Unit 5

June 12, 2021

1 An Important Property of Convergent Series

Theorem 1.1

P
If the series un is (C), then lim un = 0.
n→∞

Proof 1.1

P
Let un = u1 + u2 + . . . + un + . . . in which the partial sum sn is given by

sn = u1 + u2 + . . . + un (1)
P
Since un is given to be (C),

lim sn = a finite quantity s. (2)

n→∞

Also
sn−1 = u1 + u2 + . . . + un−1 (3)

and

lim sn−1 = lim u1 + u2 + . . . + un−1

n→∞ n→∞

= lim u1 + u2 + . . . + um (putting n − 1 = m)
m→∞

= lim sm
m→∞

= s using (2) (4)

(2)-(4) gives,

lim sn − lim sn−1 = s − s = 0

n→∞ n→∞

i.e., lim (sn − sn−1 ) = 0

n→∞

1
 i.e., lim [(u1 + u2 + u3 + . . . + un ) − (u1 + u2 + u3 + . . . + un−1 )] = 0
n→∞

(or) lim un = 0
n→∞

Hence in a convergent series, the nth term tends to zero as n tends to infinity. But this is only a
property of a convergent series and must not be taken as a test of convergence.
For, the converse of the result is not always true. Thus if the nth term of a series tends to
zero, the series need not be convergent. For instance, consider the harmonic series
1 1 1
1+ + + ... + + ...
2 3 n
1
In this, lim = 0. but we know that the series is divergent. Hence lim un = 0 is only a necessary
n→∞ n n→∞
condition, but not sufficient.

P
Condition for the convergence of un :
The above property may be used advantageously in some cases to prove that a given series is divergent.
If the nth term does not tend to zero as n → ∞, the series must be divergent.

2 D’Alembert’s Ratio Test

Theorem 2.1: Statement

P un+1 un+1
The series un of positive terms is (C), If lim is < 1. It is (D) if lim is > 1.
n→∞ un n→∞ un
un+1
If lim = 1, the test fails.
n→∞ un

Proof 2.1

P un+1
Given un = u1 + u2 + . . . + un . . . Let lim = l. Then by definition of limit, corresponding
n→∞ un
to a a given ϵ > 0, however small, there exists a value m in N such that,
 un+1 
 − l < ϵ for all n ≥ m.
un
un+1
i.e., −ϵ < − l < ϵ for all n ≥ m.
un
un+1
or l − ϵ < < l + ϵ for all n ≥ m.
un
Therefore omitting the first m terms of the series, we have
un+1
l−ϵ< < l + ϵ for all n.
un
Case I. Let l be < 1.
We can choose ϵ sufficiently small such that l + ϵ is also < 1. Let l + ϵ = k.
un+1
Now < l + ϵ for all n. i.e., un−1 < kun for all n.
un

2
 Giving values n = 1, 2, . . . in this inequality, we have

u2 < ku1
u3 < ku2
i.e., < k.ku1 < k 2 u1
u1 < k.u3
i.e., < k.k 2 u1 < k 3 u1 and so on.

Therefore u2 + u3 + u4 + . . . to ∞ < ku1 + k 2 u1 + k 3 u1 + . . . to ∞

Adding u1 to both sides, we get

u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + . . . to ∞ < u1 + ku1 + k 2 u1 + k 3 u1 + . . . to ∞
< u1 (1 + k + k 2 + . . . to ∞)
1
(as k < 1, the geometric series within the bracket converges to )
1−k
1
< u1 .
1−k
ie., < a finite quantity.
P
Therefore un is(C).
Case II. Let l be > 1.
un+1
We can choose ϵ sufficiently small such that l − ϵ is also > 1. Now > l − ϵ for all n.
un
i.e., > 1. Therefore un+1 > un . Giving values n = 1, 2, . . . in this inequality, we get u2 > u1 ,
u3 > u2 , i.e., > u1 , u4 > u3 and i.e., > u1 and so on.
Therefore u2 + u3 + u4 + . . . un > u1 + u1 + . . . to (n − 1)times.
Adding u1 to both sides, we get

u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + . . . to un > u1 + u1 + . . . to n times.
i.e., > nu1

Therefore lim (u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 + . . . to un ) > lim (nu1 )(i.e.,) > ∞

n→∞
P n→∞
Therefore un is(D).

un + 1
Note. When lim = 1. D’Alembert’s ratio test fails.
n→∞ un P
We cannot say exactly whether the series un is (C) or (D).
This is illustrated by the following two examples.
Consider the series,
P 1 1 1
un = 1 + + + ... + + ...
2 3 n
1 1 un+1 n
which is known to be (D). Here un = , un+1 = . Therefore = .
n n+1 un n+1
un+1 n 1
lim = lim = lim =1
n→∞ un n→∞ n + 1 1/n→0 1 + 1/n

3
Here the test ratio is 1 and the series is known to be (D) by others methods, On the other hand,
consider the series,
P 1 1 1
un = 2
+ 2 + ... + 2 + ...
1 2 n
which is known to be (C).
1 1
Here un = 2 , un+1 = .
n (n + 1)2
Therefore

un+1 n2
=
un (n + 1)2
un+1 n2
lim = lim
n→∞ un n→∞ (n + 1)2
1
= lim =1
1/n→0 (1 + 1/n)2

un+1
Here the test ratio is 1 but the series is known to be (C) by other methods. Hence when, lim = 1,
P n→∞ un
the series un may be (C) or (D).
The ratio test gives no information and a further test will be required to find out the convergency
or divergency.
Important Note. For convergence of a series by D’Alembert’s ratio test, it is not enough that the
ratio is less than unity for all values n. The test requires that the limit of the test ratio shall be less
than unity. For example, in the series
1 1 P∞ 1
1+ + + ... =
2 3 n=1 n

The test ratio

un+1 1 1 n
= + =
un n+1 n n+1
and this is always less than 1. But the series is known to be (D). The limit of the test ratio=1.

2.1 Problems
Example 1:
Test for convergence or divergence of the series for x > 0
x x2 x3
+ + + ...
1.2 2.3 3.4
P
Solution: Let the given series be un .
n
x xn+1
Then un = and un+1 = .
n(n + 1) (n + 1)(n + 2)

un+1 xn+1 n(n + 1) n

= . n
= .x
un (n + 1)(n + 2) x n+2
un+1 n 1
lim = lim = lim .x = x
n→∞ un n→∞ n + 2 1/n→0 1 + 2/n

4
 P
Therefore by D’Alembert’s ratio test, un is (C) if x < 1 and (D) if x > 1. If x = 1,the test fails.
In this case, the given series becomes
P 1 1 1
un = + + ... + + ...
1.2 2.3 n(n + 1)
Consider a second series,
X 1 1 1
vn = 2
+ 2 + ... + 2 + ...
1 2 n
un 1 n
= .n2 =
vn n(n + 1) (n + 1)
un n 1
lim = lim = lim
n→∞ vn n→∞ n + 1 1/n→0 1 + 1/n

= 1 = a finite value ̸= 0
P P P
Hence by the comparison test, un and vn is (C) or (D) together. But vn is (C) being a
particular case of the k series
1 1 1
k
+ k + ... + k + ...
1 2 n
P
which is known to be (C) when k > 1. Here k = 2. Therefore un is also (C). Summing up, the
given series is (C) if x ≤ 1 and (D) if x > 1.
Example 2:
1 2 3
Examine the convergence of the series + 2
+ + ...
1+2 1+2 1 + 23
Solution:
P
Let the given series be un .
n n+1
Then un = n
and un+1 = .
1+2 1 + 2n+1

1 + 2n
   
un+1 n+1
= ×
un 1 + 2n+1 n
1 + 2n
   
un+1 n+1
lim = lim ×
n→∞ un n→∞ n 1 + 2n+1
   
1 1 1
 1 + n   2n+1 + 2 
= lim  × 
1/n→0  1   1 
+ 1
2n+1
1
= 1/2 = (because as n → ∞, n+1 → 0)
2

and this value is < 1. Hence by D’Alembert’s ratio test, the given series is (C).
Example 3:
P∞ xn
Examine the convergence of 2n
for the positive values of x.
n=1 1 + x
Solution:
P
Let the given series be un .
n
x xn+1
Then un = and un+1 =
1 + x2n 1 + x2n+2

5
 un+1 xn+1 1 + x2n x(1 + x2n )
= . =
un 1 + x2n+2 xn 1 + x2n+2
x + x2n+1
=
1 + x2n+2

Case I. Let x be < 1.

un+1 x + x2n+1
lim = lim
n→∞ un n→∞ 1 + x2n+2

= x (because lim x2n+1 = 0 = lim x2n+2 as x < 1)

n→∞ n→∞

and this is < 1. Therefore by D’Alembert’s ratio test, the series is (C).
Case II. Let x > 1. Then

x x2n+1
+
un+1 x + x2n+1 (x2n+2 ) (x2n+2 )
= =
un 1 + x2n+2 1
2n+2
+1
x
1 1
2n+1
+
= x x
1
+1
x2n+2
 2n+1
1 1
+
un+1 x x
Therefore lim = lim  2n+2
n→∞ un n→∞ 1
+1
x
1 1
= [because x > 1 and < 1 and
x x
 2n+1  2n+2
1 1
∴ lim = 0 = lim ]
n→∞ x n→∞ x
and this is < 1. Therefore the series is (C).
1 1
Case III. Let x = 1. Then un = = for all values of n.
1+1 2
1 1 1
So the series becomes + + + . . . to ∞ which is clearly (D).
2 2 2
Summing up, the series is (C) if x < 1 and x > 1 and (D) if x = 1.
Example 4:
∞
r
n
xn .
P
Examine the convergence of the series
1 n+1
Solution:
P
Let the given series be un .

6
 r r
n n + 1 n+1
Then un = xn and un+1 = x .
n+1 n+2
r r
un+1 n + 1 n+1 n 1
= x .
un n+2 n + 1 xn
v   
u 1 1
u 1+ . 1+
s u
(n + 1)(n + 1) n n
= x= x
u
u  
(n + 2)n t 2
1+ .1
n
v   
u 1 1
u 1+ . 1+
u
un+1 n n
lim = lim u x=x
u
 
n→∞ un 1/n→0 t 2
1+ .1
n
P
By D’Alembert’s ratio test, un is (C) if x < 1 and (D) if x > 1. If x = 1,
vthe test fails.
∞
r r
n n u 1
, and the nth term un =
P
In this case,the series becomes =u
1 n+1 n+1 t 1
1+
r n
1
lim un = = 1 ̸= 0. So the series cannot be (C). Summing up, the given series (C) if x < 1
n→∞ 1+0
and (D) if x ≥ 1.
Example 5:
Settle the range of values of x for which the following series converge.
P xn
(i)
1 + xn
P xn
(ii)
1 + n2 x2n
Solution:
xn xn+1
(i) Here un = un+1 = .
1 + xn 1 + xn+1

un+1 xn+1 1 + xn x(1 + xn )

= . =
un 1 + xn+1 xn 1 + xn+1
un+1 x(1 + xn )
lim = lim
n→∞ un n→∞ 1 + xn+1

= x, taking x < 1, ( lim xn = 0 = lim xn+1 if x < 1)

n→∞ n→∞

P
As x < 1, un is (C).

7
If x > 1,

xn 1
un = =
1

1
xn +1 +1
xn xn
1
lim un = lim
n→∞ n→∞ 1
+1
xn
1
=
0+1
= 1.

The nth term does not tend to zero. So

P
un cannot be (C).
1 1 P 1 1 P
If x = 1, un = = . un = + + . . . to ∞. So un is (D).
1+1 2 2 2
Summing up, given series is (C) if x < 1 and (D) if x ≥ 1.

xn xn+1
(ii) Here un = u n+1 = .
1 + n2 x2n . 1 + (n + 1)2 x2(n+1)
un+1 xn+1 1 + n2 x2n x(1 + n2 x2n )
= · =
un 1 + (n + 1)2 x2(n+1) xn 1 + (n + 1)2 x2(n+1)
2 2n 2 2(n+1)
If x < 1, lim n x = 0 = lim (n + 1) x . This can be proved by L’Hospital’s rule.
n→∞ n→∞
un+1 P
∴ lim = x which is < 1. So un is (C).
n→∞ un
If x > 1, we write,
 
1
x
un+1 n2 x2n + 1
= 2
un

1 1
+ 1+ x2
n2 x2n n
 2n !
un+1 x 1 1 1
lim = 2 ∴ lim 2 2n = lim 2 × lim =0×0=0 .
n→∞ un x n→∞ n x n→∞ n n→∞ x
1
= which is < 1 as x > 1.
x
P
So un is (C).
P 1 1 P P 1
When x < 1, un = 2
< 2. ∴ un < which is a (C) series being a particular case of
1+n n n2
P 1 P
which is known to be (C) when k > 1. Here k = 2. So un is also (C).
nk
Summing up, the given series is (C) for all values of x.
Homework Problems:

1. Test for convergence of the series 1 + 3x + 5x2 + 7x3 + . . . to ∞.

P∞ n! · 2n
2. Discuss the convergence of the series .
n=1 nn
1 1 1 1
3. Discuss the convergence of the series + 2
+ 3
+ + ...
1 + x 1 + 2x 1 + 3x 1 + 4x4
for positive values of x.

8
3 Cauchy’s Root Test
Theorem 3.1: Statement

un of positive terms is convergent if lim u1/n < 1 and divergent if lim u1/n
P
The series n n > 1.
n→∞ n→∞

Proof 3.1

Let lim u1/n

n = l. Then by definition of limit, corresponding to a given ϵ > 0 however small,
n→∞
there exists a value m in N such that
1/n
|un − l| < ϵ for all n ≥ m
1/n
i.e., −ϵ < un − l < ϵ for all n ≥ m
1/n
or l − ϵ < un < l + ϵ for all n ≥ m
Omitting the first m terms of the series, we have
1/n
l − ϵ < un <l+ϵ for all n

Case I. Let l be < 1.

We can choose ϵ sufficiently small such that l + ϵ is also < 1. Let l + ϵ = k.
1/n
Now un < k for all n. i.e., un < k n for all n.
P P n P n
∴ un < k . But k is a geometric series whose common ratio k is < 1 and so it is
P
convergent. un is also (C).
Case II. Let l be > 1.
We can choose ϵ sufficiently small such that l − ϵ is also > 1.
1/n
Now un > l − ϵ > 1 for all n.
That is, un > 1 for all n.
Giving values for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . in this inequality, we get u1 > 1, u2 > 1, u3 > 1 etc.,
∴ u1 + u2 + . . . + un > 1 + 1 + 1 + . . . to n terms.
i.e., u1 + u2 + . . . + un > n
lim (u1 + u2 + . . . + un ) > lim n.
n→∞
P n→∞
un is (D).

Note: If lim u1/n

n = 1, the above test fails. The series may converge or diverge.
n→∞

3.1 Problems
Example 1 :
∞
P 1
Test for convergence of the series  n2 .
1 1
1+
n
Solution:
1
Here un =  n2 .
1
1+
n

9
Therefore,
 1/n
 
 1  1
u1/n
n = 

 =
n2  n
1 1

1+
 1+
n n
1
lim u1/n
n = lim  n
n→∞ n→∞ 1
1+
n
1
= . (by definition ofe as a limit)
e
< 1 since e > 1.

∴ By Cauchy’s root test, the series is (C).

Example 2:
Test for the convergence of the series whose nth term is (log n)−n .
Solution :
Here,

1
un = (log n)−n =
(log n)n
 1/n
1 1
u1/n
n = =
(log n) (log n)
1
lim u1/n
n = lim = 0 which is < 1.
n→∞ n→∞ log n

∴ By Cauchy’s root test, the given series in (C).

Example 3:
Use Cauchy’s root test to test the convergence of the following series: a + b + a2 + b2 + a3 + b3 . . .
Solution:
un . We find that u1 = a, u3 = a2 , u5 = a3 , . . .. Hence u2m−1 = am .
P
Let the given series be
n+1
Putting n = 2m − 1=odd number. i.e., m = , we find that,
2
n+1
un = a 2 (4)

un , we find that u2 = b, u4 = b2 , u6 = b3 , . . .
P
For the even terms of
n
Hence u2m = bm . Putting n = 2m, even number, i.e., m = .
2

we find that un = bn/2 (5)

Combining (4) and (5),

10
 

 n+1

a 2 if n is odd.
un = n


b 2 if n is even.


If n is odd,
 n+1
1/n 1 1 1
lim u1/n
n = lim a 2 = lim a 2 + 2n = a 2
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

If n is even,
 n
1/n 1
lim u1/n
n = lim b2 = b2
n→∞ n→∞
P 1 1
∴ By Cauchy’s root test, un is (C) if a < 1 and b 2 < 1 i.e., if a < 1 and b < 1.
2
1 1
and (D) if a 2 > 1 and b 2 > 1. i.e., if a > 1 and b > 1.
Since we are considering series of positive terms, it is clear that a and b are positive.
1
If a 2 = 1, i.e., a = 1 and b is any value, the series becomes 1 + b + 1 + b2 + . . . which is clearly
divergent. (sum of the odd terms=1 + 1 + . . . = ∞).
1
If b 2 = 1. i.e., b = 1 and a is any value, the series becomes a + 1 + a2 + 1 . . . which is clearly divergent.
(sum of the even terms=1 + 1 + . . . = ∞).
Summing up, the given series is (C) if 0 < a < 1 and 0 < b < 1. It is (D) if a ≥ 1 or b ≥ 1.
Example 4:
P {(n + 1)r}n
Show that the series is convergent if r < 1 and divergent if r ≥ 1.
nn+1
Solution:
P
Let the given series be un .

{(n + 1)r}n
un =
nn+1
(n + 1)r (n + 1)r
u1/n
n = (n+1)/n = 1+ 1
n
n n 
1
1+ r
(n + 1)r n
= 1 =
n.nn n1/n

1
1+ r
1/n n
lim un = lim
n→∞ n→∞ n1/n
r
= lim 1/n = r (∵ lim n1/n = 1, which can be proved by L’Hpospital’s rule)
n→∞ n n→∞

P
∴ By Cauchy’s root test, un is (C) if r < 1 and (D) if r > 1.
(n + 1)n
Ir r = 1, un = .
nn+1P
Consider the series, vn where vn = 1/n.
n
(n + 1)n n(n + 1)n (n + 1)n

un 1 1
= ÷ = = = 1+
vn nn+1 n nn+1 nn n
 n
un 1
lim = lim 1 +
n→∞ vn n→∞ n
= e = finite quantity ̸= 1

11
 P P P
So by comparison test, un and vn (C) or (D) together. But vn is (D) being a particular case
P 1 P
of the k series k
which is known to be (D) if k ≤ 1. Here k = 1, hence un is also (D).
P n
Summing up, un is (C) if r < 1 and (D) if r ≥ 1.
Example 5:
P n!
Test for the convergence of the series .
nn
Solution:
Let the given series be un .

n! 1.2.3 . . . n 1 2 3 n
un = n = = . . ... .
n n.n. . . . n n n n n
1 1 2 3 n  n1
unn = . . . . .
n n n n
1 1 2 3 n  n1
lim unn = lim . . ... = l (say)
n→∞ n→∞ n n n n
 1 2 3 n
∴ log l = lim log + log + log . . . + log
n→∞ n n n n

r dr
Put = x, = dx and adjust the limits and replace the summation by a definite integral.
n n
1 n
When r = 1, x = → 0 as n → ∞. When r = n, x = = 1.
n n
Hence,
Z 1
log l = log xdx
0
Z 1
x
= [x log x]10 − dx (integrating by parts)
0 x
= 0 − [x]10 = −1.
1
∴ l = e−1 = .
e

1/n 1 P
(i.e.), limn→∞ un = <1 as e = 2.7183 . . . ∴ By Cauchy’s root test, un is (C).
e

12
Example 6:
Examine the convergence of the series
X (n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + n)
nn

Solution:
P
Let the given series be un .

(n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + n)
un =
n.n . . . n
 1  2  n
= 1+ 1+ ... 1 +
n n n
" #1
1  1  2   n  n
unn = 1 + 1+ ... 1 +
n n n
" #1
1  1  2   n  n
lim unn = lim 1+ 1+ ... 1 + = l (say)
n→∞ n→∞ n n n
" #
1  1  2  n
∴ log l = lim log 1 + + log 1 + . . . log 1 +
n→∞ n n n n
" #
1  r
= lim log 1 +
n→∞ n n

r dr
Put = x, = dx and against the limits and replace the summation by a definite integral.
n n
1 n
When r = 1, x = = 0 as n → ∞. When r = n, x = = 1.
n n
Hence,
Z 1
log l = log(1 + x)dx
0
Z 1
x
=[x log(1 + − x)]10 dx
0 1+x
Z 1
1 
= log 2 − 1− dx
0 1+x
= log 2 − [x − log(1 + x)]10
= log 2 − [1 − log 2]
4
=2 log 2 − 1 = log 4 − log e = log
e
4
l=
e
1 4 P
(i.e.), limn→∞ unn = >1 as e = 2.7183 . . . ∴ By Cauchy’s root test, un is (D).
e

13
4 Cauchy’s Integral Test
Theorem 4.1: Statement

Pn
If f (x) is a positive
Z ∞ decreasing function of x for x>0, then the series 1 f (n) converges
Z ∞ or
diverges with f (x)dx., (i.e.), The series f (1) + f (2) + . . . + f (n) + . . . is (C) if f (x)dx
1 1
exists. The series is (D), if the integral does not exist.

Proof 4.1

The proof of this test is deduced easily from the following graphical consideration.

Draw the graph of the curve y = f (x), noting that x is positive and y is decreasing. Along
OX, mark the points A1 , A2 , . . . , An such that OA1 = 1, OA2 = 2, . . . , OAn = n . . . etc.
Draw ordinates at A1 , A2 , . . . intersecting the curve at P1 , P2 , . . . respectively. Complete the
inner and outer rectangles formed by these ordinates.

A1 P1 = value of y when x = 1
= f (1) = u1 .
A2 P2 = f (2) = u2 ,
A3 P3 = f (3) = u3 and so on.

The area P1 A1 A2 P2 under the curve is

>area of inner rectangleA1 A2 P2 M

>P2 A2 · A1 A2
>u2 (since A1 A2 = 1)

14
 and it is

<area of outer rectangle P1 LA2 A1

<P1 A1 · A1 A2
<u1

Therefore u1 > area of P1 A1 A2 P2 >u2

Similarly u2 > area of P2 A2 A3 P3 >u3
... ... ......
... ... ......
... ... ......
un > area of Pn An An+1 Pn+1 >un+1
Adding up,
u1 + u2 + . . . + un > area of P1 A1 An+1 Pn+1 >u2 + u3 + . . . + un+1
Z n+1
sn > f (x)dx > sn+1 − u1 (1)
1

Taking the last two members of (1), we have

Z n+1
sn+1 − u1 < f (x)dx (2)
1

Taking limits as n → ∞
Z ∞
limn→∞ (sn+1 − u1 ) < f (x)dx
Z ∞1

limn→∞ sn+1 < u1 + f (x)dx

Z ∞ 1

∴ if f (x)dx exists, limn→∞ sn+1 is a finite quantity.

1 P P
Hence the series un (i.e.), f (n) is (C).
Taking the first two members of (1), we have
Z n+1
sn > f (x)dx
1

Taking limits, Z ∞
lim sn > f (x)dx
n→∞ 1
Z ∞
Hence, if f (x)dx is infinte, Ltn→∞ sn is also infinity.
P 1
(i.e.), f (n) is (D).

Note: Z ∞
P
The lower limit in f (x)dx which is convergent or divergent with f (n) need not be 1. It may
1
be any number so as to make the integrand finite at the lower limit.

15
5 Comparison Test Ratios
Theorem 5.1: Comparison of Test Ratios from Two Series

P P un+1 vn+1 P
If un ,
vn are two series of positive terms and if < for all values of n, then un
un vn
P un+1 vn+1 P P
is (C) if vn is (C). If > for all values of n and vn is (D) then un is (D).
un vn

Proof 5.1

un+1 vn+1
Case I. Let < for all values of n.
un vn
u2 v2 u1
i.e., < ∴ u2 < .v2 (i)
u1 v1 v1
u3 v3 u2
< ∴ u3 < .v3
u2 v2 v2
u1 v2
i.e., < .v3 using (i)
v1 v2
u1
i.e., u3 < .v3 (ii)
v1
Similarly
u1
i.e., u4 < .v4 (iii)
v1
and so on. Adding (i), (ii), (iii) etc., we have

u1 u1
u2 + u3 + u4 + . . . < .v2 + .v3 + . . .
v1 u2
u1
Adding u1 = .v3 to both sides, we have
v1
u1 u1 u1
u1 + u2 + u3 + . . . < .v1 + .v2 + .v3 + . . .
P Pv1 v1 v1
∴ If vn is (C), then un is also (C).

un+1 vn+1
Case II. Let > for all values of n. Proceeding in the same manner as in Case
un vn
I, we have the result that

P u1 P
un > vn .
vP
1 P
Therefore if vn is (D), then un is also (D).

Note:
The result of this theorem will be used to establish two further tests to study the convergency or a
divergency of a series and they are discussed in the next two sections.

16
5.1 Raabe’s Test
Theorem 5.2: Statement

P
TThe series un of positive terms is (C) or (D) according as

 
un
lim n · − 1 > 1 or < 1.
n→∞ un+1

Proof 5.2

vn where vn = 1/np . We know that

P P P
Let us compare un with vn is (C) when p > 1.
P
Hence un also will be (C).

un+1 vn+1
If < (previous theorem)
un vn

un vn
(i.e.,) if >
un+1 vn+1
(n + 1)p
(i.e.,) > p
 n p
1
(i.e.,) > 1 +
n
un p p(p − 1)
(i.e.,) >1+ + + ...
un+1 n 1.2.n2
un p p(p − 1)
−1> + + ...
un+1 n 1.2.n2
 
un p(p − 1)
or n −1 >p+ + ...
un+1 1.2.n
 
un
(i.e.,) if lim n −1 >p
n→∞ un+1
 
P un
Therefore un is also (C) if lim n − 1 > 1.
n→∞ un+1
P P un+1 vn+1
Also when p < 1, vn is (D). In this case, un is (D), if > .
un vn  
P un
Proceeding in the same manner as above, we can prove that, un is (D) if lim n −1 <
n→∞ un+1
1.

Note:  
un
Raabe’s test fails if lim n − 1 = 1.
n→∞ un+1

17
5.2 Logarithmic Ratio Test
Theorem 5.3: Statement

P
TThe series un of positive terms is (C) or (D) according as
un
lim n · log > 1 or < 1.
n→∞ un+1

Proof 5.3

vn where vn = 1/np . We know that

P P P
Let us compare un with vn is (C) when p is > 1.
P
Therefore un also will be (C).

un+1 vn+1
If < (previous theorem)
un vn
un vn
(i.e.,) if >
un+1 vn+1
(n + 1)p
> p
 n p
1
(i.e.,) > 1 +
n
 
un 1
(i.e.,) if log > p log 1 +
un+1 n
 
1 1
>p − + . . . expanding by the logarithmic series
n 2n2
 
un 1
(i.e.,) if n log >p 1− + ...
un+1 2n
un
(i.e.,) if lim n log >p
n→∞ un+1
(i.e.,) > 1

P un
Therefore un is also (C) if lim n · log > 1.
n→∞ un+1
P P un+1 vn+1
Also when p < 1, vn is (D). In this case, un is (D) if > .
un vn
Proceeding in the same manner as above, we can prove that
P un
un is (D) if lim n · log < 1.
n→∞ un+1

Note:
un
1. The above test fails when lim n · log =1
n→∞ un+1
2. In caese where D’Alembert’s ratio test fails, we can employ the two tests described in the
previous theorems. This is indicated in the next two worked examples.

3. The student will not have failed to note that for the simple D’Alembert’s ratio test, the test
un un
ratio is while for Raabe’s and Logarithmic ratio tests, it is .
un+1 un+1

18
5.3 Problems
Example 1:
P 1.3.5 . . . (2n − 1) n
Examine the following series of convergence: x .
2.4.6 . . . 2n
Solution:
P
Let the given series be un .
1.3.5 . . . (2n − 1) n 1.3.5 . . . (2n − 1)(2n + 1) n+1
Then un = x and un+1 = x .
2.4.6 . . . 2n 2.4.6 . . . (2n + 2)
Therefore

un+1 2n + 1
= .x
un 2n + 2
un+1 2n + 1
lim = lim .x
n→∞ un n→∞ 2n + 2
2 + 1/n
= lim .x = x
1/n→0 2 + 1/n

P
Therefore by D’Alembert’s ratio test, un is (C) if x < 1 and (D) if x > 1. If x = 1, the ratio test
fails.
In this case,

un 2n + 2
=
un+1 2n + 1
"  #  
un 2n + 2 − 2n − 1 n
n −1 =n =
un+1 2n + 1 2n + 1
 
un n
∴ lim n − 1 = lim
n→∞ un+1 n→∞ 2n + 1
1
= lim
1/n→0 2 + 1/n
1
= and this is < 1.
2
P
Therefore by Raabe’s test, the series is (D). Hence, combining, un is (C) if x < 1 and (D) if x ≥ 1.

19
Example 2:
2x 32 x2 43 x3 54 x4
Test for convergence and divergence of the series 1 + + + + . . ..
2! 3! 4! 5!
Solution:
P nn−1 xn−1 (n + 1)n xn
Let the given series be un . Then un = and un+1 = .
n! (n + 1)!

un+1 (n + 1)n xn n!
= . n−1 n−1
un (n + 1)! n x
x (n + 1)n
= .
n + 1 nn−1
(n + 1)n−1
= x.
nn−1  n
1
 n−1  n−1 1+
n+1 1 n
= x. = x. 1 + = x.
n n 1 + 1/n
 n
1
1+
un+1 n
lim = lim x.
n→∞ un n→∞ 1 + 1/n
 n
1
= x × lim 1 +
n→∞ n
= x.e > 1

This should be discussed further.

6 Alternating Series
Definition:
A series whose terms are alternately positive and negative is called an alternating series. There
is a simple test, due to Leibnitz, which determines the convergence of many of the alternating
series.

Theorem 6.1: Leibnitz’s test

The series u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + . . . in which the terms are alternately positive and negative and
all the u’s are positive is convergent if
(i)each term is numerically less than its preceeding. That is, |un+1 | < |un | for all values of n.
and
(ii) lim un = 0.
n→∞

Proof 6.1

The given series u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + . . .

Suppose u1 > u2 > u3 > . . . > un > un+1 . . . and lim un = 0.
n→∞

20
 Consider s2n the sum of an even number of terms of the series.

(u1 − u2 ) + (u3 − u4 ) + . . . + (u2n−1 + u2n ) + . . . (3)

This can be wriiten in the form u1 − (u2 − u3 ) − (u4 − u5 ) − . . . − (u2n−2 − u2n−1 ) − u2n .

u1 − [(u2 − u3 ) + (u4 − u5 ) + . . . − (u2n−2 − u2n−1 ) + u2n )] (4)

Now, by the first condition, since u1 > u2 > u3 > . . . u1 − u2 , u2 − u3 , u3 − u4 , . . . all are positive
and u2 n is also positive . Therefore from (3), it is clear that s2n is positive and it increases with
n.
From (4), we find that s2n is always < u1 . Therefore s2n must tend to a finite limit as n → ∞.
Now s2n−1 = s2n + u2n+1 .
Therefore

lim s2n−1 = lim s2n + lim u2n+1

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

= lim s2n + 0
n→∞

= lim s2n
n→∞

(i.e.,) sn tends to the same limit whether n is even or odd.

Hence the given series is (C).

Example 1:
1 1 1
Show that the series 1 − + − + . . . is convergent.
2 3 4
Solutio:.
Here the terms are alternately positive and negative.

1 1
|un | = and |un+1 | =
n n+1
1 1
As n + 1 > n for all n. <
n+1 n
That is, |un+1 | < |un | for all n. Also lim un = lim 1/n = 0.
n→∞ n→∞
Since the two conditions are satisfied, by Leibnitz’s test the given series is convergent.
Example 2:
P∞ (−1)n−1 .n
Discuss the convergence of the series
n=1 2n − 1
Solution:
Here the terms are alternately positive and negative .

21
 n n+1 n+1
|un | = ; |un+1 | = = .
2n − 1 2(n + 1) − 1 2n + 1

n n+1
|un | − |un+1 | = −
2n − 1 2n + 1
n(2n + 1) − (n + 1)(2n − 1) 2n2 + n − (2n2 + n − 1)
= =
(2n − 1)(2n + 1) (2n − 1)(2n + 1)
1
=
(2n − 1)(2n + 1)
= positive for all n.

Therefore |un+1 | < |un | for all n.

That is, each term of the given series is numerically less than its preceeding.

n
lim |un | = lim
n→∞ n→∞ 2n − 1
1
= lim
1/n→0 2 − 1/n
1
= (which is not zero)
2

Hence the given alternating series is not convergent. It is oscillatory.

Example 3:
1
Discuss the convergence of the series (−1)n−1 . p (0 < p < 1)
P
n
Solution:
Here the terms are alternately positive and negative.
Let the series be u1 − u2 + . . .
1 1
|un | = p
and |un+1 | =
n (n + 1)p
(n + 1)p > np , since p is positive.
1 1
∴ < or |un+1 | < |un | for all n.
(n + 1)p np
1
Also lim |un | = lim p = 0 since p is positive.
n→∞ n→∞ n
Since the two conditions are satisfied, by Leibnitz’s test, the given series is convergent.
Example 4:
1
Discuss the convergence of the series (−1)n . 2
P
2n + 3
Solution:
Here the terms are alternately negative and positive. Let the series be −u1 + u2 − u3 + . . .
n n+1 n+1
|un | = and |un+1 | = = 2
2n2 +3 2
2(n + 1) + 3 2n + 4n + 5

n n+1
|un | − |un+1 | = −
2n2 + 3 2n2 + 4n + 5
2n3 + 4n2 + 5n − 2n3 − 2n2 − 3n − 3 2n2 + 2n − 3
= =
(2n2 + 3)(2n3 + 4n2 + 5) (2n2 + 3)(2n3 + 4n2 + 5)
= positive for n ≥ 1.

22
Therefore |un+1 | < |un | for all n.
Also,

n
lim |un | = lim
n→∞ n→∞ 2n2
+3
1
= lim n
1/n→0 3
2+ 2
n
=0

Since the two conditions are satisfied, by Leibnitz’s test, the given series is convergent.

7 Series of Positive and Negative Terms

Absolute Convergence:
Consider the series
X
un = u1 + u2 + u3 + . . . (1)

in which any term may be either positive or negative. That is some terms may be positive and others
P
negative. Then the series formed by the absolute values of the terms of un is
X
|un | = |u1 | + |u2 | + |u3 | + . . . (2)

In the series (2), each term is positive and numerically equal to the corresponding term of series (1).
If the second series is convergent, then the first series said to be absolutely convergent.
Definition.
P
A series un containing positive and negative terms is said to be absolutely convergent if the series
P
|un | is convergent.
P P
If the given series un is (C) but the second series |un | is D, then un is said to be conditionally
convergent
For instance, the series
1 1 1 1
− + − + ...
12 22 32 42
is absolutely convergent, since the series
1 1 1 1
2
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
1 2 3 4
is known to be convergent.
1 1 1 1
We know that the alternating series − + − + . . . is convergent. The series formed by the
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
absolute values of its terms is + + + + . . .and this is divergent. Hence − + − + . . .
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
is conditionally convergent.

23
 Theorem 7.1

An absolutely convergent series is convergent.

Proof 7.1

P
Let un = u1 + u2 + u3 + . . . + un + . . . be an absolutely convergent series.
P
Then |un | = |u1 | + |u2 | + |u3 | + . . . + |un | + . . . and this is given to be convergent.
Clearly (u1 + u2 + . . . + un ) ≤ |u1 | + |u2 | + |u3 | + . . . + |un |
Therefore,
lim (u1 + u2 + . . . + un ) ≤ lim |u1 | + |u2 | + |u3 | + . . . + |un |
n→∞ n→∞P
That is, ≤ k a finite value, as un ≤ is (C).
Therefore lim (u1 + u2 + . . . + un ) = a finite value.
n→∞
P
Therefore un is also (C).

The tests we have already developed in the previous section can be applied to test the absolute conver-
P
gence of un . In particular D’Alembert’s Ratio test can be restated in the following form:

Theorem 7.2: Test for Absolute Convergence

P
If un is a series of positive and negative terms and
 
 un+1 
if lim  <1
n→∞ un 
P
then un is absolutely (C) and hence ordinarily convergent.
 
 un+1 
if lim  >1
n→∞ un 
the the series is divergent. If the limit is unity, the test gives no information.

Proof 7.2

P
un = u1 + u2 + . . . + un + . . .
P
|un | =|u1 | + |u2 | + . . . + |un | + . . .
 < 1. That is, lim |un+1 | < 1.
 un+1 
Let lim 
n→∞ un  n→∞ |un |
P P
Then by D’Alembert’s ratio test, |un | is (C). That is, un is absolutely (C) and so ordinarily
convergent also.
|un+1 |
Now, suppose lim > 1.
n→∞ |un |
 
 = l. Then l = lim |un+1 | .
 un+1 
Let lim 
n→∞ un  n→∞ |un |
By the definition of limit, corresponding
 to a given ϵ > 0 however small, there exists a value
 |un+1 | 
m ∈ N such that  − l < ϵ for all n ≥ m.
|un |

24
 |un+1 |
That is, −ϵ < − l < ϵ for all n ≥ m.
|un |
|un+1 |
or l − ϵ < < l + ϵ for all n ≥ m.
|un |
Omitting the m terms of this series, we have
|un+1 |
l−ϵ< < l + ϵ for all n.
|un |
Taking the first two members of the inequality, we have

|un+1 |
> l − ϵ for all n.
|un |
Now l > 1 and we can choose ϵ sufficiently small such that l − ϵ is also > 1.
|un+1 |
Therefore > 1 for all n
|un |
That is, |un+1 | > 1|un |.
That is, the terms go on numerically increasing.
the nth term |un | and so un does not tend to zero.
P
Therefore the series is not (C).

25