping plant effi ciencies need to be measured separately and used as needed to aid in
developing the concept of economic effi ciency. Besides, for usage purposes, each of these system
components (well and pump) of a groundwater system may be divided into subsystems.

Economic Design of Water Well In most cases, designing a groundwater supply system will start with
the well design. The steps in well design are as follows: 1. Determine the desired discharge. Dealing with
a large water supply demand, which requires a well fi eld, is beyond the scope of this manual. If dealing
with a well in a well fi eld, we will assume the most economical distances and arrangements have been
estimated and a design discharge designated for the well in question. For more on well fi eld design, see
Pezeshk et al. ( 1994 ). 2. Estimate aquifer productivity. If the aquifer appears to be able to supply the
required water, fi ne. If not, the maximum safe yield of the aquifer will determine the design well
discharge. As the concept of safe yield has been debated, we will assume safe yield to be the amount of
water that can be withdrawn from the aquifer over the indefi nite future without causing permanent
harm to the aquifer. There are, of course, cases in which groundwater is mined like any nonrenewable
resource. This will not be discussed here. The knowledge of the aquifer and its yield may require a good
deal of engineering judgment. Whether the aquifer is confi ned or unconfi ned, whether it is fairly
uniform, what are its overall characteristics (transmissivity or storativity), where is its recharge area,
what kind of cone of depression should be tolerated, and so on—all enter into the well design
consideration. 110 HYDRAULICS OF WELLS 3. Select a trial pump that will deliver the design discharge at
peak effi ciency. The size of the pump will determine the minimum diameter of the well casing and
screen as covered in Section 3.2. 4. Calculate the dimensions and specifi cations of the well. Here it is
helpful to run a simulation model to estimate these design variables, such as screen diameter, screen
length, location of the pump inlet, screen slot size, fi lter pack (sand fi lter) specifi cations, and so on. For
example, the theoretical equations (Thiem and Theis) ignore well losses and suggest that well discharge
is proportional to screen length. The costs of screen and casing show a general linear relationship with
respect to both length and diameter.

3.5.4 Design of Pumping Plant The fi rst step in designing the pumping plant is to select the most
economical pump that will deliver the most economic (optimal) discharge of the well. To do this, one
must run a step-drawdown test. The stepdrawdown test involves pumping a well at a series of constant
rates, each larger than the previous rates (Labadie and Helweg 1975 ). This is covered in Chapter 4. The
results of time drawdown and recovery (both step-drawdown and constant rate tests) may be used to
calculate transmissivity. Although step-drawdown tests may be used to estimate aquifer transmissivity,
constant-rate time drawdown tests are preferred (see Chapter 4). The stepdrawdown equation (Jacob
1947 ) is presented as follows:
CONSTRUCTION

Currently, due to increasing population growth in arid and semi-arid areas, large-diameter, deep, high-
capacity vertical wells are required to provide large quantities of water needed for municipal, industrial,
agricultural, and domestic supplies. Modern water wells are constructed in a wide variety of geologic
and hydrologic conditions, from unconsolidated alluvium to bedrock. No single well construction
method works perfectly in every situation; therefore, a number of drilling and well construction
methods have been developed to suit a variety of downhole conditions that exist.
Wells that are no longer useful, along with exploration or test holes, must be destroyed because of the
risk of contaminating the groundwater, as well as the physical risk of the open borehole to people and
animals. Well owners are required to maintain inactive wells that are intended for future use in such a
way that neither the quality of water in the well nor the groundwater that is in contact with the well is
impaired. To accomplish this, the top of the well casing and other surface openings must be secured
with a locking watertight cover or any other means that will prevent removal of the well cover by
unauthorized persons without the use of tools or equipment. The cover must prevent entry of foreign
materials, surface water, pollutants, or other contaminants. If the discharge head for a pump that has
been installed in the well complies with the aforementioned requirements, it can serve as an approved
cover. In addition, all wells must be marked in such a way that they are located easily and are identifi
able with a label as a well. All brush, weeds, and other debris must be kept clear of the surrounding
area.
.11 PREPARATION FOR WELL COMPLETION

proper water well design is based on analysis and interpretation of information gathered during the
drilling and testing of the pilot borehole. This includes analysis of the geophysical borehole logs, review
of the results of isolated aquifer zone testing (particularly in terms of water chemistry), the static and
pumping water levels of each of the zones tested, and production rates, as well as review of the
lithology and mechanical grading analyses. Once the sieves analyses have been completed, plots are
made of the formation materials regarding the percent passing each sieve size before selecting the
optimal fi lter pack for the well.
Construction of Wells: 7 Methods
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This article throws light upon the top seven methods used for
construction of wells. The methods are: 1. Digging 2. Boring 3. Driving
4. Jetting 5. Cable Tool Drilling 6. Direct Rotary Drilling 7. Reverse
Rotary Drilling.
Method # 1. Digging:
Wells in shallow and unconsolidated glacial and alluvial aquifers can
be dug by hand using a pick and shovel. Loose material is brought to
the surface in a container by means of rope and pulleys.

The depth of a dug well may vary from about 3 to 15 m depending

upon the position of the water table. Dug wells usually have large
diameter ranging from about 1 to 5 m. Dug wells penetrate about 4 to
6 m below the water table. The yield of the dug wells is generally small
and is of the order of about 500 litres per minute.

Method # 2. Boring:

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Hand-operated or power-driven earth augers are used for boring a

well in shallow and unconsolidated aquifers. A simple auger has a
cutting edge at the bottom of a cylindrical container (or bucket). The
auger bores into the ground with rotary motion.

When the container is full of excavated material, it is raised and

emptied. Hand-bored wells can be up to about 20 cm diameter and
about 15 m deep. Power-driven augers can bore holes up to about one
metre in diameter and 30 m in depth.
Method # 3. Driving:
In this method, a series of connected lengths of pipe is driven by
repeated impacts into the ground to below the water table. Water
enters the well through a screened cylindrical section which is
protected during driving by a steel cone at the bottom. Driven wells
can be installed only in unconsolidated formation which are relatively
free of cobbles or boulders.

The diameters of driven wells are in the range of about 3 to 10 cm.

Such wells can be constructed up to about 10 m, if hand driven, and up
to about 15 m when heavy hammers of about 300 kg are used. The
maximum yield of driven wells is usually around 200 litres per
minute. The main advantage of a driven well is that it can be
constructed in a short time, at minimum cost and by one man.

Method # 4. Jetting:

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Jetting (or jet drilling) method uses a chisel-shaped bit attached to the
lower end of a pipe string. Holes on each side of the bit serve as
nozzles. Water jetting through these nozzles keeps the bit clean and
helps loosen the material being drilled. The fluid circulation system is
similar to that of direct rotary drilling method.

With water circulation maintained, the drill rods and the bit are lifted
and dropped in a manner similar to cable tool drilling but with shorter
strokes. Jet drilling is limited to drilling of about 10 cm diameter wells
to depths of about 60 m although larger diameter wells have been
drilled up to about 300 m by this method . Other drilling methods
have displaced the jet drilling for deep and large diameter wells.

Method # 5. Cable Tool Drilling:

It is the earliest drilling method developed by the Chinese some 4000
years ago. A cable tool drilling equipment mainly consists of a drill bit,
drill stem, drilling jars, swivel socket and cable (Fig. 4.6). The cable
tool drill bit is very heavy (about 1500 kg) and crushes all types of
earth materials.
The drill stem provides additional weight to the bit and its length
helps in maintaining a straight vertical hole while drilling in hard rock.
The length of the drill stem varies from about 2 to 10 m and its
diameter varies from 5 to 15 cm. It weighs about 50 to 1500 kg.
Drilling jars consist of a pair of linked steel bars and help in loosening
the tools when these stick in the hole.

Under normal tension of the drilling line, the jars are fully extended.
When tools get stuck, the drilling line is slackened and then lifted
upward. This causes an upward blow to the tools which, as a result, are
released. Swivel socket (or rope socket) connects the string of tools to
the cable.

The wire cable (about 25 mm in diameter), which carries and rotates

the drilling tool on each upstroke, is called the drill line. The cable tool
drilling rig mainly consists of a mast, a multiline hoist, a walking
beam, and an engine. Drill cuttings are removed from the well by
means of bailers having capacities of about 10 to 350 litres.

A bailer is simply a pipe with a valve at the bottom and a ring at the
top for attachment to the bailer line. The valve allows the cuttings to
enter the bailer but prevents them from escaping. Another type of
bailer is called the sand pump or suction bailer which is fitted with a
plunger. An upward pull on the plunger produces a vacuum which
opens the valve and sucks sand or slurried cuttings into the tubing.

While drilling through consolidated formations, most boreholes are

drilled as “open hole”, i.e., no casing is used during drilling operation.
In such conditions, the cable tool bit is essentially a crusher. On the
other hand, there is a danger of caving in while drilling through
unconsolidated formations. For this reason, casing pipe must follow
the drill bit closely to keep the borehole open in unconsolidated
formations.

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For the driving operation of the casing pipe, a drive head is fitted to
the top of the casing. The drive head serves as an anvil and protects
the top of the casing. Similarly, a drive shoe made of hardened and
tempered steel is attached to the lower end of the casing pipe.
The shoe prevents the damage to the bottom end of the casing pipe
when it is being driven. Casing is driven down by means of drive
clamps — constructed of heavy steel forgings made in halves —
fastened to the top of the drill stem. Drive clamps act as the hammer
face, and the up and down motion of tools provide the weight for
striking the top of the casing pipe and, thus, driving it into the ground.

The procedure for drilling through unconsolidated formation consists

of repeated driving, drilling and bailing operations. The casing pipe is
initially driven for about 1 to 3 m in the ground. The material within
the casing pipe is then mixed with water by the drill bit to form slurry.

The slurry is bailed out and the casing pipe is driven again.
Sometimes, the hole is drilled 1 to 2 m below the casing pipe; the
casing is then driven down to the undisturbed material and drilling is
resumed.

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The drilling tools make 40 to 60 strokes of about 40 to 100 cm length

every minute. The drill line is rotated during drilling so that the
borehole is round. The slurry formed by mixing of cuttings with added
water (if not encountered in the ground) reduces the friction on the.
cutting bit and helps in bailing operations.

If the friction on the outside of the casing pipe increases so much that
the casing pipe cannot be driven any more or further driving might
damage the pipe, a string of smaller casing is inserted inside the first
one. Drilling is, thus, continued. Sometimes, two or three such
reductions maybe required to reach the desired aquifer. The diameter
of the well is reduced. If such situation is anticipated, casing in upper
part should be of larger diameter.

The drilling process through consolidated formation, not requiring

casing, would consist of repeated drilling and bailing operations only.
The cable tool method has survived mainly because of its suitability of
a wide variety of geological conditions.
It offers the following advantages:
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(i) Cable tool drilling rigs are relatively cheaper.

(ii) The rigs are simpler and require little sophisticated maintenance.

(iii) The machines have low power requirements.

(iv) Borehole is stable during the entire drilling operate on.

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(v) Recovery of reliable samples is possible at every depth.

(vi) Wells can be drilled in water-scarce areas.

(vii) Because of their size, the machines can be operated in more

rugged, inaccessible terrains or in other areas where limited space is
available.

(viii) Wells can be drilled in formations where water is likely to be lost.

Slow drilling rate, higher cost of casing pipe and difficulty in pulling
back long strings of casing pipe are the disadvantages of cable tool
drilling.

Method # 6. Direct Rotary Drilling:

The direct rotary drilling is the fastest method of drilling deep well of
diameter up to 45 cm (or more with the use of reamers) through
unconsolidated formations. The drilling bit is attached to a heavy drill
pipe which is screwed to the end of the Kelly which is a drill pipe of
square section (Fig. 4.7). The drill collar or stabiliser helps in
maintaining straight hole in soft formations through its large wall
contact.
The drill pipe is turned by a rotating table which fits closely around
Kelly and allows the drill rod to slide downward as the hole deepens.
The drilling rig consists of a mast, a rotating table, a pump, a hoist and
an engine. The borehole is drilled by rotating a hollow bit attached to
the lower end of a string of a drill pipe.

Cuttings are removed continuously by pumping drilling fluid (mixture

of clay and water with some additives to make it viscous) down
through the drill pipe and through the orifices in the bit. The drilling
fluid, then, flows upward through the annular space between the drill
pipe and the borehole, carrying the cuttings in suspension to the
surface settling pits where the cuttings settle down in the pits.

The clear drilling fluid is pumped back into the borehole. The settling
pits can either be portable or excavated for temporary use during
drilling and then backfilled after completion of the well.

Usually, no casing is required during drilling because the drilling mud

forms a clay lining on the borehole walls which prevents caving in of
the formation materials. After drilling, the casing pipe with perforated
sections opposite aquifers is lowered into the borehole.

Drilling rotary method has become the most common

method due to its following advantages:
(i) Drilling rates are relatively high.

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(ii) Minimum casing is required during drilling.

(iii) Rig mobilisation and demobilization are fast.

(iv) Well screens can be set easily as part of the casing installation.

Some major disadvantages of direct rotary method are as

follows:
(i) Drilling rigs are expensive.

(ii) Maintenance of drilling rigs is costly.

(iii) Mobility of rigs is restricted depending on the slope and wetness
of the land surface.

(iv) Collection of accurate samples requires special procedures.

(v) Drilling fluid may cause plugging of some aquifer formations.

Method # 7. Reverse Rotary Drilling:

Direct rotary drilling method is capable of drilling boreholes with
maximum diameter of about 60 cm. High capacity wells, particularly
those with filter pack, need to be much larger in size. Besides, the
drilling rate becomes smaller with increase in borehole diameter in the
case of direct rotary drilling.

To overcome these limitations of direct rotary drilling, the reverse

rotary drilling technique has been developed. This technique is
capable of drilling boreholes of about 1.2 m diameter in
unconsolidated formation. Recently, reverse rotary method has been
used in soft consolidated rocks, such as sandstone and even in hard
rocks using both water and air as the drilling fluid.

In reverse rotary drilling, the flow of the drilling fluid is reversed in

comparison to that of direct rotary drilling. The reverse rotary drilling
rig is similar to that of direct rotary drilling rig except that it requires
larger-capacity centrifugal pumps, larger-diameter drill pipe and other
components also of relatively larger size.

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The drilling fluid moves down the annular space between the borehole
wall and the drill pipe, picks up the cuttings before entering the drill
pipe through the ports of the drill bit. The drilling fluid along with its
cuttings move upward inside the drill pipe which has been connected
to the suction end of a centrifugal pump through kelly and swivel.

The mixture is brought to a settling pit where the cuttings settle at the
bottom and the drilling fluid (i.e., muddy water) moves down the
borehole again. The drilling fluid is usually water mixed with fine-
grained soil only.

The hydrostatic pressure and the velocity head of the drilling fluid
moving down the borehole supports the borehole wall. Therefore, to
prevent caving of the hole, the fluid level must always be up to the
ground surface even when drilling is suspended temporarily.

Advantages of the reverse rotary drilling method are as

follows:
(i) The formation near the borehole is relatively undisturbed
compared to other methods.

(ii) Large-diameter holes can be drilled rapidly and economically.

(iii) No casing is required during the drilling operation.

(iv) Well screens can be set easily while installing the casing.

(v) The boreholes can be drilled through most geologic formations ex-
cepting igneous and metamorphic rocks.

(vi) Because of low velocity of the drilling fluid, there is little

possibility of its entering the formation.

Disadvantages of the reverse rotary drilling method are as

follows:
(i) Large quantity of water is needed.

(ii) Reverse rotary drilling rig is costlier because of larger size of equip-
ment.

(iii) Large mud pits are required.

(iv) Some drill sites may be inaccessible because of the larger size of
the rig.

Related Articles:
 1. Seed Selection Depends upon the Following Factors
2. Open Wells and Tube Wells (With Diagram)

Locating a well for a project is an important part of a well project. Several of the key factors of
locating a well are presented in this article. Each of the factors will impact the long-term success of
the project. Available sites should be ranked in a way to balance these factors when considering the
best location for a well. Depending on the type of pump selected and site needs, some of these
factors may be more or less critical to the success.

Hydrogeologic Considerations: The first consideration is the hydrogeology at the site and whether
there is a potential groundwater source that has an appropriate depth and water quality. Once it is
determined that an available aquifer is available, the other factors can be used to narrow down
potential sites. When a few sites have been selected, the team should contract a hydrogeologic
assessment of each site to determine the primary and secondary drilling locations. Hydrogeologic
assessments are described in more detail in the Hydrogeologic Overview article and are required for
Engineers Without Borders USA (EWB-USA) well projects.

Surface Considerations: The locations of wells should be appropriately spaced from latrines,

buildings, roads, solid waste landfills, agricultural facilities, etc. Some suggestions are given in the
external references for the appropriate setback distances but any country-specific recommendations
should be followed if they are more stringent. Areas that have historic or seasonal flooding and
surface water intrusion should be avoided. If an electrical pump is planned, assess the location of
possible electrical connections including location, phase, and energy cost.

Population, Access, and Distribution Considerations: The final distribution system design should be
used to optimize the site selection. If a distribution system is planned then the potential locations of
the tank should be considered to minimize piping runs and lower the head requirements for the
pump. If a hand pump or tap near the well are planned then the population centers should be
considered to shorten the distance for collecting water.

Land Ownership and Maintenance: Land ownership at the well site needs to be arranged during the
site-selection process to make sure that land rights and maintenance access can be appropriately
provided for the well.