Mathematical Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40096-022-00497-7

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

A Legendre‑spectral method for Hadamard fractional partial

differential equations
Ghafirlia Istafa1 · Mujeeb ur Rehman1 

Received: 29 June 2022 / Accepted: 26 October 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Islamic Azad University 2022

Abstract
In this paper, we present a spectral method to obtain numerical solutions of Caputo–Hadamard fractional partial differential
equations. For better approximations, a modification of classical Legendre polynomials which is suitable for the Hadamard
fractional operators is preferred. We utilized two-dimensional Hadamard fractional Legendre functions which are variants
of two-dimensional shifted Legendre polynomials. Three different schemes for three classes of Caputo–Hadamard fractional
partial differential equations are proposed and every scheme is accompanied by a numerical example to verify the applicabil-
ity and efficiency of the suggested methods. Moreover, the estimates of upper bounds of error for the approximations have
been derived.

Keywords  Fractional partial differential equations · Two-dimensional Legendre functions · Hadamard fractional Legendre
functions

Introduction fractional partial integro-differential equations. Li and Shah

In recent years, the fractional order differential equations
(FDEs) have gained significant importance due to their
widespread applications in many areas of engineering and
science. Models comprised of fractional partial differential
equations (FPDEs) have been presented and explored in
many fields of research (some of their applications are given
in [1] and references therein). Alone, the fractional order
diffusion equation has many applications besides the ones
given in [2, 3]. A fair few models related to image process-
ing incorporating the FPDEs are given in [4] and references
therein. Some other applications of FPDEs can be found
in the literature as dealing with FPDEs is quite frequent in
interdisciplinary research.
There has been a growing interest to investigate the
numerical solutions of FPDEs as the analytical solutions
to these type of equations are almost unavailable. Some of
the most recently established numerical methods for the
solutions of FPDEs are listed here. Dehestani et al. in [5]
used pseudo operational matrices to give the solutions of
* Mujeeb ur Rehman
mrehman@sns.nust.edu.pk
1
School of Natural Sciences, National University of Sciences
and Technology, H‑12 Islamabad, Pakistan
in [6] have used two-dimensional Legendre polynomials to
establish a procedure based on operational matrices of frac-
tional integration and differentiation for solutions of FPDEs.
In [7] authors have proposed a scheme using Lucas multi-
wavelet functions for diffusion and sub-diffusion equations;
Zada and Aziz [8] have developed a scheme for the numeri-
cal solutions of FPDEs via Haar wavelets.
Spectral methods are considered as one of the most poten-
tial approaches for approximating the solutions of fractional
differential equations. They exhibit the property of exponen-
tial convergence when smooth functions are involved. The
leading idea of these methods is the expansion of functions
in terms of smooth global functions, which in many cases
are chosen to be the orthogonal polynomials due to their
special properties. However, for the case of FDEs, use of
the classical orthogonal polynomials is not ideal as these
polynomials can not exactly capture the singular behavior
that the exact solutions to FDEs exhibit near the starting
point of the interval [9]. So in this case use of the general-
ized orthogonal polynomials is an alternative approach [9].
We list here a few of the most recently proposed numerical
methods based on the orthogonal polynomials. The listed
methods are either spectral methods or somehow very sim-
ilar to spectral methods. In [10] Talib et al. introduced a
scheme for solutions of multi-order FDEs with constant and

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variable coefficients, besides shifted Legendre polynomials
the proposed scheme is based on some algorithms. In [11,
12] authors have used the operational matrices of orthogo-
nal polynomials to develop the schemes for the solutions of
FDEs. Wang et al. in [13] proposed a Galerkin-Legendre
spectral method for two-dimensional fractional nonlinear
wave equations.
Various researchers have modeled several processes and
patterns by means of some newly defined fractional opera-
tors to attain the desired practical goals, for example, see
[14, 15]. Introduced in 1892, Hadamard fractional opera-
tors are seen representing phenomena in some fields includ-
ing mathematical physics and probability [16]. Hadamard
fractional operators have the logarithmic kernels and these
operators are the generalization of the differential operator
d
x dx  . In literature, there are just a few numerical schemes that
deal with the Hadamard-type fractional order differential
equations (HFDEs). A scheme based on Haar wavelets for
numerical solutions of the HFDEs was introduced in [17].
Fan et al. in [18] have constructed formulas for numeri-
cal approximations of the Caputo–Hadamard fractional
derivatives. Gohar et al. in [19] presented finite difference
methods for Caputo–Hadamard fractional differential equa-
tions (Caputo–HFDEs). Green et al. in [20] have used some
numerical methods such as the predictor corrector, trapezoi-
dal and rectangular methods for solving Caputo–HFDEs. In
[21], authors have given the local discontinuous Galerkin
method for Caputo–Hadamard fractional partial differential
equations (Caputo–HFPDs). In [22] Wang et al. proposed
the scheme for the solution of Caputo-Hadamard fractional
sub-diffusion equations. The authors in [23] provided the
numerical methods for Caputo–Hadamard fractional diffu-
sion–wave equation. To the best of our knowledge, most of
the already existing schemes for Caputo–HFPDEs deal only
with the types of equations that involve fractional derivative
term with respect to one variable while the derivatives with
respect to the other variables are taken to be of integer order.
Motivated by the work cited above we propose a scheme
for the numerical solutions of Caputo–HFPDEs. This scheme
is applicable to the Caputo–HFPDEs with all the derivative
terms either to be of fractional order or integer order or a
combination of both. In [24], Almeida et al. introduced 𝜓
-shifted Legendre functions using normalized shifted Leg-
endre polynomials. Using these 𝜓 -shifted Legendre func-
tions authors in [25] have defined Hadamard fractional
Legendre functions and used them to develop a numerical
method for Caputo–HFDEs. The numerical method that we
have developed for the solutions of Caputo-HFPDEs is based
on two-dimensional Hadamard fractional Legendre func-
tions (HFLFs), which is a modification of two-dimensional
shifted Legendre polynomials. In this paper three slightly
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Mathematical Sciences
different schemes are developed for three different classes
of Caputo–HFPDs. These schemes are developed for initial
value problems with constant coefficients, variable coeffi-
cients and boundary value problems with constant coefficients.
All of these schemes convert the differential equations to a sys-
tem of algebraic equations, which are solved by using MAT-
LAB programs. Furthermore, we have worked for the upper
bounds of errors in the suggested approximations.
This paper is structured as follows: Section "Preliminar-
ies" includes some important definitions and formulas from
fractional calculus to be used in the proceeding sections. In
Section "Two-dimensional Hadamard fractional Legendre
functions", two-dimensional Legendre functions are intro-
duced. Approximations of functions and double fractional
integrals by two-dimensional HFLFs are discussed in Sec-
tion "Approximations by two-dimensional HFLFs". Upper
bounds for errors in function and double fractional integral
approximations are derived in Section" Error analysis".
In Section "Method for the solution of Caputo–Hadamard
fractional partial differential equations", we have devel-
oped some methodologies for solution of initial and bound-
ary value problems. Section "Method for the solution of
Caputo–Hadamard fractional partial differential equations"
is further divided into three subsections. In each subsec-
tion, a scheme is developed for the solution of a specific
class of Caputo–HFPDs. In Section "Caputo–HFPDs with
constant coefficients" we have developed a method to solve
Caputo–HFPDEs with constant coefficients and initial con-
ditions. Method for solving Caputo–HFPDs with variable
coefficients and initial conditions is constructed in Sec-
tion "Caputo–HFPDs with variable coefficients". In Sec-
tion "Caputo–HFPDs with boundary conditions" we have
developed a numerical scheme to solve Caputo–HFPDs
with constant coefficients and boundary conditions. These
three different methodologies are accompanied by suitable
numerical examples, along with graphs and tables, to show
the effectiveness of the suggested schemes.
Preliminaries
We have devoted this section to some precise definitions and
results of fractional calculus that are essential. For more details
we refer the reader to [26].
Important function spaces to be used here are defined as
{ }
( b )1∕P
�a
L𝜓P [a, b] = u ∶ [a, b] → ℝ| P �
|u(t)| 𝜓 (t)dt < +∞ ,
1 ≤ P < +∞
and
Mathematical Sciences

A𝜓k [a, b] = {u ∶ [a, b] → ℝ | 𝔻tk−1,𝜓 u ∈ AC[a, b]}, 𝜇 𝛤 (𝛾 + 1) ( )

t 𝛾+𝜇
H It u(t) = log .
≠ 0 and AC is the space of abso-
𝛤 (𝛾 + 𝜇 + 1) a
where 𝔻𝜓t ∶= 1 d
𝜓 � (t) dt
 , 𝜓 � (t) ( )𝛾
lutely continuous functions. Note that in the definitions Furthermore, for 𝛾 > −1 , let u(t) = log st  , then
given below, 𝜇 is the order of integration and 𝜇 𝛤 (𝛾 + 1) ( )
t 𝛾−𝜇
differentiation. D
H t u(t) = log ,
𝛤 (𝛾 − 𝜇 + 1) a

Definition 1 [26] If u ∈ L𝜓P [a, b] , 1 ≤ P < +∞ and 𝜇 > 0 , and H D𝜇t u(t) = 0 for 𝛾 ∈ {0, 1, 2, ...} , 𝜇 > 𝛽  . Furthermore,
then the Riemann–Liouville fractional integral with respect H Dt c = 0 , where c = constant.
𝜇

to function 𝜓 is given as
t

𝛤 (𝜇) ∫a
1
I𝜇,𝜓
t
u(t) = (𝜓(t) − 𝜓(s))𝜇−1 𝜓 � (s)u(s)ds. (1)

Two‑dimensional Hadamard fractional

When 𝜓(t) = log t , (1) reduces to Hadamard fractional inte-
Legendre functions
gral, which is given by
t ( ) Fractional order Hadamard Legnedre functions
𝛤 (𝜇) ∫a
1 t 𝜇−1 ds
(2)
𝜇
H It u(t) = log u(s) .
s s
Fractional order Hadamard Legendre functions (HFLFs)
Definition 2 [26] For u ∈ and k − 1 < 𝜇 ≤ k  ,
A𝜓k [a, b] were first introduced by Kazem et al. in [27]. Let L𝛼i be
k ∈ ℕ , the Caputo fractional derivative with respect to a the fractional order Legendre functions, then an analytic
function 𝜓 is given by representation of L𝛼i is given as:

k−𝜇,𝜓 k,𝜓 1 i
∑
D𝜇,𝜓
t u(t) = It 𝔻t u(t) =
𝛤 (k − 𝜇) L𝛼i (x) = aji xj𝛼 ,
t ( )k (3) j=0

∫a
1 d
(𝜓(t) − 𝜓(s))k−𝜇−1 𝜓 � (s) u(s)ds. (−1)i+j (j+i)!
𝜓 � (s) ds where aji ∶= (i−j)(j!)2
 . A recurrence relation which is used
( )k to determine the Li  ’s is
𝛼

Here 𝔻tk,𝜓 = 𝜓 �1(t) dtd  . For 𝜓(t) = log t (3) reduces to the
(2i + 1)(2x𝛼 − 1) 𝛼 i
Caputo–Hadamard fractional derivative which is given in L𝛼i+1 (x) = Li − L𝛼 (x), i = 1, 2, … ,
i+1 i + 1 i−1
[26] as
where L𝛼0 (x) = 1 and L𝛼1 = 2x𝛼 − 1 . These fractional Leg-
1
endre functions are orthogonal on [0, 1], with respect to
𝜇 k−𝜇 k
H Dt u(t) = H It =
H 𝔻t u(t)
𝛤 (k − 𝜇)
t( ) ( ) (4) the weight function w(x) = 𝛼x𝛼−1 , namely the orthogonality
t k−𝜇−1 d k
∫a
ds condition is given as
log s u(s) .
s ds s
1

∫0
1
The relation between Caputo–Hadamard inte- L𝛼i (x)L𝛼k (x)w(x)dx = 𝛿 ,
2k + 1 ik
grals and derivatives is given in Theorem 1. This rela-
tion will be used while approximating the solutions of here 𝛿 is the Kronecker delta that results 1 when the indices
Caputo–HFPDEs. are equal and 0 when indices are different.
In [25] authors have introduced HFLFs, denoted by
Theorem 1  [26] Let u ∈ A𝜓k [a, b] and k − 1 < 𝜈 ≤ k , k ∈ ℕ , Hj 1 (t) , by replacing 𝜙 with (log x)𝛼 in generalized Legendre
𝛼

then functions as
k−1
∑ l ( )
H 𝔻t u(a)
j
𝜇 𝜇 t l ∑ (−1)(j+i) (j + i)!
H It H Dt u(t) = u(t) − log . 𝛼
𝛤 (l + 1) a Hj 1 (t) = (log x)𝛼i (5)
l=0 i=0
(j − i)!(i!)2
In Lemma 1 we directly state the Caputo–Hadamard
( )𝛾 These functions are orthogonal on the interval [1, e] with
integral and derivative of the function of type log st . respect to the weight function w(x) = 𝛼x (log x)𝛼−1 and the
( )𝛾 orthogonality condition is given as:
Lemma 1  [26] For 𝛾 > −1 , let u(t) = log st  , then

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 Mathematical Sciences

two-dimensional HFLFs, as Hij1 2 (t, x) = Hi 1 (t)Hj 2 (x) for

e 𝛼 ,𝛼 𝛼 𝛼

∫1
1
H𝛼i (x)H𝛼k (x)w(x)dx = 𝛿 . (6) i, j = 0, 1, 2, … , on the region 𝛺 = J × J .
2k + 1 ik

Some other useful properties of HFLFs are given in [25]. Theorem 2  On the region 𝛺 the two-dimensional HFLFs
are orthogonal with respect to the weight function
Two‑dimensional fractional order Hadamard w(t, x) = t1 (log t)𝛼1 −1 x2 (log x)𝛼2 −1.
𝛼 𝛼

Legendre functions
Proof For i = 1, 2 and 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 ∈ [0, 1] let wi (t) = (log t)𝛼i −1 ,
𝛼i

Multi-variable functions often need to be approximated by w(t, x) = 1tx 2 (log t)(𝛼1 −1) (log x)(𝛼2 −1) then
𝛼 𝛼 t

some other functions such as polynomials that are readily

e e
evaluated and better recognized. In literature there are vari-
∫1 ∫1
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
Hi 1 (t)Hj 2 (x)Hk 1 (t)Hl 2 (x)w(t, x)dtdx
ous numerical techniques based on the approximations by
polynomials and for approximation of multi-variable func- e

∫1
𝛼 𝛼
tions, an extension of one-dimensional approximations is
= Hi 1 (t)Hk 1 (t)w1 (t)dt (7)
used. Generally, the main idea behind these approximations e

∫1
𝛼 𝛼
is to carry out one-dimensional approximation in one vari- × Hj 2 (x)Hl 2 (x)w2 (x)dx.
able, first and then again in the second variable. Even though
every step is one-dimensional. Two-dimensional polynomi- From (6) we have
als are extensively used for the numerical approximations e e

∫1 ∫1
of solutions to partial differential equations and integro-dif- 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
Hi 1 (t)Hj 2 (x)Hk 1 (t)Hl 2 (x)w(t, x)dtdx
ferential equations. Davari A and Ahmadi A implemented (8)
two-dimensional Legendre polynomials for approximation =
1
𝛿 𝛿 .
of solutions of partial differential equations in [28]. In [29], (2k + 1)(2l + 1) ik jl
Rivaz et al. used two-dimensional Chebyshev polynomials
Hence, the orthogonality of two-dimensional HFLFs has
to approximate the solutions of two-dimensional integro-
been proved.  ◻
differential equations. In [30] and [31], authors have used
two-dimensional shifted Legendre polynomials and mixed
Some other properties and relations defined for HFLFs
Lucas and Fibonacci polynomials to provide the solutions
are used for the two-dimensional HFLFs as well. For exam-
of fractional order two-dimensional integral equations and
ple, the analytic forms and recursive formulas to determine
Sobolev equations, respectively. Yin et  al. in [32] have
the expressions of H𝛼i  ’s in single variable are simply used to
implemented the two-dimensional fractional Legendre func-
determine the two-dimensional HFLFs as well.
tions to obtain numerical approximations for solutions of
the fractional order partial differential equations. Use of the
two-dimensional Chebyshev polynomials in the fusion of
Approximations by two‑dimensional HFLFs
images, proposed in [33], is an example of manipulation of
two-dimensional orthogonal polynomials in applied sciences
The numerical scheme proposed in this paper extensively
and engineering problems as well.
involves the approximations of Hadamard fractional inte-
It has been observed that numerical methods based on
grals and computation of these integrals may involve han-
modified orthogonal polynomials depending on nature of
dling some complex expressions such as sum, product of two
differential operators appearing in the differential equations
or more than two expressions, or some special functions. So
provides better approximations to the solutions. Therefore,
it is required to have appropriate approximations of integrals
it is appealing to introduce a modification of orthogonal
while dealing with the numerical solutions of differential
polynomials which is better suited for Hadamard calculus.
equations.
In this paper, we introduce the two-dimensional Hadamard
A function y ∈ C(𝜔) can be expanded in terms of two-
fractional Legendre functions (HFLFs) which are based on
dimensional HFLFs as
the one-dimensional Hadamard fractional Legendre func-
tions. We shall in fact develop a numerical method based m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼
on two-dimensional HFLFs for solution of Caputo–HFPDs. y(t, x) ≊ Cjk Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x), (9)
j,k=0

Definition 3 Let H𝛼i (x) denotes the Hadmard fractional Leg- where coefficients are given by Cjk = (2j + 1)(2k + 1)
endre functions on the interval J = [1, e] , then we define the ∫1 ∫1 y(t, x)Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x)w(t, x)dtdx
e e
for
𝛼 𝛼
j, k = 0, 1, 2,
… , m − 1 . It is to be noticed that these approximations depend

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Mathematical Sciences

on two different orders that is 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 for H(t) and H(x) , In vector notation H I𝜈t y(t, x) ≊ H𝛼T (t)PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CH𝛼2 (x) , where
respectively. In vector notation Equation (9) can be written as;
1 1
PT𝛼 ,𝜈 is the operational matrix of Hadamard fractional inte-
1

y(t, x) ≊ H𝛼T (t)CH𝛼2 (x). gration with respect to the variable t. It is to be noted that
(10)
1
this operational matrix depends on the order of Hadamard
The method introduced in the work for solutions of Legendre function in the variable t, which in this case is 𝛼1 .
Caputo–HFPDs involves fractional integration of two- Similarly, Hadamard fractional integral of (9) with respect
dimensional HFLFs. Therefore in this section, we present to the second variable is calculated as
method of fractional integration of HFLFs. Numerical m−1
∑ ( 𝛼 )
scheme developed in this paper includes partial Hadamard 𝜈
H Ix y(t, x) ≊
𝛼
Cjk Hj 1 (t)H I𝜈x Hk 2 (x) . (16)
fractional integrals, so we approximate these integrals as j,k=0
follows. Applying H I𝜈t on (9) we get
( m−1 ) Following the same steps we obtain:
𝜈 𝜈
∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2 m−1
(m−1 )
H It y(t, x) ≊ H It Cjk Hj (t)Hk (x) 𝜈
∑ 𝛼1
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
H Ix y(t, x) ≊ Cjk Hj (t) Pks,H Hs 2 (t)
2
j,k=0
(11) j,k=0 s=0
m−1
∑ (
𝛼
)
𝛼 m−1
(17)
= CjkH I𝜈t Hj 1 (t) Hk 2 (x). ∑ 𝛼 𝛼2 ,𝜈 𝛼2
j,k=0 = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H Hs (x).
j,k,s=0
Hadamard fractional integral of Hj 1 (t) can be approximated
𝛼
Vector form of (17) is H I𝜈x y(t, x) ≊ H𝛼T (t)CP𝛼2 ,𝜈 H𝛼2 (x).
as 1

j
𝛼
∑ (−1)j+i 𝛤 (j + i + 1)
𝜈
H It Hj (t) ≊
1 𝜈 𝛼1 i
H It (log t) . (12)
𝛤 (j − i + 1)(𝛤 (i + 1))2
i=0 Error analysis
Using Lemma 1, Equation (12) reduces to
Now we state some important results from literature
𝜈 𝛼1
j
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 that are used for the estimation of errors in the function
H It Hj (t) ≊ bji1 (log t)i𝛼1 +𝜈 , (13) approximations. Using these results we give some other
i=0
results for interpolating polynomials. In [34], authors have
(−1)j+i 𝛤 (j+i+1)𝛤 (i𝛼1 +1)
here bji1 ∶=
𝛼 ,𝜈
 . Now we approximate generalized the mean value theorem for Riemann–Liou-
𝛤 (j−i+1)(𝛤 (i+1))2 𝛤 (i𝛼1 +𝜈+1)
ville fractional calculus. We give generalized mean value
the term (log t)i𝛼1 +𝜈 i n ( 1 3 ) b y H F L F s a s theorem for integral and differential operators with respect
∑m−1 𝛼 ,𝜈 ∑s to the function 𝜓  , which is the direct extension of the
= s=0 cis1 H𝛼s 1 (t) here cis1 = (2s + 1) n=0
𝛼 ,𝜈
(log t)i𝛼1 +𝜈
(−1)i+s 𝛤 (s+n+1) result given in [34].
 .
Then (13) changes to:
𝛤 (s−n+1)(𝛤 (n+1))2 (𝜈+𝛼1 (n+i+1))
( ) Theorem 3  Suppose that u ∈ C[a, b] and D𝜈,𝜓
t u ∈ C(a, b) for
0 < 𝜈 ≤ 1 , then we have;
j m−1
𝜈 𝛼
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈
H It Hj (t) ≊
1
bji1 cis1 H𝛼s 1 (t)
i=0 s=0
(14) 1
m−1
∑∑ j m−1
∑ u(t) = u(a) + D𝜈,𝜓 u(𝜉)(𝜓(t) − 𝜓(a))𝜈 ,
=
𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 ,𝜈
bji1 cis1 H𝛼s 1 (t) =
𝛼1 ,𝜈 𝛼1
Pjs,H Hs (t). 𝛤 (𝜈 + 1) t

with a ≤ 𝜉 ≤ t  , ∀t ∈ [a, b] . Here D𝜈,𝜓 is Caputo fractional

s=0 i=0 s=0
t
∑j
here Pjs,H1
∶= i=0 bji1 cis1 and cis1  ’s are the Hadamard
𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 ,𝜈
derivative defined in Definition 2.
Legendre coefficients. Using (14) in (11) we get
(m−1 ) This result can be proved simply by following the proof
𝜈
m−1
∑ ∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 𝛼 of generalized mean value theorem in [34].
H It y(t, x) ≊ Pjs,H Hs (t) Hk 2 (x)
1
Cjk 1
In what follows we present general discussion of error
j,k=0 s=0
(15) estimates in polynomial approximations of a function.
m−1
∑ 𝛼1 ,𝜈 𝛼1 𝛼
= Cjk Pjs,H Hs (t)Hk 2 (x).
j,k,s=0
Theorem 4 If t0 , t1 , t2 , … , tn are (n + 1) distinct nodes in
[a, b] and u, 𝜓 ∈ Cn [a, b] , then for each t ∈ [a, b] there exist
an 𝜉 ∈ [a, b] such that:

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 Mathematical Sciences

∏m
𝜓 � (𝜂i )
𝔻n+1,𝜓 u(𝜉) Htm ∶= max �𝔻m+1,𝜓 u(t, x)� i=0
a n d
̃ = u(t) − P̃ n (t) = t
E(t) 𝜙(t). (18) t
(t,x)∈𝛺 4
(n + 1)! ∏m
𝜓 � (𝜂
∏n � �
i) j=0 𝜓 (𝜂j )
∏ � �
m,n
Ht,x ∶= max �𝔻m+1,𝜓
t 𝔻n+1,𝜓
x u(t, x)� i=0
 , which
where 𝜙(t) ∶= ni=0 𝜓(t) − 𝜓(ti )  , where P̃ n (t) is the inter- (t,x)∈𝛺 16
will be used in the next result.
polating polynomial.
Theorem 6  Under the assumptions of Theorem 5 the error
Proof Let t′ be a fixed point which is different from the
bound for function approximation is given by:
nodes t0 , t1 , … , tn . We define a function

|Em,n (t, x)| ≤ Htm

( ) ( )
( � ) b − a (m+1) d − c (n+1)
u(t ) − P̃ n (t� ) + Hxn
̃
ẽ (t) = u(t) − Pn (t) − 𝜙(t) . (19) m n
𝜙(t� ) ( )(m+1) ( )(n+1) (22)
m,n b − a d − c
+ Ht,x .
This function has (n + 2) zeroes, out of which (n + 1) are m n
nodes and one is t′ . Generalization of Rolle’s theorem for Proof  From (21) we have:
differential operator 𝔻𝜓t allows us to assume that 𝔻n+1,𝜓 t ẽ (t)
has at least one zero and let that zero be z0 . Then from (19) |Em,n (t, x)| ≤ max |𝔻m+1,𝜓
|𝜙(t)|
t u(t, x)|
we have (t,x)∈𝛺 (m + 1)!
|𝜙(x)|
( � ) + max |𝔻n+1,𝜓
(t,x)∈𝛺 x
u(t, x)|
(n + 1)! (23)
n+1,𝜓 n+1,𝜓 u(t ) − P̃ n (t� )
𝔻t ẽ (z0 ) = 0 = 𝔻t u(z0 ) − (n + 1)! . |𝜙(t)||𝜙(x)|
𝜙(t� ) + max |𝔻m+1,𝜓
t 𝔻n+1,𝜓
x u(t, x)| .
(t,x)∈𝛺 (m + 1)!(n + 1)!
(20)
Here 𝔻t n+1,𝜓
𝜙(z0 ) = (n + 1)! and 𝔻t Pn (t) = 0 as P̃ n (t) is
n+1,𝜓 ̃ For further simplifications we derive upper
� bounds for the
∏m �
a polynomial of degree at most n. On rearranging (20) we function 𝜙 . As 𝜙(t) = i=0 𝜓(t) − 𝜓(ti )  , by mean value
obtain the required result.  ◻ theorem we have |𝜓(t) − 𝜓(ti )| = |𝜓 � (𝜂i )(t − ti )| for
𝜂i ∈ [a, ti ] and 𝜂j� ∈ [c, xj ] , hence we have
Multivariate error formula in terms of ordinary deriva- m n
tives is given in [35]. Here we give a multivariate error for- ∏ ∏
|𝜙(t)| = 𝜓 � (𝜂i )|(t − ti )|and|𝜙(x)| = 𝜓 � (𝜂j� )|(x − xj )|.
mula that involves the Hadamard derivatives. i=0 j=0
(24)
Theorem 5 If u ∈ Cm 𝛺̃ and 𝜓 ∈ Cm (I) , then there exist
� �

Now introducing change of the variables as: ti = a + 𝜃 b−a  ;

𝜉, 𝜉 � ∈ [a, b] and 𝜒, 𝜒 � ∈ [c, d] such that: m
xj = c + 𝜃 n for 𝜃 ∈ (0, m) and 𝜃 ∈ (0, n) . Therefore from
� d−c �

𝜙(t) 𝜙(x) (24) we have

Em,n (t, x) =𝔻m+1,𝜓
t u(𝜉, x) + 𝔻n+1,𝜓
x u(t, 𝜒)
(m + 1)! (n + 1)! ( ) m
b − a m+1 ∏
m+1,𝜓 n+1,𝜓 𝜙(t)𝜙(x) |𝜙(t)| = A� |(𝜃 − i)| and |𝜙(x)|
− 𝔻t 𝔻x u(𝜉 � , 𝜒 � ) , m i=0
(m + 1)!(n + 1)! (25)
(21) ( ) n
d − c n+1 ∏ �
= B� |(𝜃 − j)|,
here m ∶= max{m, n} , 𝛺 = [a, b] × [c, d] , I is com-
� ̃ n j=0
∏ � �
pact subset of ℝ  , 𝜙(t) = m 𝜓(t) − 𝜓(ti ) and ∏ ∏n
i=0
here let A� ∶= m 𝜓 � (𝜂i ) and B� ∶= j=0 𝜓 � (𝜂j� ) . Choosing
Em,n (t, x) = u(t, x) − Pm,n (t, x) , where Pm,n is the interpolat-
i=0
p, q ∈ ℤ such that
ing polynomial to u at points (ti , xj ) such that ti = a + i b−a
m
 ,
xj = c − j d−c for i = 0, 1, … , m and j = 0, 1, … , n. p < 𝜃 < p + 1andq < 𝜃 � < q + 1, (26)
n
so we have
Theorem 5 can be proved by following the same strategy
used to prove Theorem 4. In following theorems we give (
b−a
)m+1 p−1
∏
upper bounds for errors in function and integral approxima- |𝜙(t)| = A� |(𝜃 − p)(𝜃 − p − 1)| |(𝜃 − i)|
m
tions. The result stated in Theorem 6 is generalization of the i=0
m
results given in section 5 of [36] for function approximation. ∏
|(𝜃 − i)|.
Here we introduce some shorthand notations specifically: i=p+2
(27)
Maximum value1of the term |(𝜃 − p)(𝜃 − p − 1)| is achieved
at the point 𝜃 − 2 , therefore

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Mathematical Sciences

|(𝜃 − p)(𝜃 − p − 1)| ≤

|e(t, x)| ≤ max
1 |Ix𝜈2 ,𝜓 𝔻tm+1,𝜓 u(𝜉, x)|
. (28) 𝜈 ,𝜓
|It 1 𝜙(t)|
4
(t,x)∈𝛺 (m + 1)!
We have 𝜈1 ,𝜓 n+1,𝜓
|It 𝔻x u(t, 𝜒)|
+ max |Ix𝜈2 ,𝜓 𝜙(x)|
(n + 1)!
|(𝜃 − i)| ≤ (m + 1)!.
p−1 m (t,x)∈𝛺
∏ ∏
|(𝜃 − i)| (29) |𝔻m+1,𝜓
t 𝔻n+1,𝜓
x
u(t, x)| 𝜈 ,𝜓
i=0 i=p+2 + max |It 1 𝜙(t)||Ix𝜈2 ,𝜓 𝜙(x)|.
(t,x)∈𝛺 (m + 1)!(n + 1)!
Using (28) and (29) we write (27) as (33)
Approximating the function 𝜙 by Taylor’s series as
|𝜙(t)| ≤
( )
A� b − a m+1 ∑N 𝔻k,𝜓 𝜙(a)
(m + 1)!. (30) 𝜙(t) = k=1 t k! (𝜓(t) − 𝜓(a))k then
4 m
N
Following the same steps we get 𝜈 ,𝜓
∑ |𝔻k,𝜓
t 𝜙(a)|
|It 1 𝜙(t)| = |(𝜓(t) − 𝜓(a))|k+𝜈1 (34)
(k + 𝜈1 )!
|𝜙(x)| ≤
( )
B� d − c n+1 k=0
(n + 1)!. (31)
4 n
≤
N
∑ |𝔻k,𝜓
t 𝜙(a)|
Using these estimates in (23) we obtain the desired result. |(𝜓(b) − 𝜓(a))|k+𝜈1 . (35)
 ◻ k=0
(k + 𝜈1 )!

By mean value theorem we have (𝜓(b) − 𝜓(a)) = 𝜓 �

The method for approximation of solutions proposed in
(𝜉)(b − a) , so we get
this paper converts the differential equation to an integral
equation which is followed by approximation of highest
≤
∑N
|𝔻k,𝜓 ( )
𝜈 ,𝜓 t (a)| 𝜈 ,a,b
order derivative term in the equation. Hence, the solution is |It 1 𝜙(t)| | 𝜓 � (𝜉)(b − a) |k+𝜈1 = 𝛬t,𝛿1 .
(k + 𝜈 )!
actually obtained by approximation of double integrals. We k=0 1
(36)
derive the upper bound of error in approximation of solution
as in Theorem 7. Moreover we have

u(t, x)| ≤ Ix𝜈2 ,𝜓 max |𝔻m+1,𝜓

Here we introduce the notations which are
𝜈 ,a,b ∑N �𝔻tk,𝜓 (a)� � � � ��
k+𝜈1 and
max |Ix𝜈2 ,𝜓 𝔻m+1,𝜓
t t u(t, x)|
𝛬t,𝛿1 ∶= k=0 (k+𝜈 )!
� 𝜓 (𝛿) b − a � (t,x)∈𝛺 (t,x)∈𝛿
1
= Ix𝜈2 ,𝜓 Mtm
Mtm ∶= max |𝔻tm+1,𝜓 u(t, x)| to be used in the proceeding
(t,x)∈𝛺 Mtm
theorem. The indices will change accordingly. = (𝜓(x) − 𝜓(c))𝜈2
𝛤 (𝜈2 + 1) (37)
≤
Mtm
Theorem 7  Under the conditions of Theorem 5 the error (𝜓(d) − 𝜓(c)) 𝜈2

bound for approximate double fractional integral is given by: 𝛤 (𝜈2 + 1)

M1
|e(t, x)| ≤
M1 (d − c)𝜈2 = (d − c)𝜈2 ,
𝜈 ,a,b
𝛬1 𝛤 (𝜈2 + 1)
𝛤 (𝜈2 + 1)(m + 1)! t,𝛿
M2 (b − a)𝜈1 where M1 ∶= Mtm 𝜓 � (𝜖)for𝜖 ∈ (a, b) . Similarly
𝜈 ,c,d
+ 𝛬2� (32)
𝛤 (𝜈1 + 1)(n + 1)! x,𝛿
|Ix𝜈2 ,𝜓 𝜙(x)| ≤
∑N
|𝔻k,𝜓
x
(c)| ( � � )
𝜈 ,c,d
M3 𝜈 ,a,b 𝜈 ,c,d | 𝜓 (𝜖 )(d − c) |k+𝜈2 = 𝛬x,𝛿2 � ,
+ 𝛬 1 𝛬x,𝛿2 � . k=0
(k + 𝜈2 )!
(m + 1)!(n + 1)! t,𝛿
(38)
here e(t, x) ∶= Ix𝜈2 ,𝜓 It 1 E(t, x)  , M1 ∶= Mtm 𝜓(𝜖)  ,
𝜈 ,𝜓
and
Mxn 𝜓(𝜖 � ) and
u(t, x)| ≤
M2 ∶= M2
𝜈 ,𝜓
max |It 1 𝔻n+1,𝜓
x (b − a)𝜈1 . (39)
(t,x)∈𝛺 𝛤 (𝜈1 + 1)
M3 ∶= max |𝔻m+1,𝜓
t 𝔻n+1,𝜓
x u(t, x)|.
(t,x)∈𝛺
Now using the estimates derived in (36), (37), (38) and (39)
Proof  From (21) we have in (33) we get the upper bound given in (32).  ◻

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Method for the solution of Caputo– 𝜈

m−1
∑ 𝛼 ( 𝜈2 𝛼2
)
Hadamard fractional partial differential
𝜈2
H Ix H Dt u(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t) H Ix Hk (x)
1

equations j,k=0
(43)
m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼2 ,𝜈2 𝛼2
In this section, we develop a method based on HFLFs to = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H Hs (x).
j,k,s=0
approximate the numerical solutions of Caputo–HFPDs.
Method to be introduced here depends on approximations Now converting Caputo–HFPD in (40) to an integral equa-
based on two-dimensional HFLFs. Considering a class of tion by applying H I𝜈x2 as;
Caputo–HFPDs:
𝜈2 𝜈1
H Ix H Dt u + 𝜙1H I𝜈x2 H D𝜈x2 u + 𝜙2H I𝜈x2 u = H I𝜈x2 f (t, x).
𝜈1
H Dt u + 𝜙1 (t, x)H D𝜈x2 u + 𝜙2 (t, x)u = f (t, x), (40)
Using Theorem 1 and (43) we have
subject to the initial and boundary conditions, respectively.
Here n − 1 < 𝜈1 ≤ n and p − 1 < 𝜈2 ≤ p.
m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈
Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x) + 𝜙1 (u(t, x) − u(t, a))
In order to demonstrate the procedure of presented
j,k,s=0
numerical schemes we have fixed n and p in each subsec-
tion and worked accordingly. The same strategy must be + 𝜙2H I𝜈x2 u = H I𝜈x2 f (t, x).
followed while dealing with the values of n and p other
Now by using the initial conditions and (42) we obtain
than these.
m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈
Caputo–HFPDs with constant coefficients Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x)
j,k,s=0
(
Considering (40) with 𝜙1 and 𝜙2 to be constants and the initial m−1
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
conditions given as: H 𝔻it u(a, x) = Ai (x) and H 𝔻t u(t, a) = Bj (t)
j + 𝜙1 Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x)
j,k,s=0
for i = 0, 1 … n − 1  , j = 0, 1 … p − 1 . To construct the ( ) )
t
method for solution of this class of Caputo–HFPDs we fix +A1 (x) + A2 (x) log − B1 (t)
a
n = 2 and p = 1 , then we have a set of initial conditions: ( m−1
∑ 𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1
u(a, x) = A1 (x), H 𝔻t u(a, x) = A2 (x) and u(t, a) = B1 (t) for
𝛼
+ 𝜙2H I𝜈x2
a ≤ (t, x) ≤ b, We proceed towards the solution by approxi-
Cjk Pjs,H Hs (t)Hk 2 (x)
j,k,s=0
( )) (44)
mating the highest order partial derivative term in (40), which +A1 (x) + A2 (x) log
t
= H I𝜈x2 f (t, x)
in this case is; a
m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈
𝜈1
m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼
Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x)
H Dt u(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x). (41) j,k,s=0
j,k=0 m−1
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
Now applying H It 1 on
𝜈
(41) and then using Theorem 1 to get: + 𝜙1 Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x)
j,k,s=0
( m−1 )
∑ m−1 m−1
𝜈 𝛼 𝛼 ∑ ∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
u(t, x) = H It 1 Cjk Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x) + 𝜙2 Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
Hj 1 (t)Pkl,H
2
Hl 2 (x) = q,
j,k=0 j,k,s=0 l=0
) (
here q: = H x 2 f (t, x) + 𝜙1 B1 (t) − A1 (x) − A2 (x) log at
t ( ( ))
+ u(a, x) + H 𝔻t u(a, x) log . 𝜈
a
− 𝜙2H x 2 A1 (x) + A2 (x) log at . Matrix form of (44) is
( ( ))
Making use of (15) and the given initial conditions we get 𝜈

m−1
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 H𝛼T CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2 + 𝜙1 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CH𝛼2
u(t, x) = Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x) 1 1 1 1
(45)
j,k,s=0 (42) + 𝜙2 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2 = Q,
( ) 1 1 1
t
+ A1 (x) + A2 (x) log . Further simplifications yield
a
Now we apply H I𝜈x2 on (41) to obtain A−1 𝜙1 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 C + CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 = G. (46)
1 1 1

( )−1 ( )
Here G ∶= A−1 Q H𝛼2 and A ∶= H𝛼T + 𝜙2 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈  .
1 1 1 1

Equation (46) is a Sylvester equation, which is solved for the

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Mathematical Sciences

unknown matrix C. The method proposed here is computer- m−1

∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈
oriented, so MATLAB built-in function is used to solve Syl- Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x)
vester equation. The matrix C will then be used in (42) to j,k,s=0
(52)
obtained the numerical solution of Caputo–HFPDs. m−1
∑ 𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1 𝛼 𝜈2
The function u defining the solution in (42), can now + Cjk Pjs,H Hs (t)Hk 2 (x) = H Ix f (t, x).
be evaluated at any point of the region [a, b] × [a, b]  . In j,k,s=0

this work, for better illustration of results the function u is Solving the Sylvester equation for unknown coefficient
evaluated at the points matrix C and using it in Equation (49) gives the solution
(
1 1 i 1 to this problem. The solution is evaluated at the points in
(t, x) = (a + b) + (b − a) cos( 𝜋), (a + b) (47) for N = 40 and the numerical results for fixed orders
2 2 ) N − 1 2
1 j (47) i-e 𝜈1 = 0.5 and 𝜈2 = 1.5 are shown in Fig. 1. Figure 1(a)
+ (b − a) cos(
2 N−1
𝜋) fori, j = 0, 1, … , N − 1. shows numerical solution that is approximated by choosing
𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 0.5 while the absolute errors in the approxima-
Now we solve a special case of the problem of type consid- tion of this solution with different combinations of 𝛼1 and 𝛼2
ered in (40). are shown in the remaining figures. Particularly, in Fig. 1(b)
the absolute error in approximation of solution shown in
Example 1  Considering the Caputo–HFPDs in (40) with Fig.  1(a) is given, which is so far observed as the best
𝜙1 = 1 , 𝜙2 = 0 , n = 1 and p = 2 . The initial conditions are approximation among all the other possible combinations of
u(t, 1) = H 𝔻x u(t, 1) = 0 and u(1, x) = 0. 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 for m = 9 , that have been checked. In Fig. 1(c), the
absolute error in approximations corresponding to 𝛼1 = 0.5
Here and 𝛼2 = 0.75 is shown, while in Fig. 1(d), the errors in solu-
( )( ) tion approximation by choosing the integer order Legendre
f (t, x) ∶= 𝛤 (𝜈1 + 1) − 𝛤 (𝜈1 + 2) log t (log x)𝜈2 +1 − (log x)𝜈2 functions are illustrated. A comparison of absolute errors in
( )( )
+ (log t)𝜈1 − (log t)𝜈1 +1 𝛤 (𝜈2 + 2) log x − 𝛤 (𝜈2 + 1) . approximation of solutions is shown in Table 1. A general
trend observed by numerical data shows that the approxima-
It can be easily verified that the exact solution of this HFPD tions made with HFLFs are more accurate, which is evident
is from Fig. 1(c).
( )( )
u(t, x) = (log t)𝜈1 − (log t)𝜈1 +1 (log x)𝜈2 +1 − (log x)𝜈2 .
Caputo–HFPDs with variable coefficients
We start by approximating the partial derivative term by the
two-dimensional HFLFs as: This method is applicable to Caputo–HFPDs of type given in
(40) with variable coefficients, subject to the initial conditions
H 𝔻t u(a, x) = Ai (x) and H 𝔻t u(t, a) = Bj (t) for i = 0, 1, … , n − 1
m−1 j
𝜈
∑ 𝛼 𝛼
i
H Dt u =
1
Cjk Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x). (48)
j,k=0 and j = 0, 1, … , p − 1 . Furthermore, the coefficients 𝜙1 and

Applying H It 1 on (48) and then making use of initial condi-

𝜈 𝜙2 are restricted to be the functions of one variable only.
tions we obtain: We develop a method for approximation of solutions by fix-
ing n = 1 and p = 2 , then the initial conditions are given as
m−1
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
u(a, x) = A1 (x) , u(t, a) = B1 (t) and H 𝔻x u(t, a) = B2 (t).
u(t, x) = Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x). (49) We approach the solution by introducing the substitution
j,k,s=0
𝜈
V(t, x) = H Dt 1 u(t, x), (53)
Application of 𝜈2
H Ix on (41) yields
then by applying Hadamard fractional integral H It 1 we have
𝜈
m−1
𝜈1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈
(50)
𝜈2
H Ix H Dt u(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x). 𝜈
u(t, x) = H It 1 V(t, x) + u(a, x).
j,k,s=0

The next step is to convert the Caputo–HFPD in to an inte- Using the initial condition
gral equation, so we apply H I𝜈x2 on (40) and use the initial 𝜈
u(t, x) = H It 1 V(t, x) + A1 (x). (54)
condition which results in
𝜈1 By substituting (53) and (54) in Caputo–HFPD of this prob-
(51)
𝜈2
H Ix H Dt u + H I𝜈x2 H D𝜈x2 u = H I𝜈x2 f (t, x) lem we have
Plugging in the expressions form (49) and (50) we have

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 Mathematical Sciences

10 -12
0.08 6

5
0.06
4
0.04

Error
u(t,x)

3
0.02
2

0 1

-0.02 0
1 1
1 1
1.5 1.5
1.5 1.5
2 2 2
2
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
x 3 3 t x 3 3 t

(a) Exact and numerical solutions approximated with (b) Absolute error in solution approximation with α1 =
α1 = α2 = 0.5 and m = 9. α2 = 0.5 and m = 9.

-6
10 0.014
5
0.012
4
0.01
3 0.008
Error

Error

2 0.006

0.004
1
0.002
0
1 0
1.5 3
1
2 1.5 1
2
2 1.5
2.5 2
2.5 2.5
x 3 3 t 1 3
t x

(c) Absolute error in solution approximation with (d) Absolute error in solution approximation with α1 =
α1 = 0.5, α2 = 0.75 and m = 9. α2 = 1 and m = 9.

Fig. 1  Graphical representation of solution of HFPDEs and absolute errors in solution approximation with different choices of 𝛼1 and 𝛼2

Table 1  A comparison of 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 1.00 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 0.50

absolute errors in approximation
of solutions in Example 1 with 𝜈2 𝜈1 = 0.50 𝜈1 = 0.75 𝜈1 = 1.00 𝜈1 = 0.50 𝜈1 = 0.75 𝜈1 = 1.00
different choices of 𝛼’s
1.25 1.3692×10−02 2.3384×10−03 2.0708×10−04 4.7512×10−05 1.2278×10−04 3.0853×10−05
1.50 1.3621×10−02 2.5863×10−03 1.1522×10−04 5.6038×10−12 1.2594×10−04 4.5111×10−11
2.00 1.1640×10 −02
3.2978×10 −03
1.8959×10 −11
3.4308×10 −04
3.5531×10 −04
2.4677×10−03

( 𝜈 )
V(t, x) + 𝜙1H D𝜈x2 H It 1 V(t, x) + A1 (x) m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼
(56)
( 𝜈 ) 𝜈2
H Dx V(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x),
+ 𝜙2 H It 1 V(t, x) + A1 (x) = f (t, x),
𝜈 ( ) (55) j,k=0
V(t, x) + 𝜙1H It 1 H D𝜈x2 V(t, x)
( 𝜈 ) then
+ 𝜙2 H It 1 V(t, x) = H(t, x),
( )
where H(t, x) ∶= f (t, x) − 𝜙1H D𝜈x2 A1 (x) − 𝜙2 A1 (x)  .
Approximating H D𝜈x2 V(t, x) by two-dimensional HFLFs as:

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m−1
∑ ( 𝛼 ) Example 2 Considering Caputo–HFPDs given in
𝛼
V(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)H I𝜈x2 Hk 2 (x) (40) with 𝜙2 = 0 and 𝜙1 (t, x) = t2  , subject to ini-
j,k=0 tial conditions u(1, x) = 0 and u(t, 1) = H 𝔻x u(t, 1) = 0
for 1 ≤ t, x ≤ e. Exact solution of this problem is
( )
x
+ V(t, a) + H 𝔻x V(t, a) log .
a u(t, x) = (log t)𝜈1 +2 (log x)𝜈2 +1 , which can easily be verified
F r o m ( 5 3 ) w e h a v e V(t, a) = H Dt 1 B1 (t)
𝜈
and and f (t, x) ∶= 𝛤 (𝜈2+3) (log t)2 (log x)𝜈 +1 + t2 𝛤 (𝜈2 + 2)(log t)𝜈 +1 log x  . We
1 2 1

proceed towards the numerical solution by introducing a

H 𝔻x V(t, a) = H Dt B2 (t) . Hence
𝜈1

substitution
m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝜈 𝜈
V(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x) + H Dt 1 B1 (t) V(t, x) = H Dt 1 u(t, x). (62)
j,k,s=0 (57)
( ) We find u(t, x) in-terms of V(t, x) by applying H It 1 on (62),
𝜈
𝜈 x
+ H Dt 1 B2 (t) log . then simplifying the expressions and using the initial condi-
a
tions as:
By using (57) in (54) we get
𝜈
m−1 m−1
u(t, x) = H It 1 V(t, x). (63)
∑ ∑ 𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1 𝛼2 ,𝜈2 𝛼2
u(t, x) = Cjk Pjl,H Hl (t)Pks,H Hs (x) Using (62) and (63) in (40) with 𝜙1 (t, x) = t2 and 𝜙2 (t, x) = 0
j,k,s=0 l=0
( ) (58) we have:
x
+ B1 (t) + B2 (t) log + A1 (x). 𝜈
a V(t, x) + t2 H It 1 H D𝜈x2 V(t, x) = f (t, x). (64)
By substituting (56) and (57) in (55) we have Approximating the derivative term in (64) by two-dimen-
m−1
∑ sional HFLFs as:
𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈
Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x) m−1
j,k,s=0 ∑ 𝛼 𝛼
(65)
𝜈2
m−1 H Dx V(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x),
∑ 𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1 𝛼 j,k=0
+ 𝜙1 Cjk Pjs,H Hs (t)Hk 2 (x)
j,k,s=0 then
m−1 m−1
∑ ∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈 m−1
+ 𝜙2 Cjk Pjl,H
1 1
Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x) = Q(t, x). ∑ 𝛼 ( 𝛼 )
j,k,s=0 l=0
V(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)H I𝜈x2 Hk 2 (x) , (66)
(59) j,k=0

Here 𝜈1 and
Q(t, x) = H(t, x) − 𝜙2 B1 (t) − H Dt B1 (t)
− (𝜙2 B2 (t)
( )
+H Dt B2 (t)) log a  . Matrix notation of (59) is
𝜈1 x 𝜈1 𝜈2
H It H Dx V(t, x)

(67)
m−1
H𝛼T CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2 + D1 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CH𝛼2 ∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
= Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x).
(60)
1 1 1 1

+ D2 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2 = ℚ, j,k,s=0

1 1 1

Substituting (65) and (66) in (64) we have

here Di = diag[𝜙i (𝜂0 ), 𝜙i (𝜂1 ), … , 𝜙i (𝜂m−1 )] for i = 1, 2  .
Equation (60) is rearranged to get a Sylvester equation which m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,𝜈
is given as: Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2 2
H𝛼s 2 (x)
j,k,s=0
( )−1 (68)
D1 X [H𝛼T + D2 X]C + CH𝛼2 Y −1 m−1
∑
(
1
)−1 −1 (61) +t 2 𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1
Cjk Pjs,H
𝛼
Hs (t)Hk 2 (x) = f (t, x).
= D1 X ℚY , j,k,s=0

for X = H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 and Y = P𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2 . This Sylvester equation Matrix form of this equation is H𝛼T CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2 + D1
1 1 1 1
is solved for the unknown coefficient matrix C, which is used H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CH𝛼2 = F  , here D1 ∶= diag[t02 , t12 , … , tm−1
2
]  . The
in (58) to obtain the solution of the initial value problem 1 1 1

with variable coefficients. We solve a specific problem of a
class given in Section 6.2 to show the efficacy of the sug-
gested method.
results illustrated by tables and figures are obtained by evalu-
ating the solution u at points given in (47) with N = 40 .
Figure 2 and Table 2 show the numerical results for this
problem. Numerical solution of Caputo–HFPDs considered
in this problem for 𝜈1 = 0.5 and 𝜈2 = 1.5 which is

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approximated by fixing 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 0.5 and m = 7 , is given in
Fig. 2(a) and the corresponding absolute error is shown in
Fig. 2(b). In Table 2 maximum absolute errors in the approx-
imation of solutions of the considered Caputo–HFPDs of
this case are chosen as u(a, x) = A1 (x), u(b, x) = A2 (x) and
u(t, a) = B1 (t) for a ≤ t, x ≤ b.
We approach the solution by approximating the highest
order derivative term which is H Dt 1 u in this case, by two-
𝜈

several orders are given which are approximated by frac- dimensional HFLFs as:
tional order and integer order Hadamard Legendre functions, m−1
respectively. Numerical data shows that the approximation 𝜈1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼
H Dt u(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x). (69)
with HFLFs is far more accurate than using integer order j,k=0
Hadamard Legendre function.
It is worth mentioning that in Sections "Caputo–HFPDs We apply Hadamard fractional integral on (69) and then use
with constant coefficients" and "Caputo–HFPDs with variable Theorem 1 to have
coefficients" we have approximated the highest order partial ( m−1 )
derivative appearing in the Caputo–HFPDs and the differen- 𝜈1
∑ 𝛼1 𝛼2
u(t, x) = H It Cjk Hj (t)Hk (x)
tial equation is converted to an integral equation by applying j,k=0
the fractional integral of the smaller order, we may solve this t
problem the other way around but generally the approxima- + u(a, x) + H 𝔻t u(a, x) log .
a
tions achieved are relatively better when following the former
strategy. Making use of (15) and an initial condition from problem
(40) we get
Caputo–HFPDs with boundary conditions m−1
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
u(t, x) = Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x)
In this section, we consider Caputo–HFPDs given in (40) j,k,s=0 (70)
with boundary conditions. To construct methodology for t
+ A1 (x) + H 𝔻t u(a, x) log .
the solution we fix n = 2 and p = 1 . Boundary conditions in a

-13
10
1.2
1.2
1
1
0.8
0.8
Error

0.6
0.6
u(t,x)

0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
3
0
3
2.5 3
-0.2 2 2.5
2 2
3
2.5 1.5
2 1.5
1.5 1 x 1
1 t 1 t
x

(a) The numerical and exact solutions approximated with (b) Absolute error in approximation of numerical solution.
α1 = α2 = 0.5 and m = 7.

Fig. 2  Graphical representation of the solution and absolute errors

Table 2  A comparison of 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 1.00 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 0.50

absolute errors in approximation
of solutions in Example 2 with 𝜈2 𝜈1 = 0.50 𝜈1 = 0.75 𝜈1 = 1.00 𝜈1 = 0.50 𝜈1 = 0.75 𝜈1 = 1.00
different choices of 𝛼’s
1.25 3.6004×10−05 3.6019×10−05 3.6041×10−05 5.4781×10−06 4.6898×10−06 8.7357×10−07
1.50 2.6637×10 −05
2.6641×10 −05
2.6646×10 −05 5.6734×10 −08
3.6663×10 −05 4.5101×10−10
2.00 2.1750×10 −05
1.0084×10 −05
3.9968×10 −15 3.1684×10 −10
2.3084×10 −04
9.9055×10−08

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Now we need to find H 𝔻t u(a, x) . Using (70) for t = b and the here H𝛼T (b) is a row vector whose elements are H𝛼s 1 (t) evalu-
boundary condition given in the problem we have:
1
ated at t=b for s = 0, 1, … , m − 1 a n d
( )−1
m−1
[log a , log a , … , log am ]T  . By cleaning up
∑ b t0 t1 t
𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 T = log a
u(b, x) = Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (b)Hk 2 (x)
j,k,s=0 (71) equation (76) we obtain a Sylvester equation for unknown
b coefficient matrix, which is given as:
+ A1 (x) + H 𝔻t u(a, x) log
a
A−1 BC + CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 = A−1 QH𝛼−1 , (77)
2

( )
b −1 ( w h e re A ∶= H𝛼T + 𝜙2 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 − 𝜙2 TH𝛼T (b)PT𝛼 ,𝜈   , a n d
𝔻
H t u(a, x) = log A2 (x) − A1 (x) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a
m−1
)
(72) B ∶= 𝜙1 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈
− 𝜙1 TH𝛼T (b)PT𝛼 ,𝜈  . This Sylvester equation
∑ 1 1 1 1 1 1
is solved for C and using this coefficient matrix in equation
𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1 𝛼2
− Cjk Pjs,H Hs (b)Hk (x) .
j,k,s=0 (73) we obtain approximation of the solution of
Caputo–HFPDs. To show applicability of the suggested
Using (72) in (70) we have
scheme we solve a boundary value problem by following the
∑ (
m−1 strategy suggested in Section "Caputo–HFPDs with bound-
𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
u(t, x) = Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x) ary conditions".
j,k,s=0
)
(
b
)−1 (
t
)
𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1 𝛼2
(73) Example 3  Considering Caputo–HFPDs in (40) with
− log log C P H (b)Hk (x)
a a jk js,H s 𝜙1 (t, x) = 1 , 𝜙2 (t, x) = 0 , n = 2 , p = 1 , u(1, x) = (log x)𝜈2 +1 ,
+ h(t, x), u(e, x) = 1 + (log x)𝜈2 +1 u(t, 1) = (log t)𝜈1 +1 and
( )−1 ( )( ) f (t, x) = 𝛤 (𝜈1 + 2) log t + 𝛤 (𝜈2 + 2) log x . The exact solu-
here h ∶= A1 (x) + log ba log at A2 (x) − A1 (x)  . Apply- tion to this problem is u(t, x) = (log t)𝜈1 +1 + (log x)𝜈2 +1 . We
ing H I𝜈x2 on Caputo–HFPDs in (40) we get approximate the numerical solution of this problem by the
𝜈2 𝜈1 method introduced in the preceding section. Approximating
H Ix H Dt u + 𝜙1 u(t, x)
the highest order derivative term by two-dimensional HFLFs
(74)
+ 𝜙2H I𝜈x2 u = H I𝜈x2 f (t, x) + 𝜙1 B1 (t). as introduced in (69), then by integrating this expression and
using the given conditions we have:
Using (69) and (73) we have
m−1
m−1
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
∑ 𝛼 𝛼2 ,𝜈2 𝛼2 u(t, x) = Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x)
Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pkl,H Hl (x)
j,k,s=0 (78)
j,k,l=0
𝜈2 +1
m−1
∑ + (log x) + H 𝔻t u(1, x) log t.
𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
+ 𝜙1 Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x)
j,k,s=0 Using boundary condition in (78) we find an expression for
(
H 𝔻t u(1, x) , hence (78) is reduced to:
m−1 m−1
∑ ∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼
+ 𝜙2 Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Pkl,H
2 2
Hl 2 (x)
m−1
j,k,s=0 l=0 ∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈
[ u(t, x) = Cjk Pjs,H
1 1 𝛼
H𝛼s 1 (t)Hk 2 (x)
𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1 𝛼
− 𝜙1 Cjk Pjs,H Hs (b)Hk 2 (x)+
j,k,s=0
m−1
∑ ]( ) ( )
)
m−1
(79)
𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1 𝛼2 ,𝜈2 𝛼2 b −1 t ∑
𝜙2 Cjk Pjs,H Hs (b)Pkl,H Hl (x) log log = Q(t, x), − log t
𝛼1 ,𝜈1 𝛼1
Cjk Pjs,H
𝛼
Hs (e)Hk 2 (x) + h(t, x),
l=0
a a
j,k,s=0
(75)
( )
here Q ∶= + 𝜙1 B1 (t) − h(t, x) − 𝜙2H Ix h(t, x) .
𝜈2
H Ix f (t, x)
𝜈2 h e r e h ∶= (log x)𝜈2 +1 + log t  . Now we conver t
Matrix form of equation (75) is Caputo–HFPDs to an integral equation by applying H I𝜈x2 as
in (74), substitute (69) and (79) in it. Further simplifications
H𝛼T CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2 + 𝜙1 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CH𝛼2 − 𝜙1 TH𝛼T (b)PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CH𝛼2 lead to a Sylvester equation, which is given as:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

+ 𝜙2 H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2

1 1 1 A−1 BC + CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 = A−1 QH𝛼2 −1 . (80)
− 𝜙2 TH𝛼T (b)pT𝛼 ,𝜈 CP𝛼2 ,𝜈2 H𝛼2 = Q,
Where A ∶= H𝛼T  , and B ∶= H𝛼T PT𝛼 ,𝜈 − TH(e)T𝛼 PT𝛼 ,𝜈  . This
1 1 1
(76) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
equation is solved for the unknown matrix C. In the final
step, C is used in (79) to obtain the numerical

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approximations of solution at different points. For better Table 3  A comparison of absolute errors in solution approximation
demonstration of results, the function u is further evaluated of different FPDEs with different choices of 𝛼 ’s and N = 40
at the points given in (47) for N = 40 . Figure 3(a) shows the 𝛼1 𝛼2 = 0.50 𝛼2 = 0.75 𝛼2 = 1.00
numerical solution to the considered problem with 𝜈1 = 1.5
0.50 2.4855×10−11
𝜈1 = 1.50, 𝜈2 = 0.50 7.1973×10−01 4.0238×10−01
and 𝜈2 = 0.5 , this approximation is made by fixing
𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 0.5 and m = 8 . The numerical data given in 0.75 1.3379×10−04 7.1212×10−01 4.0275×10−01
Table 3 shows the maximum absolute errors in the approxi- 1.00 2.8629×10−04 7.1350×10−01 4.0285×10−01
mation of numerical solutions of Caputo–HFPDs of fixed 𝛼1 𝛼2 = 0.25 𝛼2 = 0.50 𝛼2 = 0.75
orders 𝜈1 = 1.5 , 𝜈2 = 0.5 and 𝜈1 = 1.5 , 𝜈2 = 0.75 , respec- 0.25 17.2374×10−01 9.5460×10−01
𝜈1 = 1.50, 𝜈2 = 0.75 2.4002×10−01
tively. We have listed down the maximum absolute errors in 0.5 5.4623×10−08 2.7579×10−01 1.0590×10−10
the approximation of solutions to these Caputo–HFPDs with 0.75 4.2017×10−04 3.0269×10 −01
9.0771×10−04
several possible combinations of orders of HFLFs i-e 𝛼1 and
𝛼2 , aiming to figure out the best suited combination for most
( )
accurate approximation of solution. The best possible com- f (t, x) = sin(log x) 𝛤 (1 + 𝜈1 ) + (log t)𝜈1 and 𝛥 is the Lapla-
bination of orders of HFLFs for this problem by fixing cian. It can be verified that the exact solution
( )to this problem
𝜈1 = 1.5 and 𝜈2 = 0.5 is found to be 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 0.5 and for 2
is u(t, x) = sin(log x)(log t)𝜈1 . As H 𝔻2x = x 𝜕x
𝜕 𝜕
= x 𝜕x + x2 𝛥 ,
𝜈1 = 1.5 and 𝜈2 = 0.75 the best choice is 𝛼1 = 0.5 and
𝛼2 = 0.25 . Hence, it is deduced that the choice of the orders so we rewrite (81) as
of HFLFs for the approximation of solutions depends on the 𝜈1
H Dt u − H 𝔻2x u = f (t, x). (82)
orders of Caputo–HFPDs.
Now we carry out another numerical experiment to Now in this case we approach the solution by approximating
check efficiency of the proposed scheme. We apply the the term H 𝔻2x u in terms of two-dimensional HFLFs as
proposed scheme to approximate the solutions of a bound-
m−1
ary value problem that is different from the form given in ∑ 𝛼 𝛼
(83)
2
H 𝔻x u(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Hk 2 (x).
(40).
j,k=0

Example 4  Considering the partial differential equation of Application of H I2x on (83) yields
type
m−1
∑
1 < 𝜈1 ≤ 2,
𝛼 𝛼 ,2
𝜈1 𝜕u u(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2
H𝛼s 2 (x)
H Dt u − x − x2 𝛥u = f (t, x), (81) j,k,s=0 (84)
𝜕x
+ ux (t, 1) log x.
subject to the boundary conditions; u(1, x) = 0 , ut (1, x) = 0 ,
u(t, 1) = 0   , u(t, e) = sin(1)(log t)𝜈1  
. In this case

-11
10
2.5 2.5

2 2

1.5 1.5
Error

1
u(t,x)

0.5
0.5

0
0
1

-0.5 1.5
3
2
2.5 3 1
2 2.5 2.5 1.5
1.5 2 2
1.5 2.5
1 1 x 3
x t 3
t

(a) Numerical and exact solutions for ν1 = ν2 = 1.50 ap- (b) Absolute error in numerical approximation of solution.
proximated by choosing α1 = α2 = 0.5 and m = 8.

Fig. 3  Graphical representation of the solution and absolute errors

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The term ux (t, 1) is unknown in (84), evaluating (84) at x = e Matrix form of (87) will be further rearranged in to a Syl-
will give the expression for ux (t, 1) which when used in (84) vester equation, which will be solved for the coefficient
results in matrix C. C will then be used in (85) to obtain approximate
m−1
solutions of the problem. We add a few results here which
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,2 are obtained by implementing some MATLAB programs.
u(t, x) = Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2
H𝛼s 2 (x)
j,k,s=0
In Fig. 4(a) exact and approximate solutions of the chosen
problem are shown while in Fig. 4(b) the absolute errors
+ log x(sin(1)(log t)𝜈1 (85)
) in the approximation given in Figure 4(a) are shown. In
Table 4, the absolute errors in approximation of the solutions
m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,2
− Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2
H𝛼s 2 (e) .
with different choices of parameters 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , m, and 𝜈1 are
j,k,s=0
given. According to the data given in Table 4 the approxi-
Next, we apply H It 1 on (82) to get
𝜈
mations made by fixing 𝛼1 to be non integer and 𝛼2 = 1 are
𝜈 𝜈
relatively better for some cases. As in this case according to
u(t, x) − H It 1 H 𝔻2x u(t, x) = H It 1 f (t, x). (86) the data given in Table 4 the approximations made by fixing
both the 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 to be non integers are not that accurate as
By using (83) and (85) in (86) we get the approximations that were made by fixing 𝛼1 to be non
m−1 m−1 m−1
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,2
∑ 𝛼 𝛼 ,2
∑ 𝛼 ,𝜈 𝛼 ,2 𝛼
Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2
H𝛼s 2 (x) − log x Cjk Hj 1 (t)Pks,H
2
H𝛼s 2 (e) − Cjk Pjs,H
1 1
H𝛼s 1 (t)Pks,H
2
Hk 2 (x)
j,k,s=0 j,k,s=0 j,k,s=0 . (87)
𝜈1
= H It f (t, x) − sin(1)(log t)𝜈1 log x

integer while 𝛼2 to be 1.

-11
10
0.8 7

6
0.6
5
u(t,x)

0.4 4
Error

3
0.2
2

1 3
0
3 0 2

2 1 1.5
2.5 3 2 1
1.5 2 2.5 x
x 1 1
t t

(a) Numerical and exact solutions for ν1 = 1.50 approxi- (b) Absolute error in numerical approximation of solution.
mated by fixing α1 = 0.5, α2 = 1 and m = 9.

Fig. 4  Graphical representation of the solution and absolute errors

Table 4  A comparison of 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = 0.5 𝛼1 = 0.75 , 𝛼2 = 1.00

absolute errors in approximation
of solutions in Example 4 with m 𝜈1 = 1.00 𝜈1 = 1.50 𝜈1 = 1.75 𝜈1 = 1.00 𝜈1 = 1.50 𝜈1 = 1.75
different choices of m, 𝜈1 , and
8 8.7534×10−06 8.6354×10−06 8.5633×10−06 1.2908×10−09 1.2848×10−09 3.5644×10−06
𝛼’s
9 5.8131×10 −07
5.7801×10 −07
1.8127×10 −06 6.5744×10 −11
6.7548×10 −11
1.8135×10−06
10 6.1629×10−08 6.0220×10−08 9.9131×10−07 1.4671×10−11 2.8251×10−11 9.9116×10−07
11 1.8-74×10 −08
4.7112×10 −08
5.7195×10 −07
3.4984×10 −11
1.2224×10 −10
5.7193×10−07
12 1.7734×10 −07
4.0712×10 −06
2.1143×10 −05 3.7077×10 −10
2.4306×10 −10
3.4373×10−07

13

Conclusion
In this paper, we have proposed a method based on two-
dimensional HFLFs, to obtain the numerical solutions of dif-
ferent classes of Caputo–HFPDs. Particularly, initial value
problems with constant coefficients, initial value problems
with variable coefficients and boundary value problems
with constant coefficients are considered. The term variable
coefficients in this work is limited to the coefficients in one
variable only, but this work can be extended for the vari-
able coefficients in more than one variable as well. Error
bounds for solution approximation are also derived. Numeri-
cal results obtained by the suggested schemes are compared
with the exact solutions of the befitting problems to confirm
the efficiency of proposed methods. We found that the sug-
gested scheme provides good results with less computational
effort. Although we have predicted nearly the best possible
combinations of orders of differential equations 𝜈1 , 𝜈2 and
the orders of HFLFs 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 to obtain the accurate results in
all the numerical examples, but it still remains to predict
a general trend to be followed for choosing 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 that
give the best results. This method may be extended for the
solutions of fractional partial differential equations involving
fractional derivatives with respect to a function. Further-
more, the theoretical stability analysis of the method may
be studied using available techniques in literature [37, 38].
Funding  Not applicable.
Declarations  equations. Engineering Computations. Aug 3 (2021)
Competing interests  The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
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