History of Britain Prior to the Arrival of the Anglo-Saxons THE

CELTIC PERIOD 750 BCE TO 12 BC

• Britain was originally inhabited by the Celtic Britons. It is believed that the Celts arrived in
England around 500 BCE from southern Europe. Spoke Celtic and are considered to be the
original inhabitants of Britain

• Celtic tribes (natives) : Brythons/Brithons (who inhabit present-day Britain) and the Gales/
Gauls (inhabit present-day Ireland and parts of Scotland) spoke Celtic languages such as
Cornish, Welsh, Irish, and Scottish Gaelic

• The Celts lived in closely tied clans and were mostly hunters and farmers. This was an Iron
Age period.

THE CELTIC PERIOD 750 BCE TO 12 BC (Contd.)

• The Druids:1- The Celts were led by the Druids, who were members of 2- the high-ranking
professional class in the ancient Celtic culture. They were an 3- authority on disciplines such
as law, polity, medicine, and history and helped in resolving people’s issues

• 4- The Druids are chiefly remembered as priests who ran sacred rituals

• 5-The Druids preserved the myths, legends, history, polity, and law orally as the written
script had not developed during the Celtic period.
THE ROMANS (55 BCE – 407 CE)
• The Romans accepted Christianity and introduced it to Britannia. They referred to the
island Britannia

• Role of Christianity in civilizing the people: softened the ferocity of a waring people,
improved the conduct of the faith

• Roman Contribution ‫ اسهامات‬: Mainly through architecture ‫ العماره‬, infrastructure ‫البنيه التحتية‬
and the art of warfare ‫فنون القتال‬

Hadrian’s wall, built by the emperor Hadrian was an important defensive fortification ‫الحمايه‬
on the northern limits ‫ حدود‬of the Roman Empire. The Romans gave the island the name
Britannia

• Downfall ‫ سقوط‬of the Roman Empire: The Roman rule ended in England as Rome was
under attack from the Northern Germanic barbarian invaders ‫ الغزاه‬called the Vandals; the
Roman troops ‫ القوات‬were called ‫ تم استدعاءهم‬home to defend ‫ للدفاع‬their homeland in 407 CE.

The Anglo Saxon Conquest ‫فتح‬

• Who were the Anglo-Saxons?

• They were tribesmen ‫ ; قبليين‬mainly deep-sea fishermen ‫ صيادين‬, farmers, They drove the
Celts to the periphery ‫ حدود الدولة‬. Celts took Christianity with them when they were driven
out by the Anglo Saxons

• The Anglo-Saxon life (Social Structure) ‫تركيبه مجتمعيه‬

• The King was chosen by a Witan or council of elders. Each community had four distinct
classes. 1- Earl: hereditary class of warlords who owed their position to the king. 2- Second
rank: (a)Freemen: they were allowed to own land and engage in commerce (b)Thanes, early
barons came under this class Lower ranks:3- churls ‫ فالحين‬or serfs ‫ عبيد‬, bonded servants who
worked in the land in return for military ‫ عسكري‬protection. 4- Lowest rank: thralls or slaves
who were usually military prisoners

THE VIKINGS 407 CE to 499 CE

• The next major wave of invasion in Britannia was by the Vikings from the Northern
European mainland (Scandinavia)

• The Vikings were more of raiders who went about attacking monasteries ‫ االديره‬and
villages as monasteries besides being seats of learning were storehouses of historical
artifacts ‫مشغوالت يدوية‬and opulence.

Monestaries were the seats of learning ‫ أماكن للتعلم‬besides ‫ اضافه الي‬they were the
storehouses of artifacts ‫مشغوالت يدوية‬and opulence ‫المقدرات الثمينه‬.

• The Viking invaders= raiders ‫ غزاه‬continued their raiding spree (Campaign) even during
the Anglo Saxon period. The famous Anglo Saxon king Alfred the Great resisted ‫ قاوم‬their
invasion considerably. The Vikings eventually left Britannia in 954, after their last king, Eric
Haraldsson (Bloodaxe) was killed. Eventually the Vikings were driven out by the Britons.
‫ األجزاء الملونه هي كلمات مفتاحيه‬keywoords ‫استخدميها كعناصر االجابه‬

THE ANGLO-SAXONS (Some Trivia) (449-1066 CE)

Who were they? The term Anglo Saxon refer four Germanic tribes which came to the British
Isles from the modern-day Denmark and Northern Germany: The Angles, the Saxons, the
Jutes and the Frisians. The Angles and the Saxons were the most powerful Germanic tribes
to conquer ‫ فتحوا‬Britannia and contributed most to the development of Angleland or the
Englaland and the present-day England. Hence, the period is called the Anglo-Saxon period.

Areas occupied by ‫المحتله ب‬the Anglo Saxons: Angles claimed areas in the East;
Saxons settled in ‫ استوطن‬the South; Jutes: small portions in the South and the Frisians any
patch of land ‫ رقعه من اال رض‬they could find and dispersed ‫ انتشروا‬throughout the country.

Its significance today: The modern day English has its roots in Old English which was
spoken by the Anglo-Saxons. English is therefore a Germanic language.

Old English became Middle English somewhere around 1100 AD and Middle English became
Modern English around 1500 AD.

Shakespeare wrote his plays in Modern English; Beowulf was written in Old English

The Anglo-Saxons pushed the natives (Celts Briton) to the periphery to regions such as
Cornwall, Wales, Ireland and Scotland which helped to preserve ‫ الحفاظ علي‬the Celtic
languages of Cornish, Welsh and Irish and Scottish Gaelic
Characteristics of Anglo Saxon Poetry
• Alliteration ‫الجناس‬: The repetition of same letter or same sound at the beginning of words
for poetic effect Eg: Sally sells sea-shells by the sea shore.

: The repetition of consonant sounds eg: Sally sells seashells by the sea shore, blue baby
bubbles which is used at the beginning of words for poetic effect ‫نظم شعري‬

• Caesura ‫ سيزيرا‬: Pause in a line ‫االنقطاع‬

• Kenning: It is a stylistic device used in Anglo Saxon poetry which is defined as a two-word
phrase that describes words through metaphors and which also acts as a kind of riddle ‫لغز‬as
it describes someone or something in confusing detail. For example in kenning “whale-road”
represents the sea.

• Orality: Most of the Anglo-Saxon poetry was circulated through word of mouth by scopes
were professional minstrels ‫منشدون‬

Important Anglo Saxon Works

• The Anglo-Saxon Poetry is mainly divided into three categories:

(a) Pagan Poetry ‫ ( وثني‬no religion or many gods

(b) Elegiac Poetry (about death or loss)

(c ) Christian Poetry

• Beowulf: The earliest known English epic which recounts the story of the legendary pagan
hero Beowulf. It is of Scandinavian The Legend of Beowulf: The heroic Beowulf travels to the
land of the Danes to help the Danish king Hrothgar fight the monster Grendel, Grendel’s
mother, and a terrifying dragon. His story was passed down orally among the Germanic
tribes and in England by the Anglo Saxons and written down somewhere around the 8th
Century Beowulf’s story has both a Christian and a Pagan flavor as it was recorded by a
Christian Anglo-Saxon around the 7th or the 8th Century. Other Important Pagan Poerty: The
Flight of Finnsburh, Waldere, Widsith and Deor

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

If so, we might expect a significant number of Latin words to have been

in daily use, some of which would have eventually been assimilated
into English. Some Latin words would also have been brought ‫جلبت‬
‫الالتينية بواسطة‬in by the Anglo-Saxon invaders.
And following the arrival of St Augustine in 597, the influence of the
monks ‫ رهبان‬must have grown, with Latinisms being dropped into
speech much as they still are today.
The Latin words express a considerable semantic range ‫نطاق تعبيري ذو‬
‫دالله‬. They include words for plants and animals (e.g. pea, cat), food and
drink (e.g. butter, wine), household objects ‫( األدوات المنزلية‬e.g. cup,
candle), money (e.g. mynet, 'mint'), metals ‫(المعادن‬e.g. copper), items
of clothing (e.g. belt, sock), settlements ‫المناطق‬, houses and building
materials ‫( مواد البناء‬e.g. street, wall, tile ‫) بالط‬, as well as several notions
to do with military ‫العسكريه‬, legal ‫قانوني‬, medical and commercial
matters ‫( التجاره‬e.g. tribute, seal, pound). Most are nouns, such as
camp, street and monk, with a sprinkling of verbs and adjectives. As
we move into the period of early Anglo-Saxon settlement in England,
we find these semantic areas continuing to expand ‫ يتزايد‬, with the
growing influence of missionary activity reflected in an increase in
words to do with religion and learning.
Borrowing Latin words ‫ استعارة الكلمات الالتينية‬was not the only way in
which the missionaries ‫ المبشرون‬engaged with this task. Rather more
important, in fact, were other linguistic techniques.
Not only the Latin words were borrowed, but also the linguistic
technique.
One method was to take a Germanic word and adapt ‫يعدل‬its meaning so
that it expressed the sense of a Latin word: an example is gast,
originally ‘demon’ or ‘evil spirit’, which came to mean 'soul' or 'Holy
Ghost'.
Despite the extensive period of settlement, and Danish becoming the
language of power for a generation, the number of Scandinavian words
that entered Old English is surprisingly small – about 150. But between
Old and Middle English a considerable Scandinavian vocabulary was
gradually being established in the language.
…………………………………………………………………………………
Beowulf Legendry Tale
Who tells the story of Beowulf's death? Unknown

Summary:
King Hrothgar of Denmark, a descendant of the great King Shield Sheafson, enjoys a
prosperous and successful reign. He builds a great mead-hall ‫خماره لشرب النبيذ‬, called Heorot,
where his warriors can gather to drink, receive gifts from their lord, and listen to stories sung
by the scops ‫شعراء اللغة اإلنجليزيّة العتيقة‬, or = bards. But the jubilant noise ‫ضجيج االحتفاالت‬from
Heorot angers Grendel, a horrible demon who lives in the swamplands ‫مستنقعات‬of Hrothgar’s
kingdom.

1- Grendel terrorizes the Danes every night, killing them and defeating their efforts to fight
back.

The Danes suffer many years of fear, danger, and death at the hands of Grendel.

2- Eventually, however, a young Geatish warrior named Beowulf hears of Hrothgar’s plight =

difficulty ‫أزمة‬. Inspired by the challenge,

3- Beowulf sails to Denmark with a small company of men, determined to defeat Grendel.

4- At last, however, Grendel arrives. Beowulf fights him unarmed, proving himself stronger
than the demon, who is terrified.

5- As Grendel struggles to escape, Beowulf tears the monster’s arm off.

6- Mortally wounded, Grendel slinks back into the swamp to die.

7- The severed arm is hung high in the mead-hall as a trophy of victory.

8- Overjoyed, Hrothgar showers Beowulf with gifts and treasure at a feast in his honor.
Songs are sung in praise of Beowulf, and the celebration lasts late into the night.

9- But another threat is approaching. Grendel’s mother, a swamp-hag ‫عفريتة المستنقع‬who

lives in a desolate lake, comes to Heorot seeking revenge for her son’s death.

10- She murders‫ قتلت‬Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s most trusted advisers, before slinking
‫ هربت خفية‬away.

11- To avenge ‫لالنتقام لموته‬Aeschere’s death, the company travels to the murky swamp ‫سافرو‬
‫الي ذاك المستنقع حالك الظالم‬,

12- where Beowulf dives into the water and fights Grendel’s mother in her underwater lair.
He kills her with a sword forged for a giant ‫صنع من اجل عمالق‬, then, finding Grendel’s corpse,
decapitates it and brings the head as a prize to Hrothgar. The Danish countryside is now
purged of its treacherous monsters.

Characters:

Beowulf Character List 

1. Danes – citizens of Denmark; their country is being attacked by Grendel

2. Geats – citizens of Geatland (modern-day Sweden); home of Beowulf, the her,o and
his ancestors

3. Herot – name of Danish warrior hall where Grendel attacks and kills the soldiers

4. Beowulf – heroic Geat warrior

5. Grendel – monster who attacks the Danes

6. Grendel’s mother – the monster who attacks the Danes out of revenge for her
son’s defeat
 7. Dragon – the monster who attacks the Geats because a thief steals from its treasure

8. Hrothgar – King of the Danish people; grateful to Beowulf for his assistance

9. Higlac – King of Geatland; Beowulf’s uncle

10. Wiglaf – relative of Beowulf; comes to Beowulf’s aid in battle with the dragon

Beowulf exemplifies the traits of the perfect hero. The poem explores his heroism in two
separate phases—youth and age—and through three separate and increasingly difficult
conflicts—with Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon.

Although we can view these three encounters as expressions of the heroic code, there is
perhaps a clearer division between Beowulf’s youthful heroism as an unfettered warrior
and his mature heroism as a reliable king. These two phases of his life, separated by fifty
years, correspond to two different models of virtue, and much of the moral reflection in the
story centers on differentiating these two models and on showing how Beowulf makes the
transition from one to the other.

In the final episode—the encounter with the dragon—the poet reflects further on how the
responsibilities of a king, who must act for the good of the people and not just for his own
glory, differ from those of the heroic warrior. In light of these meditations, Beowulf’s moral
status becomes somewhat ambiguous at the poem’s end. Though he is deservedly
celebrated as a great hero and leader, his last courageous fight is also somewhat rash. The
poem suggests that, by sacrificing himself, Beowulf unnecessarily leaves his people without a
king, exposing them to danger from other tribes. To understand Beowulf’s death strictly as a
personal failure, however, is to neglect the overwhelming emphasis given to fate in this last
portion of the poem. The conflict with the dragon has an aura of inevitability about it. Rather
than a conscious choice, the battle can also be interpreted as a matter in which Beowulf has
very little choice or free will at all. Additionally, it is hard to blame him for acting according
to the dictates of his warrior culture.

Literary Devices:

Themes

Symbols

https://www.sparknotes.com/lit/beowulf/themes/

Reference:

https://www.bl.uk/anglo-saxons/articles/old-english