14.5.

2 General wind pattern

The circulation cells

Fig 14.28
The Picture shows the pressure belts and associated surface winds exist over a Uniform Earth.
This is the picture for an ideal earth and over the vast expansion of Earth, this is true.

Mean surface pressure and wind distribution over the earth's surface.
Wind Normally flows from High to Low Pressure. The Wind thus created does not blows
Directly across isobars. They blow about 18°-20° angled to isobars. This is due to Coriolis force
which is acting.

Characteristics and location of the doldrums

The Doldrums is the zone of light and variable winds, often associated with heavy rain or
thunderstorms, which form a narrow, roughly latitudinal, belt occupying a position between the
equator and about Lat. 12° N or S. This is the zone where the trade-wind systems of the northern
and southern hemispheres converge together.
InterTropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
 Fig 14.28

where Trade Winds meet. ITCZ is

Characteristics

cloud types
1) Cumulus (Cu)
2) Cumulonimbus (Cb)

Cloud arrangement

Due to large quantity of water vapour generated in the area Cu clouds will be formed, which will
be sometimes growing into greater extent to become Cb clouds. These so formed Cu & Cb
clouds are recognized as “Convective Elements”

Trade winds
The Trade Winds at the surface blow from belts of high pressure toward the equatorial belts of
low pressure. Because of the rotation of the earth, the moving air is deflected toward the west.
The trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere are called northeast trades while those in the
Southern Hemisphere are called southeast trades

Sub-tropical oceanic highs

The Horse Latitudes (subtropical high-pressure belt) are zones of light and variable winds and
fine clear weather marking the central regions of the subtropical high pressure belt. They are
mainly located in about Lat. 30°~35° N and S.

Westerlies and polar easterlies

Prevailing Westerlies. On the poleward side of the high pressure belt in each hemisphere the
atmospheric pressure again diminishes. The currents of air set in motion along these gradients
toward the poles are diverted by the earth's rotation toward the east, becoming southwesterly in
the N.Hemisphere and northwesterly in the S. Hemisphere. The boisterous wind occuring in
Latitudes 40° S to 50° S (or 55° S) are called the roaring forties and they are strongest at about
Latitude 50° S.
Winds of Polar Regions. The winds blow outward from the poles and are deflected westward by
the rotation of the earth, to become northeasterlies in the Arctic and southeasterlies in the
Antarctic.
14.5.3 Beaufort wind scale

The Beaufort Scale is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea.
One of the first scales to estimate wind speeds and the effects was created by Britain's Admiral
Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857). He developed the scale in 1805 to help sailors estimate the
winds via visual observations. The scale starts with 0 and goes to a force of 12. The Beaufort
scale is still used today to estimate wind strengths.
 Fig 14.29 Beaufort scale of wind force
Force 0: Wind Speed less than 1 knot.
Sea: Sea like a mirror.
Force 1:

Fig 14.30
Force 1:Wind Speed 1-3 knots.
Sea: Wave height .1m (.25 ft); Ripples with appearance of scales, no foam crests.
 Fig 14.31
Force 2: Wind Speed 4-6 knots.
Sea: Wave height .2-.3m (.5-1 ft); Small wavelets, crests of glassy appearance, not breaking.

Fig 14.32
Force 3: Wind Speed 7-10 knots.
Sea: Wave height .6-1m (2-3 ft); Large wavelets, crests begin to break, scattered whitecaps.
 Fig 14.33
Force 4: Wind Speed 11-16 knots.
Sea: Wave height 1-1.5m (3.5-5 ft); Small waves becoming longer, numerous whitecaps.

Fig 14.34
Force 5: Wind Speed 17-21 knots.
Sea: Wave height 2-2.5m (6-8 ft); Moderate waves, taking longer form, many whitecaps, some
spray.
 Fig 14.35

Force 6: Wind Speed 22-27 knots.

Sea: Wave height 3-4m (9.5-13 ft); Larger waves forming, whitecaps everywhere, more spray.

Fig 14.36

Force 7: Wind Speed 28-33 knots.

Sea: Wave height 4-5.5m (13.5-19 ft); sea heaps up, white foam from breaking waves begins to
be blown in streaks along direction of wind.
 Fig 14.37

Force 8: Wind Speed 34-40 knots.

Sea: Wave height 5.5-7.5m (18-25 ft); Moderately high waves of greater length, edges of crests
begin
to break into spindrift, foam is blown in well marked streaks.

Fig 14.38

Force 9: Wind Speed 41-47 knots.

Sea: Wave height 7-10m (23-32 ft); High waves, sea begins to roll, dense streaks of foam along
wind direction, spray may reduce visibility.
 Fig 14.39

Force 10: Wind Speed 48-55 knots (storm).

Sea: Wave height 9-12.5m (29-41 ft); Very high waves with overhanging crests, sea takes white
appearance as foam is blown in very dense streaks, rolling is heavy and shock like, visibility is
reduced.

Fig 14.40

Force 11: Wind Speed 56-63 knots.

Sea: Wave height 11.5-16m (37-52 ft); Exceptionally high waves, sea covered with white foam
patches, visibility still more reduced.
14.5.4 South Asian monsoon

Southwest monsoon

Onset dates and prevailing wind currents of the southwest summer monsoons in India.

The southwestern summer monsoons occur from July through September. The Thar Desert and
adjoining areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent heats up considerably during the
hot summers. This causes a low pressure area over the northern and central Indian subcontinent.
To fill this void, the moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean rush in to the subcontinent.
These winds, rich in moisture, are drawn towards the Himalayas. The Himalayas act like a high
wall, blocking the winds from passing into Central Asia, and forcing them to rise. As the clouds
rise their temperature drops and precipitation occurs. Some areas of the subcontinent receive up
to 10,000 mm (390 in) of rain annually.

The southwest monsoon is generally expected to begin around the beginning of June and fade
away by the end of September. The moisture-laden winds on reaching the southernmost point of
the Indian Peninsula, due to its topography, become divided into two parts: the Arabian Sea
Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch.

The Arabian Sea Branch of the Southwest Monsoon first hits the Western Ghats of the coastal
state of Kerala, India, thus making this area the first state in India to receive rain from the
Southwest Monsoon. This branch of the monsoon moves northwards along the Western Ghats
(Konkan and Goa) with precipitation on coastal areas, west of the Western Ghats. The eastern
areas of the Western Ghats do not receive much rain from this monsoon as the wind does not
cross the Western Ghats.

The Bay of Bengal Branch of Southwest Monsoon flows over the Bay of Bengal heading
towards North-East India and Bengal, picking up more moisture from the Bay of Bengal. The
winds arrive at the Eastern Himalayas with large amounts of rain. Mawsynram, situated on the
southern slopes of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya, India, is one of the wettest places on Earth.
After the arrival at the Eastern Himalayas, the winds turns towards the west, travelling over the
Indo-Gangetic Plain at a rate of roughly 1–2 weeks per state pouring rain all along its way. June
1 is regarded as the date of onset of the monsoon in India, as indicated by the arrival of the
monsoon in the southernmost state of Kerala.

The monsoon accounts for 80% of the rainfall in India. Indian agriculture (which accounts for
25% of the GDP and employs 70% of the population) is heavily dependent on the rains, for
growing crops especially like cotton, rice, oilseeds and coarse grains. A delay of a few days in
the arrival of the monsoon can badly affect the economy, as evidenced in the numerous droughts
in India in the 1990s.

The monsoon is widely welcomed and appreciated by city-dwellers as well, for it provides relief
from the climax of summer heat in June. However, the roads take a battering every year. Often
houses and streets are waterlogged and slums are flooded despite drainage systems. A lack of
city infrastructure coupled with changing climate patterns causes severe economic loss including
damage to property and loss of lives, as evidenced in the 2005 flooding in Mumbai that brought
the city to a standstill. Bangladesh and certain regions of India like Assam and West Bengal, also
frequently experience heavy floods during this season. Recently, areas in India that used to
receive scanty rainfall throughout the year, like the Thar Desert, have surprisingly ended up
receiving floods due to the prolonged monsoon season.

The influence of the Southwest Monsoon is felt as far north as in China's Xinjiang. It is
estimated that about 70% of all precipitation in the central part of the Tian Shan Mountains falls
during the three summer months, when the region is under the monsoon influence; about 70% of
that is directly of "cyclonic" (i.e., monsoon-driven) origin (as opposed to "local convection").

Northeast monsoon

Around September, with the sun fast retreating south, the northern land mass of the Indian
subcontinent begins to cool off rapidly. With this air pressure begins to build over northern India,
the Indian Ocean and its surrounding atmosphere still holds its heat. This causes cold wind to
sweep down from the Himalayas and Indo-Gangetic Plain towards the vast spans of the Indian
Ocean south of the Deccan peninsula. This is known as the Northeast Monsoon or Retreating
Monsoon.

While travelling towards the Indian Ocean, the dry cold wind picks up some moisture from the
Bay of Bengal and pours it over peninsular India and parts of Sri Lanka. Cities like Chennai,
which get less rain from the Southwest Monsoon, receive rain from this Monsoon. About 50% to
60% of the rain received by the state of Tamil Nadu is from the Northeast Monsoon. In Southern
Asia, the northeastern monsoons take place from December to early March when the surface
high-pressure system is strongest. The jet stream in this region splits into the southern
subtropical jet and the polar jet. The subtropical flow directs northeasterly winds to blow across
southern Asia, creating dry air streams which produce clear skies over India. Meanwhile, a low
pressure system develops over South-East Asia and Australasia and winds are directed toward
Australia known as a monsoon trough.

14.6 Cyclone, Thunder Storms

14.6.1 Cyclone, TRS

Cyclone or low is an area of low pressure surrounded by areas of high pressure. The isobars form
closed shapes. The winds blow spirally inwards, anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The pressure gradient is usually high, resulting in strong
winds.
 Fig 14.43
A low is an area of convergence of air. On reaching the centre, the air moves up as a strong
upward current, resulting in cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds of very high vertical extent
and heavy precipitation. Over the actual centre of the low, a thin downward stream of air
exists, where a patch of blue sky may be seen. A cyclonic pattern of isobars is called a low or
depression if the wind speed is 33 knots or less, a cyclonic storm if the wind speed is from 34
to 47 knots and a severe cyclonic storm if the wind speed is 48 knots or over.
For further details, see Chapter titled Tropical Revolving Storms'. As mentioned above, a
low is a sign of bad weather – strong winds, clouds, precipitation, etc.

Anticyclone or High
Anticyclone or high is an area of high pressure surrounded by areas of low pressure.

Fig 14.44
The Isobars form closed shapes. The winds blow spirally outwards, clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.

The pressure gradient is usually low resulting in low wind speeds. An anticyclone is an area of
divergence of air at sea level. This outflow of air is balanced by a downwards current of air at the
center. This descending column of air warms up adiabatically and becomes relatively drier as it
descends (see under the heading of ‘Relative Humidity’ )
 Fig 14.45

There is a total absence of any cloud or precipitation over the anticyclone.An anticyclone is,
therefore, a sign of good weather – light winds, no clouds (blue Sky), no precipitation, good
visibility etc.However, as the subsiding dry air reaches sea level and blows spirally outwards,
quick evaporation takes place and, if the temperature of the sea surface is quite low, mist or fog
may form on the outer fringes of the anticyclone. Even in such cases, visibility at the centre will
be good.

Tropical revolving storms (TRS)

Tropical storms are strong depressions which develop in Tropical latitudes; they are often the
cause of very high winds and heavy seas. Although the pressure at the centre of a tropical storm
is comparable to that of an intense middle latitude depression, the diameter of a tropical storm is
much smaller (typically some 500 miles compared with 1500 miles) and thus the related pressure
gradients and the wind speeds are correspondingly greater. The wind blows around the centre of
a tropical storm in a spiral flow inwards, anticlockwise in the N hemisphere and clockwise in the
S hemisphere: hence the occasional alternative name "revolving storm
TRS form in six areas predominantly and are identified with different names:

• North Atlantic - Hurricane

• North Pacific (Eastern) - Hurricane
• North Pacific (Western) - Typhoon
• North Indian Ocean - Cyclonic Storm
• South Indian Ocean - Cyclone
• Southwest Pacific and Australian Areas - Cyclone
• (ln North and NW Australia, a different version is called willy-willy)
Fig
14.46

Fig 14.47

14.6.2 Thunder Storms

Thunderstorms are one of the most thrilling and dangerous types of weather phenomena. Over
40,000 thunderstorms occur throughout the world each day.

Thunderstorms form when very warm, moist air rises into cold air. As this humid air rises, water
vapor condenses, forming huge cumulonimbus clouds.
There are two main types of thunderstorms:
Ordinary and severe.
Ordinary thunderstorms are the common summer storm and usually last about one hour. The
precipitation associated with these storms includes rain and occasionally small hail. With
ordinary thunderstorms, cumulonimbus clouds can grow up to 12 kilometers high.
Severe thunderstorms are very dangerous. They are capable of producing baseball-sized hail,
strong winds, intense rain, flash floods, and tornadoes. Severe thunderstorms can last several
hours and can grow 18 kilometers high. Several phenomena are associated with severe
thunderstorms, including gust fronts,

Most thunderstorms contain three phases:

(A) the cumulus stage; (B) the mature stage; (C) dissipating stage.
 Fig 14.48

14.6.3 Visual Storm Warning Signals

The storm warning signals (both day and night signals) are hoisted prominently on masts in
ports. Day signals are in the form of cones and cylinders. Night signals are in the form of red and
white lamps. In addition to hoisting signals, most of the ports have arrangements to disseminate
information and warnings received by them to ships in harbor and to ships leaving/entering
harbor.
 14.7 Ocean
Current

14.7.1 Ocean Current Introduction

An ocean current is the general movement of a body of sea-water on a permanent,

semi-permanent or seasonal basis.
A current is different from a tidal flow which is subject to hourly changes and which is
caused by the gravitational effects of the Moon, Sun or planets.
A tidal-stream is the resultant of the tidal flow and the current in a particular
coastal area. It changes every hour and is described in tidal-stream atlases.
The direction of an ocean current is different at various depths but the navigator is only
interested in the movement of the surface of the sea, upto about half his ship's draft. Hence
only surface currents are described in this chapter.
There are three main causes of ocean currents:
1. Drift
2. Upwelling
3. Gradient
Each of the above is described below.
 Drift
Drift is the direct effect of wind blowing over long stretches of ocean for long periods.
The frictional effect of the wind, on the sea surface, causes the sea -surface to
move. However, Coriolis force deflects the drift current to the right in the northern
hemisphere (left in the southern hemisphere) by about 30° to 45~.
The best examples of drift currents are,
(a) North Equatorial current Caused by the
(b) South Equatorial current trade winds
(c) North Atlantic current Caused by the
Westerlies
(d) North Pacific current Caused by the
Westerlies
(e) Southern Ocean current Caused by the
Or west wind drift. Westerlies

The maximum strength of a drift current is only upto about 2 knots. If, however, there are
other strengthening factors such as gradient, shape of the coast, etc., the drift current can
increase two or threefold and is then called a stream.

Upwelling
W h e n e v e r a w i n d b l o w s a w a y f r o m a l o n g coastline for a considerable length of
time, the outflow of water from the coast is replaced by an upward movement
(upwelling) of sea-water. from a depth upto about 150 metres or so. Since this upwelling
takes place from below, the water that comes to the surface is colder than the surrounding
sea-surface.
Upwelling currents are experi enced along the eastern shores of oceans, in low
latitudes. Here the trade winds blow off shore, resulting in u pwelling. Examples -
Canary current and Benguela current of the east Atlantic, Californian current and Peru
(Humb o l d t ) c u r r e n t o f t h e e a s t P a c i f i c . T h e r e i s n o up w e l l i n g of f t he w es t
co as t o f A ust r al i a a s t h e coastline is not long enough.

Gradient
A gradient current is caused by differences in level (resulting from natural slopes or build-up by
winds) or by differences in density (resulting from differences of temperature or salinity). The
greater the salinity, the greater the densit y and vice versa. The lower the temperature,
the greater the density and vice versa. When different water-masses lie adjacent to each other,
gradient currents are set up between them because of differences in temperature and
salinity.

The best examples of gradient currents are:

1. The surface current that flows from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean is a result of
differences in level. The Mediterranean Sea, being land-locked, experiences severe evaporation.
Since the input by rivers and rain is very small, its level falls and a gradient current from the
Atlantic flows in through the Strait of Gibraltar.
2. The northerly current along the east coast of Africa in the Arabian sea, and along the east
coast of India in the Bay of Bengal, during the latter part of the NE monsoon, flows against the
NE winds because of a thermal gradient. The gradient is formed by the cooling of the waters at
the head of the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal by the cold NE monsoon during December and
January.

14.7.2 Sea Ice

14.7.2.1 Types of ice at sea.

Ice at sea is of two types:
1. Sea-ice formed by the freezing of sea water and
2. Icebergs, which are huge masses of floating ice.
Sea-ice accounts for most of the ice met with at sea. Icebergs are important because they are
dangerous to navigation but they are confined to limited areas.
Fresh water freezes at 0°C whereas salt water freezes at lower temperatures. The greater the
salinity, the lower the freezing temperature. Average seawater is of salinity 35L (35 parts per
thousand) and it freezes at about –2°C.
As the surface cools, the surface water becomes denser and sinks, creating convection
currents. Water will not freeze until the entire body of water has cooled to freezing temperature.
Hence the surface of deep-sea waters does riot freeze, even if the air temperature is extremely
low.

Sea-ice
In shallow waters, the convection currents have very little vertical distance to travel. The entire
body of water is easily cooled to freezing temperature and sea-ice forms over shoal banks, over
bays, inlets, straits and estuaries where there is no appreciable. current/tide and where the salinity
is low. Ice first forms on the surface because of contact with very cold air and spreads
downwards, with the initial ice crystals on the surface acting as nuclei.
When the air temperature is very low and a few particles of ice are already present, these
particles can cause more ice to form on the surface, even though the entire body of water has not
yet cooled to freezing temperature.

Wave action hinders the formation of sea-ice. If sea-ice has already formed, wave action breaks
it up into small pieces (brash-ice). Currents or tides carry away the ice particles and retard the
growth of sea-ice. Sea-ice may grow about 7 to 10 cm thick during the first 24 hours and about 5
to 7 cm more in the next 24 hours. Thereafter, the growth is slower because the surface ice
insulates the water from the cold air.

Icebergs
Icebergs are huge masses of floating ice, broken off from (i) glaciers and (ii) ice-shelves. Though
the relative density of pure, solid, fresh water ice is 0.916, the relative density of icebergs is only
about 0.9 because of pockets of air trapped in them.
14. 8 Weather Reporting

14.8.1 World Meteorological Organization

The World Meteorological Organization is an intergovernmental organization with a
membership of 187 Member States and Territories. It originated from the International
Meteorological Organization (IMO), which was founded in 1873. Established in 1950, WMO
became the specialized agency of the United Nations for meteorology (weather and climate),
operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences.

Since its establishment, WMO has played a unique and powerful role in contributing to the
welfare of humanity. Under WMO leadership and within the framework of WMO programmes,
National Meteorological and Hydrological Services have contributed substantially to the
protection of life and property against natural disasters, to safeguarding the environment and to
enhancing the economic and social well-being of all sectors of society in areas such as food
security, water resources and transport. It has a unique role within the UN system it facilitates the
free and unrestricted exchange of data and information, products and services in real- or near-
real time on matters relating to safety and security of society, economic well being and the
prevention of the environment.
As weather and climate know no national boundaries, international cooperation at a global scale
is essential for the development of meteorology and operational hydrology as well as to reap the
benefits from their applications. WMO provides the framework for such international
cooperation.

Fig 14.55
In the specific case of weather natural disasters which account for nearly three-quarters of all are
such events, WMO’s programmes provide the vital information for the advance warnings that
save many lives and reduce damage to property and the environment. Human induced disasters
chemistry, nuclear and forest fire .
14.8.2 Weather information available to shipping
Navtext – continuous however available only in coastal areas – not for ocean passages
VHF – port information
Weather FAX – all over the world
Inmarsat C – Same broadcast as Navtext but for coverage area of Inmarsat
High Frequency (HF) broadcasts – Ocean passages

14.8.3 Information flow between merchant ships and Meteorological Offices

Under the aegis of WMO, IMD has enlisted a cooperating fleet of Voluntary Observing Ships for
collection of meteorological observations from ocean areas. The VOF consists of merchant ships
of Indian registry, some foreign merchant vessels and a few ships of the Indian Navy, totalling
203. These ships have Meteorological instruments supplied by IMD. The observations are
transmitted by the ships to the nearest coastal radio stations for onward transmission to the storm
warning centres. Records of observations are passed on to the Department when the ships call at
ports. IMD's Port Meteorological Offices provide asistance for callibration and maintenance of
the equipment on board the ship

14.8.4 Services provided for shipping by Meteorological Offices

Meteorological Service Division, National Environment Agency is a pioneer in the provision of

routine weather forecasts and storm warnings for shipping in the region. As a member of the
World Meteorological Organisation, MSD participates actively in its Marine Meteorology
Programme to enhance safety at sea and fufill our regional responsibility with WMO and the
Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS, 1989 and 1974) of the International
Maritime Organisation (IMO).
Services:
 Issue of storm warnings and routine weather bulletins for shipping transmitted directly to
vessels at sea via High Frequency (HF) broadcasts
 Provision of port meteorological services for Singapore registered ships
 Collection and exchange of ship's weather reports relayed via Inmarsat from ships
 Provision of meteorological services for maritime search and rescue operations including
oil spill incidents.

Additional Services:
 Weather and seas conditions surveillance and issuance of storm warnings and advisories
for shipping
 Forecasts for sea navigation, off-shore drilling and mining operations, cable and pipe-
laying and the towing of vessels and platforms
 Weather watch and forecasts in and around harbour areas such as cargo handling, barge
loading and navigation
 Assessments of weather conditions for purposes of marine accident investigations and
insurance claims
 Provision of climatologolical and historical weather & oceanic data for studies, site
assessments and planning.